UNIT-I

Computer Networks
Introduction

1. Define Computer Network? Need of computer Network?

A Group of computers which are communicated to each other for the purpose of sharing
their resources is Called computer network. These computers can exchange information
with each other through the Communication channels like copper wire, fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.
Need of computer Networking
➢ To shared a files and folders from one computer to another computer in network
➢ To shared a hardware equipment like printers, CD-Rom and so on
➢ To shared the software applications over network and this allows implementing
➢ Client server applications to improve the communication between to computers
➢ To improved speed and accuracy
➢ To reduce the cost of data transfer
➢ High reliability

Types of Networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

➢ A local area network is generally called as LANs; these are privately-owned networks
within a single Building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
➢ LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and work stations in company
Offices and factories to share resources like printers, and to exchange information.
➢ LANs are different from other networks by three characteristics (1).With their size,
(2).With their transmission technology. (3).their topology.
➢ LANs run at a speed of 10 to 100 Mbps (mega bits/sec)
➢ LANs use a transmission Technology consisting of a single cable to which all the
systems are attached, Like a telephone lines.
➢ Here it uses IEEE 802.3 popularly known as Ethernet, and IEEE 802.5 IBM Token ring
➢ Various Topologies are used for broadcasting the LANs. The most common LAN
topologies are bus, ring, and star.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

➢ A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
➢ Both the buses contain Head-End which initiates the tran*smission. The traffic of right
Side of the sender uses upper bus. And to send left side uses lower one.
➢ It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
➢ The range of MAN is 100M to 10KM
➢ These are private and public owned networks

Wide Area Network (WAN)

➢ WAN spans large geographical area

➢ The range of WAN is different countries
➢ WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and information over
Large geographical areas that may comprise a country, continent or even the
whole world. In WANs systems are connected by a communication subnet or
subnet.

➢ The job of the subnet is to carry messages from system to the system, just like a
Telephone which carries Words from speaker to speaker in most wide area networks
the subnet consists of two distinct components transmission lines and switching
elements. Transmission lines are also called as circuits, channels or trunks move bits
between machines. The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect
two or more transmission lines connecting multiple networks known as routers.
Network Topologies

Topology: The Physical arrangement of computers which are connected to each other
through via communication channel is called topology.

Bus Topology:

➢ Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called
Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

➢ It transmits data only in one direction.
➢ Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

➢ It is cost effective.
➢ All nodes are easily add or remove
➢ Used in small network
➢ It is easy to understand.
➢ Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

➢ Cables fails then whole network fails.
➢ If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 ➢ Cable has a limited length.

2. RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

➢ Numbers of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because
if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
➢ The transmission is unidirectional
➢ Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit

Advantages of Ring Topology

➢ Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as
only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
➢ Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
➢ Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
➢ Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
➢ Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3. STAR Topology
➢ In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable.
➢ This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

➢ Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
➢ Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 ➢ Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

➢ Hub can be upgraded easily.
➢ Easy to troubleshoot.
➢ Easy to setup and modify.
➢ Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
➢ Cost of installation is high.
➢ Expensive to use.
➢ If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend
on the hub.
4. MESH Topology
➢ It is point–to-point connection to other nodes traffic is carried only between two
devices to which it is connected. Mesh has n(n-2)/2 physical channels.

Figure: A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

Feature of Mesh Topology

➢ Fully connected
➢ Robust
➢ Not flexible
Advantages of mesh topology:
➢ Each connection can carry its own data load
➢ It is robust
➢ Provides security and privacy
Disadvantages of mesh topology:
➢ Cable cost is more
➢ Installation and configuration is difficult
➢ Bulk wiring is required
HYBRID Topology
➢ It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
➢ It is combination of two or more topologies
➢ Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology Feature of Hybrid Topology

➢ Reliable as error detecting and trouble shooting is easy

➢ Effective
➢ Flexible
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
➢ Complex in design
 ➢ costly

Reference model
It describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in other computer.
Reference models are two types 1. OSI 2.TCP/IP
OSI Reference Model
It stands for open system inter connection. It was developed by International standard
organization in 1984.It consist of 7 layers.
1. Application Layer 2.Presentation Layer 3.Session Layer 4.Transport Layer 5.Network
Layer 6.Data Link Layer 7.Physical Layer
Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network layers are known as
Networksupport layers
Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application layers are known as the
Usersupport layers
1. Physical Layer

➢ The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.
➢ It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
➢ It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
➢ It transmit the raw bits over a communication channel
➢ If system at one side sends one bit and other side receive one bit

Functions of a Physical layer:

➢ Representation of bit: This layer data consist of a bits with no interpretation.

➢ Data Rate: It represents how many number of bits can be transfer in each
second also defined by physical layer
➢ Synchronization: The sender and receiver both side must have to use the same
bit rate.
➢ Line configuration: It is concerned with connection of devices to the media in
point to point or multi configuration.
➢ Topology: It defines how devices are connected to make a network
➢ Transmission media: It defines the direction of transmission between the
devices as simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
2. Data Link Layer:

Functions of a Data Link layer:

➢ Framing: It divides the stream of bits received from network layer into data units
called Frame. It contains header, Data and trailer.

➢ Physical addressing: The data link layer adds a header to the frame that
 consists of a destination address.
➢ Flow control: It is the main function of the data link layer. The constant data rate
is maintained on both sender and receiver so no data get corrupted.
➢ Error Control: It is achieved by adding calculated value CRC (Cycle Redundancy
Check) it is placed to data link layer. The trailer which is added to message to frame
before it is sending to physical layer. if any error seems to occur the receiver sends
acknowledgement to retransmit of the corrupted frame.
➢ Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device control over the link at has given time.
3. Network Layer:

➢ It is the third layer of the OSI model

➢ The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
➢ This layer of data is transfer from source to destination through packet
Functions of a Network layer:

➢ Internetworking: An internet working is the main responsibility of the network

layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
➢ Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
➢ Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines
the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination
➢ Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved
by internet protocol (IP)

4. Transport Layer:
 ➢ The Transport layer is a fourth layer of OSI reference model.
➢ The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
➢ It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
➢ This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably. This layer
used two protocols are TCP and UDP
Functions of a Transport Layer:

➢ Segmentation: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message
has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message
based on their sequence numbers.
➢ Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as
an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection- oriented service,
all the packets travel in the single route.
➢ Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
➢ Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.

5. Session Layer:

➢ It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.

➢ The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
 Functions of Session layer:

➢ Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two
processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

➢ Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the

data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data,
then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and recovery.

6. Presentation Layer:

➢ A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.

➢ It acts as a data translator for a network.

➢ This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
➢ The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting

the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message
over the network.
Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video

7. Application Layer
 ➢ It is the 7th and top most layer of OSI reference model
➢ It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
➢ This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

➢ File transfer, access, and management: An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
➢ Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage
➢ Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
➢ Eg: HTTP, FTP, TELNET, SMTP etc...

Lack of OSI Models Success

Advantages
➢ It is a truly generic model
➢ The OSI model works as a standard model in data communication
➢ OSI model is helpful if you want to buy the required software or hardware to
build your own network
➢ Layers in the OSI model architectures can be distinguished and every layer has
its own importance according to their interfaces, services, and protocols.
➢ The OSI divides the all process of data communication into simpler and smaller
➢ The protocols are hidden in the OSI model, so any protocols can be implemented
in the OSI model. OSI model is a standard model, so it can adapt all features of
other protocols.
➢ The OSI model can facilitate the followings;
Component development
Concept of Modularity
 Design of the network
Troubleshooting of the network
➢ The OSI model increases the learn ability of the network.

Disadvantages
➢ The OSI model is a theoretical model. Sometimes it can be a difficulty if the
appropriate technology is not available.
➢ The OSI restricts its practical implementation.
➢ The OSI model is a very complex model.
➢ The initial implementation of the OSI model is slow.
➢ The initial implementation of the OSI model is costly.
➢ There is inter dependence among the OSI layers. OSI layers cannot work in
parallel. Each upcoming layer needs to wait to receive the data from its
predecessor layer. For an example the application layer receives the data from
the presentation layer and the presentation layer needs to wait to receive the
data from the session layer and so on.
➢ The duplication of services in various layers is a problem in the OSI model. Some
Services are offered by multiple layers. Some of these services are mentioned
below;
Flow control
Error control
Addressing etc.

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP stands for transmission control protocol and internet protocol .It was developed
Department of defense .It has 4 layers.
➢ These Layers are
➢ Application Layer
➢ Transport Layer
➢ Internet Layer
➢ Host- to –Network Layer
1. Host-to-Network Layer:
➢ This is the Lowest Layer
➢ Protocol is used to connect the host, so that the packets can besent over it.
➢ Varies host to host and network to network
2. Internet Layer:
➢ Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connection less
➢ Internetwork layer is called internet layer.
➢ It helps the packets to travel independently to the destination
➢ It allows the host to insert the packets
➢ Internet protocol is used in this layer
➢ This layer holds the whole architecture
3. Transport Layer:
➢ It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path
➢ It breaks the message into small units called segments. So that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
➢ Functions of transport layer are same as the OSI model
➢ It also arranges the packets sent in sequence.
➢ This is a third layer of TCP/IP model
4. Application Layer:
Protocols used in this layer are high level protocols such as TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS
etc..
➢ TELNET is a two-way communication protocol, which allows connecting to a
remote machine and run applications on it.
➢ FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
➢ SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport
electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
➢ DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
➢ It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
➢ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol
which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
➢ UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do
not wants TCPs, sequencing and flow control.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Compare OSI Reference model and TCP /IP

OSI TCP/IP

OSI represents Open System TCP/IP model represents the

Interconnection. Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP model depends on standard

standard. protocols about which the computer
network has created.

The OSI model was developed first, and The protocols were created first and
then protocols were created to fit the then built the TCP/IP model.
network architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines It does not mention the services,
administration, interfaces and interfaces, and protocols.
conventions. It describes clearly which
layer provides services.

It provides both connection and It provides connectionless

connectionless oriented transmission in transmission in the network layer
the network layer

It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header
bytes. is 20 bytes.

It contains 7 layers It contain 4 Layers

 INTERNET HISTORY

ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency

➢ It was started and developed by the United states

➢ It was wide area network linking many universities
➢ It was first to use packet switching which was suggested by Paul Baran and was
the beginning of what we consider the internet today
➢ It was created to make it easier for people to access computers ,improved computer
equipment
➢ It is used to have more effective communication method of military
➢ It was started when two nodes are established between UCLA(University of
California and Loss Angles) and Stanford Research Institute in 1969 .
➢ ARPANET completed its transits to TCP/IP on January 2,1983

➢ It consist of subnet host computers

➢ The subnet would consist of minicomputers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors)
connected by 56-kbps transmission lines.
➢ Each IMP would be connected to at least two other IMPs. The subnet was to be a datagram
subnet, so if some lines and IMPs were destroyed, messages could be automatically
rerouted along alternative paths.
➢ The software was split into two parts: subnet and host. The subnet software consisted
of the IMP end to the host IMP connection, the IMP-IMP protocol, and a source IMP to
 destination IMP protocol designed to improve reliability.

NSFNET (National Science Foundation)

➢ NSF (the U.S. National Science Foundation) saw the enormous impact that the ARPANET
was having on university research, allowing scientists across the country to share data
and collaborate on research projects. This lack of universal access prompted NSF to set
up a virtual network.
➢ NSF decided to build a backbone network to connect its six supercomputer centers; each
supercomputer was given a little brother, consisting of an LSI-11 microcomputer called a
fuzz ball. The fuzzballs were connected with 56-kbps leased lines and formed the subnet,
the same hardware technology as the ARPANET used. The software technology was
different however: the fuzzballs spoke TCP/IP right from the start, making it as a first
TCP/IP WAN.
➢ NSF also funded some 20 regional networks that connected to the backbone to allow users
at thousands of universities, research labs, libraries, and museums to access any of the
supercomputers and to communicate with one another. The complete network, including
the backbone and the regional networks, was called NSFNET. It connected to the ARPANET
through a link between an IMP and a fuzz ball.
➢ Consequently, NSF encouraged MERIT, MCI, and IBM to form a nonprofit corporation. ANS
(Advanced Networks and Services). In 1990, ANS took over NSFNET and upgraded the
1.5-Mbps links to 45 Mbps to form ANSNET.
INTERNET:
The number of networks, machines, and users connected to the ARPANET grew rapidly
after TCP/IP became the only official protocol on January 1, 1983. When NSFNET and
the ARPANET were interconnected, the growth became exponential.
Traditionally the Internet and its predecessors had four main applications:
1. E-mail. The ability to compose, send, and receive electronic mail has been around
since the early days of the ARPANET and is enormously popular. Many people get dozens
of messages a day and consider it their primary way of interacting with the outside
world, far outdistancing the telephone and snail mail. E-mail programs are available on
virtually every kind of computer these days.
2. News. Newsgroups are specialized forums in which users with a common interest can
exchange messages. Thousands of newsgroups exist, devoted to technical and
nontechnical topics, including computers, science, recreation, and politics. Each
newsgroup has its own etiquette, style, and customs, and woe betide anyone violating
them.
3. Remote login. Using the telnet, rlogin, users anywhere on the Internet can log on to
any other machine on which they have an account.
4. File transfer. Using the FTP program, users can copy files from one machine on the
Internet to another. Vast numbers of articles, databases, and other information are available
this way.
Physical Layer

Transmission Media: It is the Physical path between the sender and

receiver in a data transmission system it is included in the Physical layer of the
OSI reference Model.

Introduction to Guided media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media or Guided media.

Twisted pair:

➢ It is the simplest, oldest and low priced cable medium

➢ It is made up of two insulated copper wires about 1mm thick twisted
around each other.
➢ It is a lightweight cable.
➢ The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5 KHz.
➢ It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell

.
➢ It is used for transmitting either analog or digital signals
➢ The brand with depends upon the thickness of the wire and the distance
travel
➢ Twisted cables are two types 1.Unshield Twisted Pair
2. Shied twisted pair
Unshield Twisted Pair
➢ It is one of the most popular LAN cables
➢ It consist of 4 twisted pair of copper wires

➢ Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.

➢ It can be used for high-speed LAN
➢ An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
➢ The UTP cables are twisted both data and voice transmission commonly
used in telephone system
➢ They are also widely used in DSL lines ,10Base -T,100 Base-T LAN

The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into 7 categories based on

some standards.

Category Data rate Max.Length Application

CAT1 UP to 1 Mbps - Old Telephone Cable
CAT2 UP to 4 Mbps - Token Ring Network
CAT3 UP to 10 Mbps 100m 10 Base-T Ethernet
CAT4 UP to 16 Mbps 100m Token Ring Network
CAT5 UP to 100 Mbps 100m Ethernet, Fast Ethernet
CAT5A UP to 1Gbps 100m Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Giga Byte
CAT6 UP to 10 GBPS 100m Giga Byte Ethernet
CAT7 UP to 10 GBPS 100m Giga Byte Ethernet

Advantages of the UTP:

➢ It is a less costly and less expensive unshielded wire from another
network medium.
➢ It is designed to reduce crosstalk, RFI, and EMI.
➢ Its size is small, and hence the installation of the UTP is easier.
➢ It is mostly useful for short-distance network connections like home
and small organizations.
➢ It is the most commonly used networking cable in the market. It is
considered as faster copper-based data transmission cable.
➢ It is suitable for transmitting both data and voice via UTP cable.
Disadvantage of the UTP:
➢ It can only be used in length segment up to 100 meters.
➢ It has limited bandwidth for transmitting the data.
➢ It does not provide a secure connection for data transmitting over the
network.
Shied twisted pair
➢ IBM invented the shielded twisted pair (STP) cable for token ring networks,
including two independent wires coated in a foil shielding that prevents
electromagnetic interference and speeds up data transmission.

➢ A shielded twisted pair is a type of twisted pair cable that contains an extra
wrapping foil or copper braid jacket to protect the cable from defects like
cuts, losing bandwidth, noise, and signal to the interference.
➢ It is a cable that is usually used underground, and therefore it is costly
than UTP.
➢ It supports the higher data transmission rates across the long distance.
We can also say it is a cable with metal sheath or coating that surrounds
each pair of the insulated conductor to protect the wire from external users
and prevent electromagnetic noise from penetrating.
Advantages of the STP cable
➢ It has lower noise and attenuation than UTP.
➢ It is shielded with a plastic cover that protects the STP cable from a harsh
environment and increases the data transmission rate.
➢ It reduces the chances of crosstalk and protects from external interference.
➢ A modular connection helps to terminate the connection of the STP cable.
Disadvantages of the STP cable
➢ It is the most expensive wire from UTP cables.
➢ It requires more maintenance to reduce the loss of data signals.
➢ There is no segment improvement in length despite its thick and heavier
connection.
➢ It is used only as a grounded wire.

Type of Connector Used in UTP and STP cable

RJ-45 JACK
➢ UTP cable is installed using RJ-45 connector .It is an eight wire
connector use commonly to connect computers on to LAN.
➢ It is also known as 8P8C connector
Coaxial Cable

➢ Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV

wire is usually a coaxial cable.
➢ It has a higher frequency as compared to twisted pair cable.
➢ The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
 outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of
non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor.
➢ The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).
➢ There are two types of coaxial cables are Thick Client and Thin Client.
➢ RG-11: used with thick Ethernet.
➢ RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
➢ RG-59 : used with cable television
Applications of Coaxial Cable

➢ Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
➢ Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV
network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial
cable.
➢ In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and
consequence high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital
transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses
RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with
a range of 185 m.

Structure of Coaxial Cable

Advantages of Coaxial cable:

➢ The data can be transmitted at high speed.
➢ It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
➢ It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Coaxial cable
➢ It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
➢ If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Type of Connector Used in Coaxial cable

➢ To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most
common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector.
➢ The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device,
 such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to
branch out to a connection to a computer or other device.

Optical Fiber

➢ A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
structure of light signals. In fiber optics, semiconductor lasers transmit data
in the form of light along with hair-thin glass (optical) fibers at the speed of
light (186,000 miles second) with no significant loss of intensity over very
long distances. The system includes fiber optic cables that are made of tiny
threads of glass or plastic.

➢ Fiber optic cable support two modes of propagating light ,They are
Multimode: In this mode many beams from a light source traverse along
multiple paths and multiple angles.

Single mode: The beams propagate almost horizontally LED or Laser acts
as the source converting electric pulse to light pluses and photodiode acts
as receiver doing vice versa.

Structure of Fiber Optical Cable

Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the
core, the lighter will be transmitted into the fiber.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fiber.

Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra
fiber protection.
Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cables
➢ Fiber optic cabling can support too high bandwidths in the range from 100
Mbps to 2 gigabytes because light has a much greater frequency than
electricity.
➢ Fiber optic cable is not concerned by EMI effects and can be used in
locations where high voltages pass.
➢ The value of fiber optic cable is more distinguished to twisted pair and co-
axial.
➢ The setup of fiber optic cables is complex and endless.
Advantages of Optical Fibers
➢ Small Size and lightweight − the size (diameter) of the optical fibers is
minimal (comparable to the diameter of a human hair).
➢ Easily available and low cost − the material used for producing the optical
fibers is silica glass. This material is readily applicable. Therefore, the
optical fibers cost lower than the cables with metallic conductors.
➢ No electrical or electromagnetic interface − since the transmission
occurs in light rays, the signal is not affected by electrical or
electromagnetic interference.

➢ Large Bandwidth − As the light arrays have a very high frequency in the
GHz range, the optical fiber bandwidth is vast. This allows the
transmission of more numbers of channels. Therefore, the information-
carrying capacity of an optical fiber is much higher than that of a Co-axial
cable.

Disadvantages of Optical Fibers

High Cost − The cable and the interfaces are associatively more expensive than those
of other guided media.
Unidirectional light propagation − since the optical transmission is inherently
unidirectional two-way communication requires either two fibers or two frequency
bands on one fiber.
Installation and Maintenance − Fiber is different technology requiring skills
most engineers do not occupy.

Type of Connector Used in Optical Fiber

➢ SC connector and ST connector are used in Fiber optical
Unguided Media

➢ An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without

using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
➢ In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Radio Waves:

➢ These are electromagnetic waves that may be transmitted in all directions

in free space.
➢ Radio waves are omnidirectional, which means that signals travel in all
directions.
➢ Radio waves have frequencies ranging from 3 KHz to 1 KHz.
➢ In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antennas are not
aligned, thus the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any
receiving antenna.
➢ FM radio is one example of a radio wave.
Applications of Radio Waves:
➢ When there is only one transmitter and numerous recipients, a radio wave
is helpful for multicasting.
➢ Radio waves are used by FM radio, television, and cordless phones.
Advantages of Radio Waves:
➢ Radio transmission is mostly utilized for wide area networks and mobile
phones.
➢ Radio waves may penetrate barriers and cover a vast area.
➢ A greater transmission rate is provided through radio transmission.
Microwaves

➢ Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are

called micro waves.
➢ Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves,
they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas.
Characteristics of microwaves propagation
➢ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted
antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall.
➢ Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
➢ The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider
sub-bands can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
➢ Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Terrestrial Transmission:
➢ Terrestrial microwave transmission is a method of transmitting a
concentrated and focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based
microwave transmission antenna to another.
➢ Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 1GHz
to 1000GHz.
➢ Microwaves are unidirectional because the transmitting and receiving
antennas must be aligned, resulting in narrowly focused waves produced by
the sending antenna.
➢ Antennas are installed on towers in this example to deliver a beam to another
antenna located kilometers distant.
➢ It is based on line-of-sight transmission, which means that the antennas
installed on the towers are in direct sight of each other.
Satellite Transmission
➢ A satellite is a physical entity that orbits the Earth at a fixed altitude.
➢ Satellite communication is more dependable now a day since it is more
adaptable than cable and fiber optic technologies.
➢ Using satellite communication, we can connect with any location on the
planet.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Transmission:
➢ A satellite microwave has a larger coverage area than a terrestrial microwave.
 ➢ The satellite’s transmission cost is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage region.
➢ In mobile and wireless communication applications, satellite
communication is employed.
➢ It is simple to set up.
➢ It is utilized in many different applications, including weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal transmission, mobile communication, and so on.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Transmission:
➢ Satellite design and development need more time and money.
➢ The satellite must be monitored and operated on a regular basis in order
to remain in orbit.
➢ The satellite has a lifespan of 12-15 years. As a result, another launch of
the satellite is required before it becomes inoperable.

Infrared Waves

➢ Infrared transmission is a wireless technique used for short-range

communication.
➢ The frequency range for infrared wave transmission varies from 300 GHz to
400 THz.
➢ It is used for short-range communication, such as data transmission
between two cell phones, TV remote control operation, and data transfer
between a computer and a mobile phone that are both in the same confined
area.
Characteristics of Infrared Transmission
➢ It has a large bandwidth; therefore the data rate will be quite high.
➢ Infrared waves are unable to permeate the walls. As a result, infrared
communication in one room cannot be disturbed by infrared signals from
nearby rooms.
➢ Infrared communication gives greater security while causing the least
amount of disturbance.
➢ Outside the building, infrared communication is unreliable because the
sun’s rays interfere with the infrared signals.
UNIT-II
DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer in the OSI (Open System Interconnections) Model is
in between the physical layer and the network layer. This layer converts the raw
transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a reliable and error-free
link.
Design issues of Data Link Layer
1. Service Provided to Network Layer
2. Framing
3. Error Control
4. Flow Control

1. Service Provided to Network Layer

The types of services provided can be of three types
➢ Unacknowledged connectionless service
➢ Acknowledged connectionless service
➢ Acknowledged connection - oriented service
Unacknowledged connectionless service
➢ It consists of having the source machine send independent frames to
destination machine without having the destination machine acknowledge
them.
Eg: Ethernet
➢ The service rate is used when the error rate is low.
Acknowledged connectionless service
➢ There is no logical connections b/w the sender and receiver.
➢ Each and every frame sent is individually acknowledged
➢ This service simply provides acknowledged connectionless service i.e.
packet delivery is simply acknowledged, with help of stop and wait for
protocol.
Acknowledged connection - oriented service
➢ In this type of service, connection is established first among sender and
receiver or source and destination before data is transferred.
➢ It is guarantees that are frame is received exactly once.

This process is shown in diagram

Framing

➢ The Data Link Layer should detect and correct the errors
➢ In this purpose, DLL will break up the bit stream into discrete frames,
compute a small token called a checksum each frame and include the
checksum in the frame when it is transmitted.
➢ When the frame arrives at the destination, the checksum is recomputed.
➢ After dividing the data into frames, we should be able to identify the
starting & and ending of each frame.

There are two types of framing

1. Fixed Length: The frame is of fixed size and there is no need to provide
boundaries to the frame, the length of the frame itself acts as a delimiter.
2. Variable Length: In this, there is a need to define the end of the frame as
well as the beginning of the next frame to distinguish

There are four methods in the framing

➢ Character Set
➢ Flag Byte or Character Stuffing or Byte Stuffing
➢ Bit Stuffing
➢ Violation of Physical layer

Character Set

➢ This is a method uses a field in the header to specify the number of bytes
in the frame.
➢ When the DLL at the destination sees the byte count, it knows how many
bytes follow & hence where the end of the frame.
➢ This problem occurs if the byte count is changed by any transmission
error.
➢ If the byte count of 5 becomes 7due to error in this method is used
rarely.
Flag Byte or Character Stuffing or Byte Stuffing

➢ In this method special byte called flag byte is used as both the starting
& ending delimiter of each frame.
➢ Two consequent flag bytes indicate end of the frame and start the next
frame.
➢ If the receiver looses the synchronization, it can search for two flag
bytes to find the end of the frame.
➢ One way to solve this problem is to insert a special byte called (ESC)
just before each flag byte in the data.
➢ The DLL on the receiving end removes the escape bytes before giving the
data to the network layer.
➢ This technique is called as Byte Stuffing.

Bit Stuffing

➢ Most protocols used a special 8bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter
the beginning and ending of the frame. The bit stuffing is doneat the
sender end and bit removal at the receiver end.
➢ If u has 0 after five consequent 1s we still stuff a 0.The receiver remove
the 0.
Violation of Physical layer

➢ In order to operate a division between frames in Data Link Layer this

approach exploits the redundancy in Physical Layer Encoding that
represents data as 00 error, 01 low, 10 high, 11 error

Error Control

➢ To ensure reliable delivery, the sender should be provided with some

feedback about what is happening at receiver.
➢ In this purpose ,receiver sends special control frames having positive or
negative acknowledgement
➢ If sender receives positive acknowledgment, it means that the frame has
transmitted safely.
➢ If sender receives negative acknowledgment, it means that the frame is
lost and the sender must retransmit the frame.
➢ To overcome this timer are used in DLL
➢ When sender transmits 0 frames, it also starts a timer.
➢ The timer is set to the time interval required for the data to reach the
destination and ACK to reach the source.
➢ If the timer expire ,it means that either the frame is lost or ACK is lost
Flow control

➢ Flow is controlled by sending the data according to the capability of the

receiver.

There are two types

1. Feedback based flow control: The receiver sends some feedback to the
sender .This feedback includes:-

➢ When to send the data

➢ How much data the sender can transmit
➢ At what rate data can be transmitted

2. Rate based flow control: There is built in mechanism that limits the rate
at which senders can transmit data. Without using feedback from receiver.

Error detection and Corrections

➢ Error detections codes are used when the error rate high.

Error detection codes

1. Parity 2.Checksum 3.CRC (Cyclic Redundancy check)

1. Parity: It can detect single bit error.

There are two types: 1.Even parity 2. Odd parity

2. Checksum or 1’s Representation Method

Step-01:

At sender side,

➢ If m bit checksum is used, the data unit to be transmitted is divided

into segments of m bits.
➢ All the m bit segments are added.
➢ The result of the sum is then complemented using 1’s complement
arithmetic.
➢ The value so obtained is called as checksum.
Step-02:

➢ The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-03:

At receiver side,

➢ If m bit checksum is being used, the received data unit is divided into
segments of m bits.
➢ All the m bit segments are added along with the checksum value.
➢ The value so obtained is complemented and the result is checked.

Then, following two cases are possible-

Case-01: Result = 0

➢ If the result is zero,

➢ Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the
transmission.
➢ Receiver accepts the data.

Case-02: Result ≠ 0

➢ If the result is non-zero,

➢ Receiver assumes that error occurred in the data during the
transmission.
➢ Receiver discards the data and asks the sender for retransmission.

Checksum Example-

Consider the data unit to be transmitted is-

10011001111000100010010010000100

Consider 8 bit checksum is used.

Step-01:

At sender side,

The given data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits as-

Now, all the segments are added and the result is obtained as-

➢ 10011001 + 11100010 + 00100100 + 10000100 = 1000100011

➢ Since the result consists of 10 bits, so extra 2 bits are wrapped around.
➢ 00100011 + 10 = 00100101 (8 bits)
➢ Now, 1’s complement is taken which is 11011010.
➢ Thus, checksum value = 11011010

Step-02:

The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-03:

At receiver side,

➢ The received data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits.

➢ All the segments along with the checksum value are added.
➢ Sum of all segments + Checksum value = 00100101 + 11011010 =
11111111
➢ Complemented value = 00000000

Since the result is 0, receiver assumes no error occurred in the data and
therefore accepts it.

3. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

➢ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error detection method.

➢ It is based on binary division.
➢ CRC generator is an algebraic polynomial represented as a bit pattern.
➢ Bit pattern is obtained from the CRC generator using the following rule
is The power of each term gives the position of the bit and the coefficient gives
the value of the bit.
➢ The polynomial code bit strings are representation of polynomials with
coefficients of 0 and 1 only.
➢ When the polynomial code is employed, the sender and receiver must agree upon
a generator polynomial G(x).
 ➢ The result is 0 check summed frame to be transmitted T(X).

Here the Binary pattern is 11011011

CRC Generator
If CRC generator or divisor is n bits the CRC bits are (n-1)

Formula for CRC bits =data+ (n-1)/CRC Generator

Error Detection and Correction Method-Hamming Code

Hamming code is a block code that is capable of detecting up to two

simultaneous bit errors and correcting single-bit errors. It was developed by
R.W. Hamming for error correction.

In this coding method, the source encodes the message by inserting

redundant bits within the message. These redundant bits are extra bits that
are generated and inserted at specific positions in the message itself to enable
error detection and correction. When the destination receives this message, it
performs recalculations to detect errors and find the bit position that has
error.
Encoding a message by Hamming Code (Sender)

The procedure used by the sender to encode the message encompasses the
following steps −
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.
Once the redundant bits are embedded within the message, this is sent to
the user.

Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.

If the message contains m𝑚number of data bits, r𝑟number of redundant bits are
added to it so that m𝑟 is able to indicate at least (m + r+ 1) different states.
Here, (m + r) indicates location of an error in each of (𝑚 + 𝑟) bit positions and
one additional state indicates no error. Since, r𝑟 bits can indicate 2r𝑟 states, 2r𝑟
must be at least equal to (m + r + 1). Thus the following equation should hold
2r ≥ m+r+1

Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.

The r redundant bits placed at bit positions of powers of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc.

They are referred in the rest of this text as r1 (at position 1), r2 (at position 2),
r3 (at position 4), r4 (at position 8) and so on.

Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.

The redundant bits are parity bits. A parity bit is an extra bit that makes the
number of 1s either even or odd. The two types of parity are −
Even Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made even.
Odd Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made odd

Decoding a message in Hamming Code (Receiver)

Once the receiver gets an incoming message, it performs recalculations to

detect errors and correct them. The steps for recalculation are −
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
Step 3 − Parity checking.
Step 4 − Error detection and correction
Ex: Let us assume the even parity hamming code from the above example
(111001101) is transmitted and the received code is (110001101). Now
from the received code, let us detect and correct the error.

To detect the error, let us construct the bit location table.

Bit Location 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Bit
D5 P4 D4 D3 D2 P3 D1 P2 P1
designation

Binary
1001 1000 0111 0110 0101 0100 0011 0010 0001
representation
Received code 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
Checking the parity bits

For P1 : Check the locations 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. There is three 1s in this group, which

is wrong for even parity. Hence the bit value for P1 is 1.

For P2 : Check the locations 2, 3, 6, 7. There is one 1 in this group, which is

wrong for even parity. Hence the bit value for P2 is 1.

For P3 : Check the locations 3, 5, 6, 7. There is one 1 in this group, which is

wrong for even parity. Hence the bit value for P3 is 1.

For P4 : Check the locations 8, 9. There are two 1s in this group, which iscorrect
for even parity. Hence the bit value for P4 is 0.

The resultant binary word is 0111. It corresponds to the bit location 7 in the above
table. The error is detected in the data bit D4. The error is 0 and it should be
changed to 1. Thus the corrected code is 111001101.

Elementary Data Link Layer Protocols

Based on error control and flow control mechanism the elementary data link
layer protocols are divided in two transmission channels.

1. Noise Less

2. Noisy
Simplex Protocol or Unrestricted Protocol or Utopian Protocol
Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol error free channel
Simplex stop and wait protocol for noisy channel
Sliding window protocol(one bit)
G0 BACK N ARQ
SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ
Data Link Layer Protocol in HDLC
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols
of the data link layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes.
Since it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is
transmitted via the network to the destination that verifies its successful
arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point
and multipoint communications.

Transfer Modes

HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.

Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are there, a
primary station that send commands and secondary station that can
respond to received commands. It is used for both point - to - point and
multipoint communications.

Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is balanced,

i.e. each station can both send commands and respond to commands. It is
used for only point - to - point communications.

HDLC Frame Structure

HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields.
The structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame
are

Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the frame.
The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.

Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the
primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it is sent
by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary station. The
address field may be from 1 byte to several bytes.

Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.

Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary from
one network to another.

FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. The
standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

Types of HDLC Frames

There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined by the
control field of the frame

I- frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the network
layer. They also include flow and error control information that is piggybacked
on user data. The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0.

S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain information field.

They are used for flow and error control when piggybacking is not required. The
first two bit of control field of S-frame is 10.

U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad

miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an information
field, if required. The first two bit of control field of U-frame is11.
Point to point protocol (PPP)
➢ The PPP stands for Point-to-Point protocol. It is the most commonly used
protocol for point-to-point access. Suppose the user wants toaccess the
internet from the home, the PPP protocol will be used.
➢ The PPP protocol can be used on synchronous link like ISDN as well as
asynchronous link like dial-up. It is mainly used for the communication
between the two devices.
➢ It is also known as a byte-oriented protocol

Services provided by PPP

➢ It defines the format of frames through which the transmission occurs.
➢ It defines the link establishment process.
➢ It defines data exchange process, i.e., how data will be exchanged, the
rate of the exchange.
➢ The main feature of the PPP protocol is the encapsulation. It defines how
network layer data and information in the payload are encapsulated in
the data link frame.
➢ It defines the authentication process between the two devices. The
authentication between the two devices, handshaking and how the
password will be exchanged between two devices are decided by the PPP
protocol.

Services not provided by the PPP protocol(RFC1661)

➢ It does not support flow control mechanism.
➢ It has a very simple error control mechanism.
➢ As PPP provides point-to-point communication, so it lacks addressing
mechanism to handle frames in multipoint configuration.

Frame format of PPP protocol

Flag: The flag field is used to indicate the start and end of the frame. The flag
field is a 1-byte field that appears at the beginning and the ending of the frame.
The pattern of the flag is similar to the bit pattern in HDLC, i.e., 01111110.

Address: It is a 1-byte field that contains the constant value which is

11111111. These 8 ones represent a broadcast message.

Control: It is a 1-byte field which is set through the constant value, i.e., 11000000.
It is not a required field as PPP does not support the flow control and a very
limited error control mechanism. The control field is a mandatory field where
protocol supports flow and error control mechanism.

Protocol: It is a 1 or 2 bytes field that defines what is to be carried in the data

field. The data can be a user data or other information.

Payload: The payload field carries either user data or other information. The
maximum length of the payload field is 1500 bytes

CRC: It is a 16-bit field which is generally used for error detection

Transition phases of PPP protocol

Dead: Dead is a transition phase which means that the link is not used or there
is no active carrier at the physical layer.

Establish: If one of the nodes starts working then the phase goes to the
establish phase. In short, we can say that when the node starts communication
or carrier is detected then it moves from the dead to the establish phase.

Authenticate: It is an optional phase which means that the communication

can also moves to the authenticate phase. The phase moves from the establish
to the authenticate phase only when both the communicating nodes agree to
make the communication authenticated.

Network: Once the authentication is successful, the network is established

or phase is network. In this phase, the negotiations of network layer protocols
take place.

Open: After the establishment of the network phase, it moves to the open phase.
Here open phase means that the exchange of data takes place. Or we can say
that it reaches to the open phase after the configuration of the network layer.

Terminate: When all the work is done then the connection gets terminated, and
it moves to the terminate phase.

Components in PPP
➢ Link Control Protocol (LCP)
➢ Authentication protocols

Link Control Protocol (LCP): The role of LCP is to establish, maintain, configure,
and terminate the links. It also provides negotiation mechanism.

Authentication protocols: This protocol plays a very important role in the

PPP protocol because the PPP is designed for use over the dial-up links where
the verification of user identity is necessary. Thus this protocol is mainly used
to authenticate the endpoints for the use of other services.
Multilink PPP

Multilink PPP (also referred to as MLPPP, MP, MPPP, MLP, or Multilink)

provides a method for spreading traffic across multiple distinct PPP
connections. It is defined in RFC 1990. It can be used, for example, to connect
a home computer to an Internet Service Provider using two traditional 56k
modems, or to connect a company through two leased lines.

On a single PPP line frames cannot arrive out of order, but this is possible when
the frames are divided among multiple PPP connections. Therefore, Multilink
PPP must number the fragments so they can be put in the right order again
when they arrive.

Multilink PPP is an example of a link aggregation technology. Cisco IOS

Release 11.1 and later supports Multilink PPP.

Multilink PPP is a communications strategy that makes use of the basic

concept of point-to-point protocol. Essentially, the approach allows for the
utilization of more than one PPP communication port in order to achieve a
higher amount of bandwidth to work with. This type of communications
protocol can often be employed with a personal computer and thus enhance
the overall efficiency of many tasks The utilization of Multilink PPP can be
especially helpful in locations where dial up connections to the Internet are
the only alternative. The end user will make use of two different modems to
establish independent connections to the Internet. The connections are made
to the same Internet Service Provider. Assuming that the ISP allows for this
type of connectivity, the end user can effectively double the operating speed,
as the two connections divide the requested data into packets that are
simultaneously transmitted through each connection, then recombined atthe
user end.

However, there are other applications for Multilink PPP that go beyond simply
increasing the speed associated with dial up service. The same concept is often
employed in fiber optic systems that function primarily as a means of
providing audio signaling. Cable modems can also employ Multilink PPP to
enhance transmission. Satellite transmissions can also make use of the
principles of Multilink PPP in order to increase the efficiency of data transfers.
The overall simplicity of employing this type of multiple connection protocol
makes it easily adaptable to a number of different situations, and can often be
an ideal solution for persons located in relatively isolated areas.
 UNIT-III

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC)

➢ MAC stands for Media Access Control Address. It is a hardware identification

number that identifies each device connected to a network. The MAC address is
embedded into network interface cards (NIC) in your computer such as an Ethernet
card or Wi-Fi card, at time of manufacturing by the vendor, so it cannot be changed.

Types of Channel allocation are two types 1.Static channel allocation

2. Dynamic channel allocation

Types of Dynamic channel allocation: 1.Satation Model

2. Single channel assumption
3. Collision assumption
4. Continuous or slotted time
5. Carrier sense or no carrier sense

Random Access
➢ In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel.
➢ In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station
➢ All station send a data simultaneously
 Flow chart of CSMA/CD

CSMA/CA
➢ It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol
for carrier transmission of data frames
➢ It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
➢ When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check
whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own)
acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully
transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in
which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.

Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle,
and if it gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this,
it waits for some time, and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS.
However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the station.
 Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into
different slots. When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it
chooses a random slot number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does
not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send data
packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data
frame to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.

Flow chart of CSMA/CA

CONTROLLED ACCESS

➢ In the Controlled access technique, all stations need to consult with one
another in order to find out which station has the right to send the data.
➢ The controlled access protocols mainly grant permission to send only one node
at a time; thus in order to avoid the collisions among the shared mediums.
➢ No station can send the data unless it has been authorized by the other
stations.

The protocols lies under the category of Controlled access are as follows:

1. Reservation 2.Polling 3.Token passing

1. Reservation

➢ In this method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending the

data.
➢ Time is mainly divided into intervals.
➢ Also, in each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frame that is
sent in that interval.
➢ Suppose if there are 'N' stations in the system in that case there are exactly
'N' reservation minislots in the reservation frame; where each minislot belongs to
a station.
➢ Whenever a station needs to send the data frame, then the station makes a
reservation in its own minislot.
➢ Then the stations that have made reservations can send their data after the
reservation frame.

Example

➢ Let us take an example of 5 stations and a 5-minislot reservation frame. In the

first interval, the station 2,3 and 5 have made the reservations. While in the
second interval only station 2 has made the reservations.

2. Polling

➢ The polling method mainly works with those topologies where one device is
designated as the primary station and the other device is designated as the
secondary station.
➢ All the exchange of data must be made through the primary device even though
the final destination is the secondary device.
➢ Thus to impose order on a network that is of independent users, and in order
to establish one station in the network that will act as a controller and periodically
polls all other stations is simply referred to as polling.
➢ The Primary device mainly controls the link while the secondary device follows
the instructions of the primary device.
➢ Therefore the primary device is always an initiator of the session.

It performs two types of functions 1. Poll function 2.Select function

Poll function

➢ In case if primary devices want to receive the data, then it usually asks the
secondary devices if they have anything to send. This is commonly known
as Poll Function.
➢ There is a poll function that is mainly used by the primary devices in order
to solicit transmissions from the secondary devices.
 ➢ When the primary device is ready to receive the data then it must
ask(poll) each secondary device in turn if it has anything to send.
➢ If the secondary device has data to transmit then it sends the data frame,
otherwise, it sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK).
➢ After that in case of the negative response, the primary then polls the next
secondary, in the same manner until it finds the one with the data to send. When
the primary device received a positive response that means (a data frame), then
the primary devices reads the frame and then returns an acknowledgment (ACK
)frame,

Select Function

➢ In case, if the primary device wants to send the data then it tells the secondary
devices in order to get ready to receive the data. This is commonly known as the
Select function.
➢ Thus the select function is used by the primary device when it has
something to send.
➢ We had already told you that the primary device always controls the link.
➢ Before sending the data frame, a select (SEL ) frame is created and transmitted
by the primary device, and one field of the SEL frame includes the address of
the intended secondary.
➢ The primary device alerts the secondary devices for the upcoming transmission
and after that wait for an acknowledgment (ACK) of the secondary devices.
3. Token Passing
Channelization

➢ Channelization is basically a method that provides the multiple-access and in

this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency, or through
the code in between the different stations.
Channelization Protocols are classified as follows
➢ FDMA (Frequency-Division Multiple Access)
➢ TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access)
➢ CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

FDMA (Frequency-Division Multiple Accesses):

➢ With the help of this technique, the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band in order to send its data.
➢ In order to prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated
from one another with the help of small guard bands.
➢ The Frequency-division multiple access mainly specifies a predetermined
frequency for the entire period of communication.

Advantages of FDMA
➢ This technique is efficient when the traffic is uniformly constant.
➢ In case if the channel is not in use then it sits idle.
➢ FDMA is simple algorithmically and the complexity is less.
➢ For FDMA there is no restriction regarding the type of baseband or the type of
modulation.

Disadvantages of FDMA

➢ By using FDMA, the maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.

In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands
that are separated by guard bands.

TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access)

➢ With the help of this technique, the stations share the bandwidth of the
channel in time.
➢ A time slot is allocated to each station during which it can send the data.
➢ Data is transmitted by each station in the assigned time slot.
➢ When using the TDMA technique then each station needs to know the
beginning of its slot and the location of its slot.
➢ If the stations are spread over a large area, then there occur propagation
delays; in order to compensate this guard, times are used.
➢ The data link layer in each station mainly tells its physical layer to use the
allocated time slot.
Examples of TDMA are as follows

1. Personal digital calculator

2. Universal Terrestrial Radio
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)

➢ CDMA technique differs from the FDMA and TDMA because only one channel
occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
➢ The CDMA technique simply means communication with different codes.
➢ In the CDMA technique, there is only one channel that carries all the
transmission simultaneously.
➢ The data from the different stations can be transmitted simultaneously but
using different code languages.

Advantages of CDMA

➢ Provide high voice quality.

➢ CDMA operates at low power levels.
➢ The capacity of the system is higher than the TDMA and FDMA.
➢ CDMA is better cost-effective.
Difference between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

FDMA TDMA CDMA

FDMA stands for TDMA stands for CDMA stands for Code
Frequency Division Time Division Division Multiple Access.
Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

In this, sharing of In this, only the In this, there is sharing

bandwidth among sharing of time of of both i.e. bandwidth
different stations takes satellite transponder and time among
place. takes place. different stations takes
place.

There is no need of any There is no need of Codeword is necessary.

codeword. any codeword.

In this, there is only In this, guard time In this, both guard

need of guard bands of the adjacent slots bands and guard time
between the adjacent are necessary. are necessary.
channels are necessary.

Synchronization is not Synchronization is Synchronization is not

required. required. required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is The rate of data is high.
medium.

Mode of data transfer is Mode of data Mode of data transfer is

continuous signal. transfer is signal in digital signal.
bursts.

It is little flexible. It is moderate It is highly flexible.

flexible.
Wired LAN

Ethernet – (IEEE 802.3)

Types of Ethernet are four types

1. Standard Ethernet
2. Fast Ethernet
3. Gigabyte Ethernet
4.10 Gigabyte Ethernet

1. Standard Ethernet:

➢ The data rate of standard Ethernet is 10Mbps

➢ It is a unreliable
➢ It is also connection less service
➢ This is a first generation of Ethernet
➢ Each frame is independent

FRAMING STRUCTURE of STANDARD ETHERNET

➢ Ethernet framing structure as 7 fields

Destination Source Length

Preamble SFD Data CRC
Address Address ot Type
7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes
46bytes to 4 bytes
1500 bytes

➢ The Preamble consists of seven bytes all of the form 10101010, and is used by
the receiver to allow it to establish bit synchronization. It alert the receiving
system.
➢ SFD it consist of 0’s and 1’s,it is start frame delimiter

➢ Destination address is a link layer address it consist of 6 bytes, it is a ending

address
 ➢ Source address is a link layer address , it consist of 6 bytes, it is a starting
address
➢ Type is contain upper layer protocols like IP,ARP etc..
➢ The minimum data contains 46 bytes and maximum data contains 1500 bytes
➢ CRC means error detection method

Minimum Length of the Ethernet fame is 64bytes (6+6+2+46+4)

Maximum Length of the Ethernet frame is 1518 bytes (6+6+2+1500+4)

Addressing

➢ Ethernet MAC contains 6 bytes address

➢ It contain 12 hexa decimal digits separated by colon

E.g.: 4A:30:10:21:10; 1A

Various types of address in Ethernet are Unicast, Multicast and broad cast

Hexa decimal to binary table format

Conversion example 4A:30:10:21:10; 1A

4A: 01001010 21:00100001

30:00110000 10:00010000

10:00010000 1A:00011010
Categories of Slandered Ethernet

1.10Base 5: In this implementation thick coaxial cable is used and length is 500m

2.10 Base 2: In this implementation thin coaxial cable is used and length is 185m

3.10 Base T: In this implementation 2 UTP cable is used and length is 100m

4.10 Base F: In this implementation 2 Fiber cable is used and length is 100m

Here all categories are used Manchester encoding

Here 10 represent a Data rate, Base represent a digital signal and 5 represent a
length of the cable.

2. Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u)

➢ It is upgradable data rate of 100Mbps

➢ It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
➢ Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
➢ Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
➢ It supports to point to point and star topologies

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.100Base TX: In this implementation 2 pair of UTP and STP cables are used and
length is 100m

2.100 Base FX: In this implementation 2 wire fiber cable is used and length is
185m

3.100 Base T4: In this implementation 4 wire UTP cable is used and length is
100m

Encoding and Decoding Process in fast Ethernet

Giga Byte Ethernet IEEE 802.3z

➢ It is upgradable data rate of 1000Mbps

➢ It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
➢ Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
➢ Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
➢ It supports and connected to point to point and two more star topologies
➢ It supports Full Duplex mode

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.1000Base SX: In this implementation 2 wires of short wave fiber cable is

used and length is 550m
2.1000 Base LX: In this implementation 2 wires of long fiber cable is used
and length is 5000m
3.1000 Base CX: In this implementation STP cable is used and length is 25m
4. 1000 Base T: In this implementation 4 wire UTP cable is used and length
is 100m

Encoding and Decoding Process in Giga Ethernet

10Giga Byte Ethernet IEEE 802.3al

➢ It is upgradable data rate of 10000Mbps

➢ It keep the standard Ethernet framing structure
➢ Here also MAC contain 48 bits address
➢ Here new feature is add also called Auto negotiation means that in network
two devices having different data rates.
➢ It supports and connected to point to point and two more star topologies
➢ It supports Full Duplex mode
➢ It is used in metropolitan area networks
➢ In this no need for CSMA/CD protocol

Categories of Fast Ethernet

1.10GBase SR: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and

length is 300m
2.10G Base LR: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 10km
3.10G Base EN: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 40km
4. 10G BaseX4: In this implementation 2 wires of fiber cable is used and
length is 300m to 10km

Ethernet Protocol

The most popular and oldest LAN technology is Ethernet Protocol, so it is more
frequently used in LAN environments which are used in almost all networks like
offices, homes, public places, enterprises, and universities. Ethernet has gained huge
popularity because of its maximum rates over longer distances using optical media.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allowing you to make voice
calls over a broadband Internet connection instead of an analog (regular) phone line.
Some VoIP services allow you to call people using the same service, but others may
allow you to call anyone. They can have a telephone number – including local, long-
distance, mobile, and international numbers or not. Some VoIP services only work
over your computer or a special VoIP phone while other services allow you to use a
traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter.
How VoIP / Internet Voice Works – Voice is converted into a digital signal by VoIP
services that travel over the Internet. If the regular phone number is called, the
signal is converted to a regular telephone signal i.e. an analog signal before it reaches
the destination.
VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer having a special VoIP
phone, or a traditional phone connected to a special adapter. Wireless hot spots in
locations such as airports, hospitals, cafes, etc allow you to connect to the Internet
and can enable you to use VoIP service wirelessly.

Equipments Required – A high-speed Internet connection is required which can be

through a cable modem or high-speed services such as a local area network. A
computer, adaptor, or specialized phone is required. Some VoIP services only work
over your computer or a special VoIP phone. Other services allow you to use a
traditional phone connected to a VoIP adapter. If you use your computer some
software and an inexpensive microphone are needed. VoIP phones plug directly into
your broadband connection and operate largely like a traditional telephone. If you
use a telephone with a VoIP adapter, you can dial just as you always have, and the
service provider may also provide a dial tone.
Example: Whatsup, Face book messenger, viber etc