MODULE 2 (TEXT FOR READ ALOUD SESSIONS)

Brain as a CPU System: For a very long time, the human brain and CPU have been analogous to each
other. Many points describe them like each other, but minor differences exist. Some of such points
are: 1. Both work by receiving the information, processing it, and then delivering the processed
information. Both use electrical signals to receive, transmit, and send the information. The brain is
made up of a complex network of neurons. These neurons communicate with each other through
electrical signals called "Action Potential." The information is received and transmitted in the brain
via action potential, whereas, in the CPU, electrical signals work in a circuitry system. Both connect
data or information to reach logical and working conclusions. 2. Both have memory storage that
stores and retrieves information as and when needed. Computer memory consists of silicon chips
whose storage capacity can be adjusted as per the needs of the consumer. Memories in the brain are
stored in the Hippocampus. It is that part of the brain which supports memory, learning, navigation,
and perception processes. Page 1 Memories in the brain grow by stronger synapses. Synapses are the
places where two neurons connect and communicate with each other. The memory capacity of the
human brain is approximately 2.5 petabytes, which is equivalent to 2.5 million gigabytes- of
computer memory. 3. Both can adapt and learn new things from given stimuli and responses. The
human brain can adapt and learn from stimuli such as past experiences, whereas the CPU learns
from the stimuli given in various software or algorithms. Using algorithms such as "Deep Learning,"
computers can absorb new information and reproduce it proactively. 4. Both have evolved with time.
On average, the human brain weighs 1300 grams. Over time, brains have evolved. The brains of
humans have evolved in both size and sophistication. Different regions of the brain have become
specialized with distinctive structures and functions. This has resulted in better decision-making
power, movement coordination, memory and understanding, language, and consciousness.
Computers have evolved much faster than the human brain. Computers have been around for only a
few decades, yet rapid technological advancements have made computers faster, more compact, and
more powerful. 5. Problem-solving and decision-making processes involve complex cognitive tasks
that humans and computers can perform. Humans possess unique qualities that contribute to
creativity and innovation, such as intuitive thinking, contextual understanding, non-linear thinking,
and the ability to incorporate emotional and aesthetic considerations into their work. On the other
hand, computers excel in data-driven insights, algorithmic creativity, rapid processing and simulation
capabilities, and automation and optimization. 6. Both can be damaged easily, which can hamper the
working of the system or body. In the human brain, if the neurons are damaged, it can lead to Page 2
various neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease is a brain disorder
associated with unintended or uncontrollable body movements, such as shaking, stiffness, and
difficulty with balance and body coordination. Whereas if the circuits of the CPU are damaged, then
the whole system crashes.2.1.1 EEG EEG stands for electroencephalography, which is a non-invasive
method for measuring the electrical activity of the brain's neurons as they communicate with each
other. Communication among neurons typically occurs across microscopic Page 3 gaps called synaptic
clefts. Each neuron may communicate with thousands of other neurons. A neuron sends a signal
through a presynaptic neuron, which releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter. This
neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving end, i.e., a postsynaptic neuron.
The signals are recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp, and the resulting EEG pattern
provides information about the synchronized electrical activity of large populations of neurons: an
EEG tracks and records brain wave patterns. Small metal discs with thin wires (electrodes) are placed
on the scalp and then send signals to a computer to record the results. Regular electrical activity in
the brain makes a recognizable pattern. Through an EEG, doctors can look for abnormal patterns that
indicate seizures and other problems. Page 4 Figure: Representing EEG EEGs have been used to
detect problems in the electrical activity of the brain that are associated with specific brain disorders.
The measurements given by an EEG are used to confirm or rule out various conditions, including: ➢
Seizure disorders (such as epilepsy) ➢ Head injury ➢ Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) ➢ Brain
tumor ➢ Encephalopathy (disease that causes brain dysfunction) ➢ Sleep disorders ➢ Stroke ➢
Dementia ➢ During coma to determine the brain activity ➢ Anesthesia and brain activity monitoring
during surgery Eye as a Camera System: The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as
both the eye and a camera capture light and convert it into an image. Page 5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The
following steps can describe the working of the eye: Light passes through a thin layer of moisture
present in the eye. The light then hits the cornea, which is a transparent membrane and is the first
layer to begin focusing light within the eye. It acts just like a camera's lens. The amount of light
entering the eye is controlled by the iris. The function of the iris is like a diaphragm in a camera. The
cornea is connected to the sclera, which is a tough fiber present outside the eye. It acts as a
protection layer. Behind the cornea is another liquid layer known as the aqueous humor. It helps to
maintain pressure levels of the eye as light passes through it. It also provides nutrition to the eye.
Once light has passed through the aqueous humor, it has finally reached the pupil. The pupil is the
round entryway of the colored iris. Once the pupil determines how much light it will let inside the
eye, the job passes to the lens. It is like the aperture of a camera. 7. The lens adjusts the amount of
light the pupil lets in the eye and figures out the distance between the eye and the object. 8. Part of
this process is controlled by muscles in the lens called ciliary muscles, which expand and contract to
adjust the lens to focus on the image for an accurate view. 9. As the light reaches the center of the
eye, it passes through another layer of transparent gel-like moisturizing, called the vitreous or
vitreous humor. 10. Then, it reaches the final stop in the process: The Retina. The retina is situated at
the back of the eye. It is a sheet-like structure where the final image is projected. It is like the film of
a camera. 11. The retina is supported by the choroid, a rich blood vessel network that supplies the
retina with the Oxygen and nutrients required to keep the retina working. 12. The image is formed
with the help of photoreceptor cells. These photoreceptor cells are of two types: Rod and Cone cells.
Cones provide clear, sharp central vision and detect colors and fine details, whereas Rods provide
peripheral or side vision. Rods also allow the eyes to detect motion and help us see in dim light and
at night. 13. Finally, this projected image is transmitted as electrical signals to the brain for Page 6
processing by optic nerves. It is like the USB or HDMI cable, which connects the camera with the
computer. Figure: Comparing camera and anatomy of the eye 2.2.1 Optical Corrections Optical
corrections refer to devices or techniques used to improve or correct vision problems caused by a
refractive error in the eye. Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not correctly focused
on the retina, leading to blurred vision. There are several types of refractive errors, including: •
Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects appear
blurry. • Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects appear
blurry. • Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted vision.
The most common optical corrections include: Page 7 • Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses
can refocus light onto the retina, improving vision. • Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of
contacts sit directly on the cornea and work similarly to eyeglasses. • Refractive surgery: Surgical
procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape the cornea to correct refractive errors. Optical
corrections can significantly improve visual acuity and quality of life for people with refractive errors.
However, it is essential to have regular eye exams to determine the appropriate correction and
monitor eye health. 2.2.2 Bionic or Artificial or Prosthetic Eye Eye injury, glaucoma, eye tumors,
infection inside an eye, or age-related defects often lead to loss of vision or improper vision. Not all
such defects are amenable to surgical correction. In such cases, a prosthetic eye can prove beneficial.
A prosthetic eye is an electrical implant surgically implanted in the eye socket of patients whose eyes
have been removed. It improves light sensitivity and creates a sense of vision for people with
advanced vision loss. Most devices being developed are for individuals with retinal degeneration
caused by diseases like retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). As
presently conceived, visual prosthetic devices have been designed for individuals with profound
vision loss and who have had normal visual development (as opposed to congenital causes of
blindness). Page 8 Figure: Photo of a bionic eye The device typically consists of a camera, a processor,
and an electrode array attached to the retina. The camera captures images and sends signals to the
processor, which then transmits electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the
remaining healthy cells and restore vision. The restored vision could be better, but it can help people
with vision loss to perform daily tasks more efficiently and safely. 2.3 Heart as a Pump System: The
human heart works like a pump, sending blood around the body to keep it alive. It is a muscular
organ, about the size of a fist, placed in the middle of the chest and tilted slightly to the left. Each
day, the heart beats around 1,00,000 times. This continuously pumps about five liters of blood
around the body through a network of blood vessels called the circulatory system. This blood delivers
Oxygen and nutrients to all body parts to help the organs and muscles work correctly and carries
away unwanted carbon dioxide and waste products. Without a sufficient supply of Oxygen, any
bodily function would fail, causing organ damage or organ death. Page 10 The human heart is a
single organ, but it acts as a double pump. The first pump carries oxygen-poor blood to the lungs,
where it unloads Carbon dioxide and picks up Oxygen. It then delivers Oxygen-rich blood back to the
heart. The second pump delivers Oxygen-rich blood to every part of the body. Four chambers make
up the heart: 2 on the left side and two on the right. The two small upper chambers are the atria.
The two larger lower chambers are the ventricles. These left and right sides of the heart are
separated by a wall of muscle called the septum. Between each chamber, there are one-way valves
that ensure the blood flows in the correct direction and prevent backflow. The heart is also
surrounded by the pericardium, a sac that contains a small amount of fluid and helps to protect and
lubricate the heart as it beats. Figure: Representing the chambers of the heart. The heart's blood-
pumping cycle is called the cardiac cycle. It is the series of events responsible for generating one
heartbeat. The steps involved are: 1. 2. The oxygen-rich blood enters the heart through the left
atrium. Then, passing through a unidirectional valve, the blood enters the left ventricle. 3. 4. The left
ventricle then pumps blood to the other organs of the body through the aorta. After reaching each
organ, blood transfers Oxygen and nutrients to them and carries carbon dioxide and other waste
products. Page 11 5. Deoxygenated blood leaves these organs through their respective veins until it
reaches the heart through the right atrium. 6. The blood then moves into the right ventricle, which
facilitates a transfer of blood into the lungs. 7. Within the lungs, all waste gases, such as carbon
dioxide, are released from the blood while also reoxygenating the blood for its return to circulation.
Approximately 5.6 liters of blood circulate the body, with three cardiac cycles completed each
minute. On an average heartbeat of 60-100 beats per minute. The volume of blood ejected with each
beat is the stroke volume, which is approximately 50-100 ml, and the sum of the stroke volumes
ejected in one minute is the cardiac output, which is 3-5L/minute. The flow of blood through the
heart's chambers is due to the contraction and expansion of cardiac muscles. For regular pumping,
the heart needs electrical signals, which are sent to these muscles, guiding them when to contract
and relax. If the electrical signals within the heart are interrupted, the heart can beat: ➢ too quickly
(tachycardia) ➢ too slowly (bradycardia) ➢ in an irregular way (arrhythmia) These electrical signals
are recorded by an Electrocardiogram (ECG), one of the simplest and fastest tests used to evaluate
the functioning of the heart. An ECG records these impulses to show how fast the heart is beating,
the rhythm of the heart beats (steady or irregular), and the strength and timing of the electrical
impulses as they move through the different parts of the heart. The ECG represents a graphic
recording of the electrical cardiac activity traced on the electrocardiograph paper. Page 12 Figure:
ECG waves and their relation to heart nodes Pace Makers A pacemaker is a small electrical battery-
operated device used to treat arrhythmias. During an arrhythmia, the heart can beat too fast, slow,
or irregularly. Pacemakers send electrical pulses to the heart, which helps to generate a heartbeat at
an average rate and rhythm. Pacemakers can also help heart chambers beat in sync so the heart can
pump blood more efficiently to the body. Traditional pacemakers send the electrical pulses through
wires, also known as leads. A traditional pacemaker generator/ battery is placed outside the heart,
either in the chest or abdomen. It is connected via wires to electrodes inside one to three heart
chambers. Traditional pacemakers have three main parts: 1. A pulse generator which creates the
electrical pulses. Page 13 2. 3. Wires (called leads) are implanted inside the veins and carry the pulses
to your heart. Electrodes sense the natural heartbeat. When the heartbeat is slower than normal,
the electrodes deliver electrical impulses to the heart to make it beat normally. Page 14 Wireless
pacemakers are a newer kind of pacemaker without wires. Such pacemakers are smaller than
traditional types (about the size of a large pill capsule). The pulse generator and electrodes are all
packed in one device that is placed inside a chamber of the heart through a small tube inserted in
one of the veins. No surgery is needed to place it. Once in place, the pacemaker then sends pulses to
the right ventricle. Artificial Heart The artificial heart is a mechanical circulatory support device that
replaces the lower chambers (ventricles) of the heart in patients with advanced heart failure. The
two main types of artificial hearts are the Heart-Lung Machine and the Mechanical Heart. Heart-Lung
Machine The heart-lung machine is a mechanical pump that maintains a patient's blood circulation
and oxygenation during heart surgery by diverting blood from the venous system, directing it
through tubing into an artificial lung (oxygenator), and returning it to the body. The oxygenator
removes carbon dioxide and adds Oxygen to the blood pumped into the arterial system. The blood
pumped back into the patient's arteries is sufficient to maintain life at even the most distant parts of
the body and in those organs with the most significant requirements (e.g., brain, kidneys, and liver).
To do this, up to 5 liters or more of blood must be pumped each minute. While the heart is relieved
of its pumping duties, it can be stopped, and the surgeon can perform open-heart surgery that may
include valve repair or replacement, repair of defects inside the heart, or revascularization of blocked
arteries. Page 15 Mechanical hearts Mechanical hearts, which include total artificial hearts and
ventricular assist devices (VADs), are machines that can replace or assist the pumping action of the
heart for prolonged periods. Implantation of a total artificial heart requires the removal of both
patient's ventricles (lower chambers). However, using a VAD to support either the right or the left
ventricle, the entire heart remains in the body. Mechanical hearts are implanted only after maximal
medical management has failed. They may be used for cardiac resuscitation after cardiac arrest, for
recovery from cardiogenic shock after heart surgery, and in some patients with chronic heart failure
who are waiting for a heart transplant. Occasionally, mechanical hearts have been used as
permanent support in patients who do not qualify for a heart transplant or as a bridge to recovery of
the patient's own diseased heart. The goal is to provide a safe, effective system that allows the
recipient to move about freely, thus improving the quality of life.