ST.

DOMINIC’S SCHOOL
MANASA HN
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

Composition (20 MARKS)

Original short story
Plot, sequence, settings, characters, dialogues, creativity and interesting
First person- I, me, we, us
Third person- he, she, it, him, her, they, them
Forms like comic, tragic, dramatic or mystery.
If there are no photographs [5 paragraphs or compulsory] [Penalised]
Story Writing
Write an original short story entitled ‘The Mysterious cabin’.
FORMAT:

⮚ Title: Choose a catchy and relevant title for your story.

⮚ Introduction: Introduce the main characters and setting of the story. Set the tone and context for
the narrative.

⮚ Body: Develop the plot with a clear beginning, middle, and end. Build suspense and tension to
keep the reader interested.

⮚ Conflict: Introduce a conflict or problem that the characters must face. This is a crucial element
that drives the story forward.

⮚ Climax: The turning point of the story where the conflict reaches its peak. This is a critical
moment that leads to the resolution.

⮚ Resolution: Resolve the conflict and provide a satisfying conclusion to the story. Tie up any loose
ends and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

⮚ Conclusion: End the story with a thought-provoking or memorable conclusion. Reflect on the
theme or message of the story.
IDEAS:
Character Development: Create believable and relatable characters that readers can connect with.
Develop their personalities, motivations, and relationships throughout the story.
Setting: Describe the setting of your story in detail to create vivid and immersive world for your
characters. The setting can greatly impact the mood and atmosphere of the story.
Plot: Develop a well-structured plot with a clear beginning, middle, and end. Include a central
conflict or problem that drives the narrative forward and keep readers engaged.
Theme: Explore a central theme or message in your story. Themes can range from love and
friendship to courage and betrayal. Use the theme to convey deeper meanings and insights.
Narrative Voice: Choose a narrative voice that suits the tone and style of your story. You can use
first-person, third-person, or omniscient narration to tell your story.
Pacing: Maintain a good pace throughout your story to keep readers interested. Balance moments
of action and suspense with quieter, reflective moments.
Dialogue: Use dialogue to develop your characters and advance the plot. Dialogue can reveal
character traits, relationships, and emotions in a natural and engaging way.
Conflict: Introduce conflict early in your story and escalate it to create tension and drama. The
resolution of the conflict should be satisfying and meaningful.
Descriptive Language: Use descriptive language to paint vivid images in the minds of your readers.
Describe characters, settings, and events in detail to create a rich and immersive reading experience.
Editing and Revision: Finally, edit and revise your story to ensure it is well-written and error-free.
Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure to make your story polished and
professional.
Example:
Title: “The Mysterious Cabin”
Introduction: Sarah, a curious and adventurous girl, stumbled upon a hidden cabin in the woods
during one of her solo walks. Intrigued by its mysterious appearance, she decided to explore further.
Plot: Inside the cabin, Sarah found an old map tucked away in a dusty corner. The map seemed to
lead to a hidden treasure buried deep within the forest.
Conflict: Excited by the prospect of a treasure hunt, Sarah faced various obstacles along the way,
including deciphering the map’s clues, navigating through thick foliage, and avoiding wildlife.
Climax: After a series of challenges, Sarah finally unearthed the treasure. However, instead of gold
and jewels, she found a chest filled with old journals and letters.
Resolution: As Sarah read through the journals, she discovered that the treasure was not material
wealth but the stories and experiences of the cabin’s previous occupants. The treasure hunt had led
her to uncover a rich history and a deeper appreciation for the wonders of nature.

Narrative composition
Experience of a 15 year old child.
Sequencing of events
Never leave it at a Cliff hanger
Use a quote but not quotations
Use first person account
Have a dream, but your essay or composition must not end as a dream.
Narrative Essay
Have you ever forgiven someone when it was hard to do so? Explain what helped you to forgive
them, and the positive impact it had. What did you learn from the experience?
Age-appropriate
First Person narration
In Past Tense
The incident
The path leading to the act of forgiveness
The transformation in you / the result of the act of forgiveness
Guidelines
1. Chronological arrangement is essential.
2. The beginning must be impressive and arresting. It may be through some action, or with unusual
details, or with a dialogue.
3. You may use specific selection of anecdotes, humorous quotes, or dialogues in your narration.
4. The characters if any, should be clearly etched so that the reader is able to visualize them.
5. The scene or the setting should be well defined.
6. Long, irrelevant and uninteresting details should be eliminated.
7. Narrative essays are normally written in first person.
8. A definite conclusion has to be reached. The reader should not feel that you are ending your
composition just because you cannot carry it on any further. A surprise ending is an added attraction
to your composition. But do it if you can deal with it deftly.
EXAMPLE:
Write about a memorable experience that taught you an important life lesson. What happened, and
how did it impact you?
A Lesson in Friendship
It was a bright and sunny day during my summer break before entering 8th grade. My best friend,
Sam, and I had planned a day of adventure at the amusement park. Little did I know that this day
would become an important moment in my life, teaching me a vital lesson about friendship.
Excitement bubbled within us as we arrived at the park, eager to conquer every thrilling ride. We
started with the roller coasters, screaming and laughing as we zoomed through loops and twists. Our
joy was infectious, and the day seemed perfect.
As we wandered through the park, we stumbled upon the Ferris wheel-a ride I had always found a
bit intimidating. Sam, however, was determined to conquer it. Despite my hesitations, I agreed to
join him in the colourful, swaying capsule. Midway through the ride, my fear kicked in, and I began
to feel queasy. I tried to hide it, but my discomfort was evident. Alex, being the perceptive friend he
was, noticed my unease. Instead of dismissing it, he suggested we get off the ride and find something
else we both could enjoy.
In that moment, I learned a crucial lesson about true friendship, understanding and compassion. Sam
didn't mock my fear or push me to continue; instead, he prioritised my comfort over his own desires.
It made me realize that a genuine friend is someone who cares about your well-being and is willing
to adjust plans to accommodate each other.
Sam’s kindness and consideration made me appreciate the value of a friend who truly understands
and supports you. It taught me that friendship is not just about shared adventures but also about
being there for each other through challenges, big or small.
From that day forward, our friendship deepened, and I carried the lesson with me into 8th grade and
beyond. I became more attuned to the feelings of others and made an effort to be a supportive friend
just like Sam was to me.

Argumentative essay
Take a clear stand, either for or against
Give valid reasons for the stand taken
Penalised if no stand is taken
Five points is a must
Argumentative Essay
In this type of essay, you will be asked to present your views for or against the topic. You will have
to arrive at a conclusion through reasoning and logic. You need to consider various aspects of the
subject matter before proceeding to make a statement of your own on the subject. Reason, evidence
and factual information should support your personal opinion to prove the argument.

‘Technology has made us overly dependent on its existence.’

Express your views either FOR or AGAINST this statement.

⮚ The arguments must be cohesive, well-constructed and logical.

⮚ The ideas / reasonings based on personal experiences are to be accepted.

⮚ Clear stand must be taken either FOR or AGAINST the topic.

⮚ Penalize if no stand is taken.

Guidelines:

⮚ Pick a side, and do not attempt to just explain both points of view on the issue in one go.

⮚ Do not decide to attempt the topic if you do not have an interest in that topic. Be sure that you
have sufficient information on the topic. ⮚ You must be clear in your perception from the start. There
should be no confusion about it.

⮚ You must rise above personal prejudice, if any, and balance the pros and cons of the issue.

⮚ Think carefully and write down all the points you can.

⮚ You may strengthen your viewpoints with facts, figures and historical evidence.

⮚ Your composition must begin impressively with a statement of assertion.

⮚ Conclusion must be very transparent and acceptable with a well thought out personal view on the
subject.
EXAMPLE:
Technology has made us overly dependent on its existence. For the motion:
Billy Lox, a very famous American bassist said, “Technology should improve your life, not become
your life.” That’s one thing that every one of us should learn and adopt. We need technology just to
improve and help us do our work, which otherwise would be time-consuming, in a much easier and
faster way. That is, it. We do not have to become slaves of technology. Gadgets, equipments,
machines etc., are just a part of life not a way of life. We need to loosen our grip on technology and
tighten it on human interaction. Albert Einstein once said, “I fear the day that technology will
surpass our human interaction. The world will have a generation of idiots.” We definitely do not
want our generation and the coming generations to be skill-less nitwits. Gone are the days when
kids would want to play outside in the parks or gardens. They now want to have a smart phone or a
laptop or a television in front of them where they either play games, watch shows etc. We know
that these actions have serious repercussions.
Depression, insomnia, hyperactivity disorder are some major disorders that today’s kids are facing
which are directly linked to gadgets. A very important question here is not what technology has
done and is doing ‘for’ us but what technology has done and is doing ‘to’ us. One-to-one
communication is losing its essence. While sitting together for dinner in a restaurant, at a party, in
a family gathering or any social event, people are seen glued to their smart phone. Reading stories
to children, listening to live music, having a soulful conversation with a family member or friend
seems to be forgotten tales.
Our increasing dependence on technology for getting us through all our
daily chores, our day-to-day obligatory communication, our days and our nights, is removing the
power of choice. We take what technology has to offer without weighing our options because it’s
easy and quick that way. I conclude with just one sentence. Technology is a useful servant but a
very, very dangerous master.
Against the motion:
American Physicist Freeman Dyson says, “Technology is a gift of God. After the gift of life, it is
perhaps the greatest of God’s gifts. It is the mother of civilizations of arts and of sciences.”
Technology has given us freedom to express ourselves in an open forum. It has given us the
opportunity to see the things we only dreamt of. It is present in every aspect of our lives, enriching
us, and our work’s output. Agreed that too much dependency on technology is not called for. But to
come to think of it, right from morning till the end of our day, we have to use technology for
something or the other. Be it making a smoother for breakfast or using an elevator to get to the 25th
floor, or to present an impressionable power point presentation, technology is omnipresent. The
field of health and medication would still be reeling under manual scans whose authentication was
always doubtful. Enter hitech technology, the scene changes. Accurate diagnosis, surgical
procedures, improved patient care etc., are the result of the development of some brilliant medical
innovations like MRI machines, artificial organs, and robotic prosthetic limbs.
Technology is best when it brings people together. So many of us have reconnected with friends
and acquaintances whom we had not seen or heard from in years. Social media is a very precious
gift from technology to us. Our world has come closer. Interpersonal communication is better, faster
and most of all possible. Sending money, gifts, consignments anywhere in the world was a nearly
impossible dream. Even if it was possible, it was either very time-consuming or expensive. But not
anymore. We can do all these things with a snap of our fingers. No boundaries separate nations. We
all are on one global platform
Technology has given the word “possibility” new and wider dimension. We can hope and imagine
better and easier ways of living our lives. We are changing the world with technology. Technology
will never replace great thinkers but technology in the hands of great thinkers is transformational.
Technology is used every day in every field in everything we do.

Descriptive essay/ composition

Focus on its description
Detailed description is a must
Usage of nouns and adjectives is significant and should not be repeated
WH- plan. [where,why, when, who, which, whose, whom, how, etc]
Knowledge of sight, smell, sound, taste, touch plan.
Descriptive Essay
Points to be Kept in Mind:

⮚ Make sure that you note down some ideas before you begin describing it. ⮚ Use clear and concise
language.

⮚ Remember, if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to the senses of the reader.
Explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted or looked.
⮚ Describe emotions or feelings related to your topic. This will connect you with the reader on a
deeper level.

⮚ Leave the reader with a clear impression. It should evoke a strong sense of familiarity and
appreciation in the reader.

⮚ Always present an organized and logical description.

EXAMPLE:
There has been heavy rain in your city/town. You went to school but found that it was closed because
of the rain. Describe the sights and sounds near the school and narrate how you finally reached
home and spent the rest of the day.
It had been raining very heavily since last night. The whole night it was raining and pouring,
lightning striking and sound of thunder terrifying us. Next day, the streets and roads had flooded
but still I decided to go to school as I never wanted to miss it. I got ready, took a raincoat and left
for my school. At some places, the water was knee deep and very few people could be seen at the
roads. While going to school I saw that there was water everywhere. The roads had disappeared
under the water, and one could cross it only by walking through it. I did so. I saw no students of my
school on the way but Mr. Sharma was going. He teaches Math’s at our school and rarely takes
leave. Though the rain had stopped, water drops were falling from the tree leaves as if it were
raining. The sky had again become dark with heavy clouds suggesting that it could rain anytime
again, so I started walking fast.
When I reached school, I found a big notice announcing that the school was closed for that day as
water had entered the ground and the classrooms as well. There were some other students who had
ventured to reach school in spite of all odds. Anyway, as there was no school, we all decided to
enjoy the day. As there was water all around, we made paper boats and floated them in the ground.
There were some vehicles on the road which were trying to make way in spite the road being
submerged in water. We enjoyed the water splashed by these moving vehicles and cheered up. Far
off I could hear the sound of frogs and some birds who were sitting on the branches of tree, chirping
and feeding their young ones. It was fun wading through the water, sometimes falling down also.
After enjoying it for two hours, I reached home. My mother was terrified to see me all wet and
asked me to change immediately so that I might not catch a cold. She prepared hot coffee and hot
sandwiches to start with. As I was very hungry, I ate all that my mother had offered. As there was
no school, I requested my mother to allow me to play games on my iPad. She allowed me to play
for one hour and then I was told to read some book. My mother prepared some pakoras and samosas
and it was enjoyed the most by me. It was an enjoyable day and a welcome break from boring
routine of attending school every day.

Picture composition
It may be descriptive, a story or a narration of a story
Do not describe or write only about the picture, whereas related to the something else
Be creative.
Picture Composition
Guidelines

⮚ The student should look at the picture carefully to ascertain the basic plot or the theme.

⮚ If the picture doesn’t suggest anything evidently, the student is advised to invent a theme which
bears a direct connection with the picture. ⮚ After identifying or deciding the theme, major attention
should be given to the designing or moulding of the characters of the story. It can be both presented
as an autobiography and biography.

⮚ The composition must have an atmosphere, moralistic view and a strong climax.

Description of the Picture:

⮚ The picture should be studied carefully with a view to identifying the specific and minute details.

⮚ The focus should be widened to take into account the other or peripheral details, given in the
picture i.e. facial expressions, postures, clothes etc. ⮚ Design the factors or causes which have an
impact on the details. ⮚ A strong conclusion is required at the end of the composition.

1. Introduction: A brief introduction of the picture, what it suggests and its effect on the people and
the environment.
2. Body or Context: The ideas and thoughts that the student receives from the picture should be
mentioned and linked in a correct and meaningful sequence.
3. Conclusion: Bringing the composition to an end with carefully rounding off the thoughts, feelings
and returning to the specific subject.
Points to be kept in Mind While Writing a Picture Composition:
a. The content chosen must be directly related to the given picture while attempting picture
composition.
b. The student must maintain the connection and the focus between the picture and the content.
c. The full structure of the composition should be analyzed in the mind before writing based on the
picture.
d. As the word limit is going to range between 300-350 words, the students must try to spread out
their ideas so that they bring in various thoughts in their composition.
e. Use of simple language and imagination is required.
f. Logical expression of the entire idea based on the picture will make it an effective composition.
EXAMPLE:
Study the picture given below. Write a story or a description or an account of what it suggests to
you. Your composition may be about the subject of the picture, or you may take suggestions from
it; however, there must be a clear connection between the picture and your composition.
The picture shows the bond between a little girl and a baby elephant that seems to be hanging out
like two best buddies. Elephants have been inseparable companions of humans for centuries so no
doubt, they are among the most loyal animals. Like humans, animals too feel sadness and dejection
if behaved rudely and beaten but show love and affection if cared for and treated properly. The girl
in the picture has shown the same love and care for the baby elephant when he was left all alone on
his fate. The elephant on the other hand gives the girl a true friend hat a child longs for. Ramesh
lives in a small house on the outskirts of a jungle near Bengaluru. Herds (a large group) oi elephants
are seen in jungles and Ramesh is employed at a plantation where an elephant’s job is to root out
stumps with its heavy feet. Mohini, one of the female elephants at the plantation where Ramesh
works, died of an unknown disease leaving her six-month-old baby elephant Kamu to his fate. Being
alone and without the company of his mother, Kamu’s health started deteriorating as there had been
no one to take care of him. Ramesh brought him home thinking that the change of environment
might have some positive impact on him. Ramesh’s twelve-year-old daughter Kavya’s happiness
knew no bound seeing this baby elephant at her house. Kamu who seemed to be uneasy in the
beginning, gradually started liking Kavya as she was around him all the time and took care of his
food and fondled him.
Soon Kamu started forgetting his mother and Kavya became the only center of his attention. Now
Kavya and he have become inseparable souls. As long as Kavya is around him, his eyes twinkle and
seem to be dancing with her activities, but the moments she is out of his sight, he becomes restless
and keeps moving here and there till she reappears before him. Kavya too is very fond of Kamu.
She is a bit proud of him too as no child of her village can boast of having an elephant as his pet.
She takes Kamu for a walk in the evening daily. Sometimes she walks along with him and
sometimes she rides on his back.
Who says man is an enemy of animals. Kavya and baby elephant are living example of close
bonding between man and animals. What animals need is love and sincerity and they will prove
more faithful and helpful than other human beings. This bonding proves ‘Haathi Mera Sathi’ that
means the elephant is my friend.

LETTER WRITING

 FORMAL LETTER
Formal Letters: These are written to the subjects such as enquiry, transfer of money, reference,
request, booking, complaint, and apology.
Points to be noted
It should be brief and to the point
Let your letter. Be clear
Maintain the necessary formal tone
Be polite in your expression
It should not sound personal
Set your letter correctly
 Greetings must either be dear Sir or dear Madam if any name is mentioned., then use the
same name.
Do not use short forms
Body of the letter comprises of three paragraphs
• First paragraph-Introduction
• Second paragraph-three reasons and solutions
• Third paragraph- conclusion.
Subscription Yours faithfully or yours truly or yours sincerely
Write your full name below the subscription.

FORMAT
____________________,
____________________,
____________________, 4 lines Sender’s Address[,,,.]
____________________.[ pin code is mandatory]
LEAVE A LINE
10 th March, 2025. Date[,.]
LEAVE A LINE
____________________,
____________________, 4 lines Receiver’s address[,,,.]
____________________,
____________________.
LEAVE A LINE
Greetings/Salutation[,]
Dear Madam, Salutation
Subject: ____________________________.[no need to leave a line]
______________________________________
____________________________________________________. Introduction
______________________________________
___________________________________________________ 3
Reasons/problems
 ___________________________________________________ Body
___________________________________________________. 3
Solutions/suggestions
_____________________________________ Conclusion
_________________________ .
LEAVE A LINE
Thanking you,
LEAVE A LINE
Subscription[,]
Yours faithfully, Subscription
Deepa Gupta. Signature[Full name]

Letter of Apology and Explanation

1. Owing to illness, you are unable to keep an appointment to meet your friend the following Sunday.
Write a letter of apology and explanation.
Ram Raaj,
79, Fable street,
Ferozeshah Road,
Delhi, pincode.

25th August, 2024.

Dear Ishaan,
I have been looking forward to the appointment we fixed last month for a meeting at your residence
next Sunday. Sunday is the only day when we are free, and we can exchange our experiences of the
last two years.
Unfortunately, I have come down with the flu and have been advised to take complete bed rest for
the next ten days. This means I won't be able to keep our appointment.
Believe me, the loss is entirely mine. I was eager to seek your advice on the choice of a career after
leaving school. You know how vital it is for someone from a middle-class family like me.
Please accept my sincere apologies for any inconvenience this may cause you. I would greatly
appreciate it if we could schedule another appointment for a future Sunday when we can discuss
everything in detail.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Ram Raaj.

Application
2. Write an application to the Editor of the Hindustan Times, offering your services as a
correspondent.
Anuj Aggarwal,
76, 8th cross,
Krishna Nagar,
New Delhi. pincode.

14th October, 2024.

The Editor,
Hindustan Times,
Kasturba Gandhi Marg,
New Delhi. pincode.

Respected Sir,
Subject: Application for the Post of a Correspondent
With reference to your advertisement in the Metro Edition of The Hindustan Times dated 13th
October 2023, I wish to offer my services as a Correspondent for your esteemed paper.
I am a graduate of Delhi University with Honours in Political Science and possess six months of
experience as a local correspondent for a publication in the area. I am proficient in computer
operations and maintain a high standard of health.
I am seeking better job prospects as I aspire to build a successful career in Journalism. As a
Correspondent, I aim to contribute meaningfully to the national discourse and serve your
organization to the best of my ability. I am ready to travel to any part of the country as required.
I hope to hear from you regarding this application.

Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Anuj Aggarwal.

Letters of Complaint
3. You have noted that the local bus service has become very inefficient in recent weeks. Buses are
infrequent and sometimes three or four are going to the same place at the same time. On other
occasions, buses with empty seats fail to stop for you. Write a letter to the General Manager of the
Transport Corporation complaining about the service.
Ram,
2nd cross, 1st stage,
Fable Street,
Mumbai. pincode.

23rd September, 2024.

The General Manager,

Transport Corporation,
Bandra Street,
Mumbai. pincode.

Dear Sir,
Subject: Complaint Regarding Inefficient and Unreliable Local Bus Service.
I am writing to express my concerns about the recent decline in the efficiency and reliability of our
local bus service.
Over the past few weeks, buses have not been adhering to their schedules, with arrival times being
unpredictable. Additionally, the situation is exacerbated when multiple buses either arrive
simultaneously or fail to arrive altogether, causing significant inconvenience.
This irregularity in service has not only disrupted my daily routine but has also affected many other
commuters who rely on bus transportation for their daily needs. On several occasions, buses have
passed by without stopping due to being full, leaving passengers stranded.
I urge you to address these issues promptly and consider implementing measures to enhance the
punctuality and dependability of the bus service. Doing so would greatly benefit the community
and improve the overall efficiency of public transportation.
I look forward to your prompt response and resolution.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Ram Raaj.

Letter of Persuasion
4. Write a letter to the head of your District, Municipal or City Council asking for the provision of
more amenities to the young people of your area.
Ram,
2nd cross, 1st stage,
Fable Street,
Mumbai. pincode.

23rd September, 2024.

The Zonal Officer,

City Council Corporation,
Bandra Street,
Mumbai. pincode.
Dear sir,
I am writing to you as a resident to express my concern regarding the inadequate amenities available
for young people in our community. Many youths in this area lack access to safe and engaging
recreational spaces, which is essential for their physical and mental well-being. The current facilities
are either insufficient or poorly maintained, leaving them with few options for productive leisure
activities.
Firstly, the lack of recreational amenities contributes to increased boredom and can lead to a rise in
anti-social behaviour among the youth. Young people need spaces where they can engage in sports,
social activities, and personal development.
Secondly, the absence of organized programs limits their opportunities for skill-building and
teamwork, which are crucial for their growth.
Finally, without proper facilities, many young individuals may struggle to find constructive ways to
spend their time, making it challenging to foster a sense of community and belonging.
To address these issues, I propose the establishment of a multi-purpose sports complex that can host
various athletic activities, allowing young people to stay active and healthy. Additionally, creating a
youth centre with workshops, art programs, and social events would provide a structured
environment for development and connection. Lastly, investing in improved public parks with safe
playground equipment and open spaces for relaxation would surely enhance the quality of life for
our youth. I hope you will consider these suggestions seriously, as they will undoubtedly contribute
positively to our community.
I look forward to your response and the potential for positive change in our area.
Thanking You,
Yours faithfully,
Ram Raaj.

 Informal Letter
An informal letter is referred to a personal letter usually written to friends or family members. The
language used is mostly casual and it can also have an emotional undertone to it. Informal letters do
not follow any specific pattern or format. Usually informal letters are written to convey some
message, news, giving advice, congratulating the recipient, requesting information, asking
questions, etc.

Purpose of Writing Informal Letters:

• To express feelings and emotions.
• To stay connected with relatives and friends.
• To send invitations and to give thanks.
• To describe an event or incident.
Example
You were a part of an organising committee for an inter-school event which was very successful.
You and the other committee members were congratulated and praised at the school assembly by the
Principal. Write a letter to your grandmother telling her about the event and your feelings at being
recognised and praised in front of the school.

St. Thomas Boy’s Hostel,

Hubli.

20th April, 2024.

Dear Grandmother,
I am very excited and happy right now. Last week my school had organised an inter-school quiz
competition in which six schools had participated. An organising committee was formed by our
school principal. The committee’s function was to chalk out the programme and to look after the
participants and accompanying teachers coming from other schools. I was also selected a member
of that organising committee.
The event went off smoothly and guests were looked after properly. Timely distribution of snacks,
water and serving of lunch was all responsibility of members of organising committee which were
taken care of with minutest details.
Next day during morning assembly, the principal congratulated all the members of this organising
committee. The principal praised our efforts in front of the whole staff and students. It was a proud
moment for all of us. As I was also a part of it.
I was very happy as everyone appreciated our work. It was a great feeling to be recognised and
praised in front of the whole school and staff members. I wanted to share this proud moment with
you. I know you would also feel very proud of me and bless me for future.
Yours lovingly,
Mukesh Raaj.

 Notice writing
A notice is a short piece of information, return to exhibit or convey the information to the public in
huge, such as occasions, festivities, celebrations, competitions and events.

Format of notice
Catchy title [!] [Max 3, Min 2 words] [1m]
Event name [1line only] [1m]
Date [7 th May,2025] [1/2m]
Time [ 5pm-7pm/17:00-19:00] [1/2m]
Venue [smaller to bigger] [1m]
Target audience/Relevant details [50 words] [1m]

CATEONAT2
CAT- Catchy title
E- event name
ON- date
AT2- time, venue
Points to be noted.
Notice word must not be written
Box must not be drawn.
It must be written in the centre. [Centre alignment]
Catchy title or creative title. [1-3 words only].
It must have clear link to the event mentioned in the question
No Hindi or Kannada words to be used
It must have clear link to the question. Therefore source it from the question itself. [Event
name]
Prefix the school name to the event.
Date format. As per letter writing.
For example. Today is 8 th February, allow 15 days margin I,e..23rd February, 2025
Time. 9:00 AM to 12:00 noon
9:00-13:00 -Both analogue and digital timing is accepted.
Venue- smaller to bigger
Target audience/ Relevant details -The students.
On, from, at- These prepositions are optional.
The word ‘students’ must always begin with capital ‘S’
E-mail writing
Email: It is also known as electric mail, It is a method of exchanging digital messages through
Internet or other computer networks
Format of an Email:
To address[email] [1/2m]
Event name, [subject] [1/2m]
Greetings, salutation[1/2m]
Opening sentence [Introduction] [1/2m]
Body of an e-mail [main message] [1/2m]
Closing sentence [conclusion] [1/2m]
Subscription [name] [1/2m]
Salutation and leave Taking

 Summary Writing in comprehension{reading passage}

⮚ A summary serves as a concise overview of a more extensive work, offering readers a
comprehensive understanding in a condensed form.
⮚ Writers create summaries by extracting the main ideas from an article, essay, television
show, or film, condensing them into a brief paragraph. While providing sufficient detail for
comprehension, summaries also reflect the writer’s personal interpretation of the subject
matter.

How to Write a Summary of a Story:

Read the Story: Read the entire story attentively to understand its plot, characters, and
key events.
Identify Elements: Identify main characters, setting, and plot. Recognize the central
conflict and its resolution.
Focus on the Plot: Concentrate on the primary storyline, emphasizing significant
events that drive the narrative forward.
Keep it Concise: Omit unnecessary details and subplots, ensuring the summary remains
concise and to the point.
Use Your Own Words: Express events and details in your own words to showcase
comprehension without copying directly.
Check for Flow: Ensure logical flow from one point to another, creating a coherent
overview of the story.
Review and Revise: After writing, review the summary for accuracy and coherence.
Revise as needed for clarity.
Example:

In not more than 50 words, describe the tiger’s thoughts on how differently people
behave inside and outside the circus.
Ans: Rough Draft

The tiger thought that the

people were placid, fearless and

sturdy. He saw that they

were faint and cowards. The

hearted

tailor, the policemen fled at

his sight. Chaos and hopelessness

befell the townspeople. He thought

why humans who slaughtered each

other were afraid of him,

who killed only for hunger.

 TENSES
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1)Present Tense

(2)Past Tense

(3)Future Tense

They are further divided into:

(1)Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work

done on daily basis.

Example – She writes a letter.

Example – She does not write a letter.

Example – Does she write a letter?

Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2)Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time of speaking.

Example – she is writing a letter.

Example – She is not writing a letter.

Example – Is she writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

(3)Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has

just finished.

Example- She has written a letter.

Example – She has not written a letter.

Example- Has she written a letter?

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4)Present Perfect Continuous– This tense shows the action which started in

the past and is still continuing.

Example – She has been writing a letter.

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object

Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy

gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Simple Past

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of

time. Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a child.

Rule: Subject + V2

Eg She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + V2 + Object + (.)

She wrote a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn’t.write a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesDid + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

Past (before

now)

Past

Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect

Continuous

Simple Past

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesDid + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

e.g. I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)

She was not writing a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesWas/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesWas/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the

action that took place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesHad + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesHad + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued

up to some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)

She had been writing a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesHad + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesHad + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she not been writing a letter?

FUTURE TENSE

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of

speaking or writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Simple Future

This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after

saying or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’

is used with all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or

emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’

and 'shall' is used with others.

Tense

Past (before

now) Present (now) Future (After

now)

Simple Future Future

Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect

Continuous

In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and

normally ‘Will’ is used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will write a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will not write a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)

Will she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.

e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.

In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to

be continued till sometime in future.

We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or

around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will be writing a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will not be writing a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing +

Object + (?)

Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be

completed by a certain time in future.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time

in the future.

e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will have written a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will not have written a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she have written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object
+ (?)

Will she not have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will

continue for some time in future.

If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense.

Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense.

Continued time reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and

Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be

in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.

It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week’s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in

progress before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will have been writing a letter.

2. Negative SentencesSubject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+
(.)

She will not have been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she have been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative SentencesWill/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) +
Ing + Object +(?)

Will she not have been writing a letter?

 CONJUNCTIONS
Rules for joining the sentences without using ‘and’ but’ or ‘so’

I Reason since, as, because

1. The students disobeyed the teacher. He was annoyed The teacher was annoyed because the
students disobeyed him

2. It was dark outside. I did not go out Since it was dark outside, I did not go out
I did not go out because it was dark outside I did not go out as it was dark outside

Note ‘since’, ‘as’ and ‘because’ are all placed before the reasons

II Contrast Although, Though, Inspite of, Despite

‘In spite’ is always followed by ‘of’ and ‘despite’ is never followed by ‘of’. After ‘inspite of’ and
‘despite’, we use a noun, gerund (-ing form of a verb) or a pronoun

a. My grandfather is very old. He can run very fast.

• Although my Grandfather is very old, he can run very fast
• Though my Grandfather is very old, he can run very fast.
• Inspite of being very old, my Grandfather can run very fast
• Despite being old, my grandfather can run very fast

b. She is rich. she is not kind

• Inspite of being rich, she is not kind
• Despite being rich, she is not kind.
• Although she is rich she is not kind.
• Though she is rich, she is not kind

Note ‘inspite of’ and ‘Despite’ are not always followed by ‘being’ here since the verb in both the
sentences was a helping verb ‘is’ its gerund form is ‘being’. Hence the gerund form according to
the verb has to follow.

Condition if, unless, otherwise, or, lest

1. Work hard. You will fail
• If you do not work hard you will fail
• Unless you work hard you will fail
• Work hard otherwise you will fail
• Work hard or you will fail
• Work hard lest you should fail

• Work hard lest you may fail

2. Run fast. You will miss the bus

• If you do not run fast you will miss the bus
• Unless you run fast you will miss the bus
• Run fast otherwise you will miss the bus
• Run fast or you will miss the bus
• Run fast lest you should miss the bus
• Run fast List you may miss the bus
Note in the old explanation lest and should always go hand in hand but now even may can be used
with lest
Time clause when, as, as soon as before / after
1. He saw the police departing. He immediately got into his car
• When he saw the police departing he immediately got into his car
• He immediately got into his car as he saw the police departing
• As soon as he saw the police departing, he immediately got into his car
• He immediately got into his car after he saw the police departing

Note ‘while’ or ‘since’ could also be used here depending on the sentence or the situation.
1. He was going to school. He was caught in the rain While going to school, he was caught in
the rain
2. His father retired last year. He has been idle from that time Since his father retired last year,
he has been idle

When both the sentences are negative : Neither -nor

1. Mala is not in the classroom. Mala is not in the library Mala is neither in the classroom nor
in the library
2. Rita does not like tea. Rita does not like coffee Rita neither likes tea nor coffee

Adverb clause : who, whose, whom, which, why, when, where

1. I know the man. He is a doctor I know the man who is a doctor
2. This is my pen. It was lost This is my pen which was lost
3. It was midnight the trains collided then It was midnight when the trains collided
4. The book has been found. It was last yesterday The book which was lost yesterday has
been found
5. He settled in Nagpur. He was born there. He settled in Nagpur where he was born

Purpose : to
1. He went to Delhi. He wanted to meet his mother. He went to Delhi to meet his mother
2. He ordered a knife he wanted to murder his best friend He ordered a knife to murder his
best friend
3. He bought a pen. He wanted to give it to me He bought a pin to give me
4. She is very weak. She cannot understand a single word of the letter She is very weak to
understand a single word of the letter
5. It is expected. She will come tomorrow. She is expected to come tomorrow

By using noun or phrase in Apposition

1. My brother went to Shimla. Shimla is a beautiful hill station in Himachal. My brother went
to Shimla, a beautiful hill station in Himachal
2. Kapil dev was the best bowler. He was the captain of the Indian cricket team. Kapil Dev,
the captain of the Indian cricket team, was the best bbowler.
3. Harsh is a famous poet. He writes love poetry Harsh, a famous poet writes love poetry
4. Sunita stood first in the college. She is the daughter of a doctor Sunita, the daughter of a
doctor, stood first in the college.

By using Adjective

1. I came across a girl in the garden. She was beautiful I came across a beautiful girl in the
garden
2. They laughed at a small boy. He was hungry They laughed at a small hungry boy.
3. A girl entered the room. She was young A young girl entered the room.

By using adverbs or adverbial phrases

1. She went to parlour. She went frequently She went to parlour frequently
2. He was running. His speed was slow He was running slowly
3. She went to college. She was in a hurry She went to college hurriedly

Preposition before gerund or noun

1. He killed his enemy. He was justified in this He was justified in killing his enemy.
2. He won praise. He saved the life of the Prince He won praise for saving the life of the
Prince
3. I bought a new house. I paid huge amount for it I paid huge amount for buying a new house

To join two nouns or pronouns: as well as

1. Govind was invited for party. Milind was invited for party Govind as well as Milind was
invited for party
2. Ram came to see me Lakhan came to see me Ram as well as Lakhan came to see me

By using participle
A. present participle

1. She entered the mall. She was very happy Entering the mall she was very happy
2. I was hungry. I took my food. Being hungry, I took my food

B. Past participle
1. She was disappointed. She left her study Being disappointed, she left her study
2. She completed the letter. She posted it Having completed the letter, she posted it.

C. Perfect participle
1. I took food. I went to college Having taken food I went to college
2. He picked my pocket. He fled Having picked my pocket he fled

 Prepositions
A Preposition is a word which is placed before a noun (or a pronoun) to show
the relation in which the person or thing denoted by the Noun stands to
something else.
Examples:
• The book is on the table.
• The pen is in the pen–stand.
• The sky is above us.
• He came with us.
Prepositions of Time:
1. At:
At is used to indicate when something happens. We use at with clock times,
e.g. periods of the year, and periods of the day, festivals, etc. But we don’t
use at with ‘morning’, ‘evening’, ‘afternoon’, etc.
• The train left at 8 o’clock.
• She used to go to the temple at Dussehra and Diwali.
• He came here at the weekend.
• She married at the age of twenty.
• I called on my friend at night.
• We rested at noon/dawn/dusk.
2. In:
In is used to indicate the period of time in which something happens. We use
‘in’ with centuries, years, seasons, months, periods of the day ‘morning’,
‘evening’, ‘afternoon’: English literature flourished in the 16th century.
• She was born in 1990.
• They visited this place in summer.
• He called on me in the evening.
• The theft took place in the day-time.
• My father went to the U.S.A. in October.
• It all happend in three minutes/hours/days/years.
3. On:
On is used with days, dates, birthdays, anniversaries, etc.
• We went to see a movie on Tuesday.
• He was born on October 3,1980.
• We congratulated him on his birthday.
• We gave them a gift on their 20th marriage anniversary.
Note: We use ‘on’ with ‘morning’, ‘afternoon’, ‘evening’, etc. when they are
modified:
• They reached here on a hot afternoon.
• People did not come out of their houses on a night like this.
• We went for fishing on a pleasant morning.
4. During:
During may be used instead of ‘in’ with periods of the day, months, seasons,
years, decades and centuries to express the idea that something continues
throughout the whole of a specified period.
• During the war many people were killed.
• We work during the day and sleep during the night.
• We try to contact people during October.
• During the nineties many taxes were imposed.
• She used to ring up many times during the week.
• During the journey I came to respect her.
5. By:
By is used to indicate the latest time at which an action will be finished:
• He will finish this work by 5 o’clock.
• By that time, the moon was up.
• You must come to me by 8 a.m.
• Applications must be received by 10th May.
By can be used instead of during with almost the same.
• We took rest by day and travelled by night.
• By mid-afternoon, about 5,000 people had visited the exhibition.
6. For:
For is used with periods of time to indicate how long an action lasts. It is
generally used with the Perfect Tense but is also used with other tenses.
• They have lived here for five years.
• It rained continuously for twelve hours.
• We stayed there for fifteen days.
• They have been working for two hours.
• She will not be here for another three hours.
7. Since:
Since is used with a point of time in the past from which some action began
and it continues till the time of speaking. It is generally used with
the Perfect Tense:
• He has lived here since 1980.
• Everything has changed since the last summer.
• It has not rained since the end of June.
• He had been writing novels since he was thirty years old.
8. From:
From indicates the starting point of action in the past or future. It is always
used with ‘to’ or ‘till’:
• They lived here from 1980 till/until 1990.
• We worked from morning to/till evening.
• She lived with them from the age of twenty.
• He lives in his office from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
• She is interested in the period from 1950 to 1960.
9. Till/Until:
Till and Until are used to show something happening or done up to a
particular point in time and then stopping:
• He is expected to be here until/till the end of the week.
• I was employed by the company until 1980.
• You will have to wait until my return.
10. Before and After:
The preposition before and after are used to relate events to a particular
time. Before means earlier than and after means later than something.
• I get up before six.
• She returned before Monday.
• They came here after 8 o’clock.
• We went to Paris four years after our marriage.
Prepositions of Place:
1. At:
At is used to show the exact point, e.g. houses, stations, small villages and
towns:
• They lived at Gohana, a small town in Haryana.
• He was born at his village, Shalimar.
• The Prime Minister lives at 10 Downing Street.
• She works at the Town Hall.
• The plane landed at London airport.
• The train stopped at New Delhi Railway Station.
2. In:
In is generally used when the reference is not to any specific place or to the
names of large cities, countries, continents, etc.
• Many people in India live in villages.
• They used to live in Bengaluru.
• The Indians live in India.
• They lived in Europe for ten years.
3. On:
On is used to indicate a particular area of land or place where something is:
• He spent a few days on an island.
• He worked on a farm for some time.
• They built their house on a beautiful piece of land.
• There is a school on the outskirts of the city.
• The hotel stands on the banks of a river.
Prepositions of Direction:
1. From:
From is used with the starting point or point of departure from a place or the
point of origin:
• They came from China.
• We started from Chennai.
• The train from Kolkata has arrived.
• She comes from office at 6 p.m.
• He fell from the fifth floor of the hotel.
2. Off:
Off means from the surface of and also down from:
• He took the hat off the table.
• The boy fell off the tree/roof.
• The ball rolled off the floor.
• Keep off the grass.
• Take this packet off the shelf.
3. Out of: .
Out of means from the interior of something:
• He went out of the room.
• The bird flew out of the cage.
• She jumped out of the shelf.
• I saw him coming out of the library.

➣ Direction Towards:

1. For:
For is used to show direction only when the verb indicates the beginning of a
movement:
• She left for Japan early in the morning.
• We set off for New York
• They left for home late at night.
2. Against:
Against means to have contact or pressure:
• The child threw the ball against the wall.
• The crowd pressed against the door.
• He put the ladder against the wall.
• She stood, with her back against the wall.
• He hit his head against the branch.
3.To:
To is used for a destination or the end-point:
• He went from Delhi to Ambala.
• She is coming to India as a tourist.
• The train started from Kolkata and came to Delhi.
• He was on his way to the station.
4. Towards:
Towards is used to indicate the direction of something:
• They went towards the airport.
• He was speeding towards the town.
• The train was coming towards the station.
• I saw him hurrying towards me.
• He stood with his back towards me.
• She marked towards the river.
• He ran fowards the door.

Prepositions of Position:
1. Under:
Under is used to indicate a position that is below or beneath something. It
means vertically below:
• The dog was under the table.
• He looked under the bed.
• They took shelter under the trees.
• The water flows under the bridge.
2. Underneath:
Underneath has the same meaning as under. It means a position below
something.
• She found a lot of dust underneath the carpet.
• The coin rolled underneath the table.
• He hid the gun underneath the bed.
• He left the key underneath the mat.
‘ Underneath’ generally implies covered by something so that the object
covered is not seen.
3. Below and Beneath:
Below means in a position lower than something:
• They could see the village below them.
• The lake is 500 feet below the sea level.
• He had a wound below the left shoulder.
• You should write below this line.
Beneath also means a lower position than something:
• They found the body beneath a pile of grass.
• The boat sank beneath the waves.
Beneath has a sense of directly under something.
5. Over:
Over is used to indicate a position vertically above something or somebody or
partly or completely covering the surface of something.
• She hung the calendar over the fireplace.
• There were books all over the table.
• They held a large umbrella over her.
• There was a lamp (hanging) over the table.
6. Above:
Above is used to indicate a position higher than something:
• There were clouds above us.
• The water came above our knees.
• The pilot was flying above the clouds.
• The birds were flying high above the trees.
• We lived in the room above the shop.
Above has the sense of something being directly over something else.
Prepositions of Travel and Movement:
1. Across:
Across is used to indicate movement from one side of a space, area, the line
to the other side:
• I walked across the road.
• The cat ran across the lawn.
• They flew across the Pacific.
• He walked across the street.
2. Along:
Along is used to indicate movement from one end to or towards the other
end of something. The place is seen as a line:
• We walked along the street.
• She went along the corridor.
• He hurried along the path towards me.
3. Into:
Into is used to indicate movement inside a place seen as a volume. The
opposite of into is out of. It is used for entering a place, building, vehicle, etc:
• The boys came into the hall.
• She ran into the house.
• He got into a bus/a train/a plane/a car.
• The athletes marched into the stadium.
4. Onto:
Onto is used to indicate movement into a position on an object or surface:
• He climbed onto the roof.
• The cat jumped onto the table.
• A tree fell onto a car.
• He stepped out of the train onto the platform.
5. Through:
Through is used to indicate movement from one end of an opening or a
passage to the other. The place is seen as a volume.
• The train passed through a tunnel.
• The water flows through this pipe.
• They were riding through a forest.
• The ball went flying through the window.
6. Up and Down:
Up is used to indicate movement to a higher position and down to a lower
position.
• We climbed up the hill.
• The girl ran up the stairs.
• I set off up the road.
• She was walking down the street.
• She fell down the stairs.
• The stone rolled down the hill.
7. On/In/By (Travel):
We may use on, in, or by while using a public or private vehicle. On is used
when the vehicle is seen as a surface, in is used when it is seen as a volume.
By is used to indicate the means of travel.
• We travelled on the horseback/foot/a cycle/a bus/a plane.
• They travelled by bus/car/train/cycle/sea/plane/air.
• We travelled in a bus/a car/a train/a ship/a plane.
Between and Among:
Between is used with two persons or things. Among is used with more than
two people or things:
• Between you and me, she is very stupid.
• She divided the apples between the two children.
• C comes between B and D.
• Somesh sat between Mahesh and Ramesh.
• He lives in a house among the trees.
• She divided the money among her four sons.
• Satish works among the poor.
But if each individual person is mentioned, between is used even if there are
more than two:
• The money was divided up between Mohan, Sohan, and Rohan.
If the people are mentioned as a single group, among is used:
• I shared out the food among the family.
• The girl quickly disappeared among the crowd.
8. By and Beside:
By means close to someone or something. Beside means by the side of
someone or something. Both imply nearness:
• She was sitting by the door.
• There is glass just by your elbow.
• The telephone is by the window.
• She was sitting beside her mother.
• He always kept a dictionary beside him. Who is standing beside
Kumar?
  TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

Transformation of sentences means changing (or converting) the words or form of a sentence
without changing its meaning (or sense).

Types of Transformation

[I] Use ‘No sooner .... than’

[II] Use ‘Not only .... but also’
[III] Remove ‘If / Unless’
[IV] Remove ‘too’ [V] Use ‘Question tag’.
[VI] Interrogative to Assertive and vice versa
[VII] Exclamatory to Assertive and vice versa
[VIII] Affirmative to Negative and vice versa
[IX] Imperative to Assertive

I. USE ‘NO SOONER ….. THAN’

A sentence which shows two actions which immediately follow one another, can be written with
the use of ‘ no sooner….than’

eg. As soon as he sensed danger, he fled.

Ans. No sooner did he sense danger than he fled.

The structure of the sentence is as follows :

No sooner + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb +
other words (if any) + than + the rest of the sentence.

Note :

 If an auxiliary is present in the sentence, use the same.

eg. When he was presented with the trophy, he started crying. Ans. No sooner was he
presented with a trophy than he started crying.

eg. As soon as they had eaten , they went out for a stroll.
Ans. No sooner had they eaten than they went out for a stroll.

 If an auxiliary is not present in the sentence, use do / does/ did

(‘do / does’ for the present tense and ‘did’ for past tense) eg. As
soon as the sun rose , they left for the journey.
Ans. No sooner did the sun rise than they left for the journey.
eg. As soon as the bell rings , the children rush into their classrooms.
Ans. No sooner does the bell ring than the children rush into their classrooms.

EXERCISE :
1. She said her prayers and visualized the accomplishment of her goals.
2. I looked into the crowd and saw a man with a straight back and a rugged face.
3. She read Anne’s diary and was moved to write to Otto.
4. When the cousins appeared, we excitedly told them about Old Tom.
5. After we were frisked for guns or tranquilizer darts , we were led into the Sanjay Gandhi
National Park.

II. USE ‘NOT ONLY .... BUT ALSO’

When we are mentioning two things (either joined by ‘and’ or ‘as well as’ we can transform the
sentence using ‘not only….but also’.

e.g. She rinsed the popcorn bowls and took meat out of the freezer.
Ans. She not only rinsed the popcorn bowls but also took meat out of the freezer.

Note :

‘not only’ is used before the first of the two things mentioned and ‘but also’ in place of
‘and /as well as’.

1. When there are two nouns in the subject position.

eg. Radha and Seeta are intelligent.
Ans. Not only Radha but also Seeta is intelligent.

2. When there are two nouns in the object position.

eg. He ate an apple and drank a glass of milk.
Ans. He not only ate an apple but also drank a glass of milk.

3. When there are two actions.

eg. He grew silent and seemed to be pondering on the situation.
Ans. He not only grew silent but also seemed to be pondering on the situation.

4. When there are two adjectives.

eg. She had become very noisy and mischievous.
Ans. She had become not only very noisy but also mischievous.

EXERCISE :

1. Eagles and other large fish eating birds have been treated with respect.
2. The snake suddenly coiled up, raised its neck and viciously struck Dad’s arm. 3. The
banana helps in regulating blood pressure and lowers the risk of a stroke.
4. You can misuse your lungs as well as use them well.
5. He seated me in a comfortable chair and asked me what he could do for me.

III. REMOVE ‘IF / UNLESS’

1. If + not = unless
 If you water the plants they will not die.
Ans. Unless you water the plants, they will die.
2. If = unless + not
If you read, you will learn.
Ans. Unless you read you will not learn.
3. Only if = never + unless
Monkeys fight only if they are a hundred to one.
Ans. Monkeys never fight unless they are a hundred to one.

SOLVED EXAMPLES :

1. If you keep fingering it, you'll make your whole chin into one big spot.
Ans. Unless you keep fingering it, you'll not make your whole chin into one big spot.
2. If you are cold, do the same thing.
Ans. Unless you are cold, don't do the same thing.
3. If the temperature is too high, plants and animals will die.
Ans. Unless the temperature is too high, plants and animals will not die.
4. If you know the answer, you will win.
Ans. Unless you know the answer you will not win.
5. They will never work unless they are told. Ans. They will work only if they are told.

EXERCISE :

1. If traffic is controlled, accidents will not take place.

2. If you do not take your medicine you will not live.
3. Unless a woman is educated, her family does not benefit.
4. Unless there is quality control, the product will not sell.
5. If the rain fails, the crop will fail.
6. If you study you will pass.
7. Unless he fails, he will not die of shame.
8. If you do your homework, I will not punish you.

IV. REMOVE ‘TOO’

1. too = also/not only ..... but also/as well as/both ..... and .....
e.g.: He has a car and a motorcycle too.
He has a car as well as a motorcycle.
2. too = very/extremely
e.g.: It is too hot.
It is extremely hot.
3. too + adj + infinitive = so + adj + that + negation
e.g.: The words are too difficult to understand.
The words are so difficult that they cannot be understood.
4. too + adj + negation + infinitive = so + adj + that
e.g.: Her perfume is too strong to not be noticed.
Her perfume is so strong that it can be easily/surely/ definitely be noticed.

SOLVED EXAMPLES :
1. Otto was getting too old to write to her.
Ans. Otto was getting so old that he could not write to her.
2. She was too happy to care.
Ans. She was so happy that she did not care.
3. Raw mango is too sour.
Ans. Raw mango is very sour.
4. The saree is too long to not fit anyone.
Ans. The saree is so long that it can easily fit everyone.
5. The teacher was knowledgeable and interesting too.
Ans. The teacher was both knowledgeable and interesting.

EXERCISE :
1. I am too tired to go to school.
2. We are too thrilled to express it in words.
3. He is too proud.
4. The hoarding is too large to not be noticed.
5. I have opted for Hindi and French too.
6. Our portion is too vast to complete.
7. She was too frightened to run.
8. Chinese is too difficult to learn quickly.
9. It is too hot in Chennai.
10. The words are too difficult to sustain.

V. USE ‘QUESTION TAG’

A question tag comes after the statement and is written in the following manner:

Statement, auxiliary verb + subject pronoun + ?

Auxiliary verb - a helping verb in the sentence

Subject pronoun - a pronoun which agrees with the subject in number ( singular
or plural ) and person ( 1st, 2nd, 3rd )

The rules to form question tags are as follows : If the statement is

affirmative, the question tag is negative.
eg. Rakesh went to the market, didn’t he ?
 If the statement is negative, the question tag is affirmative. eg. The plants did not
survive, did they ?
 If the sentence contains an auxiliary verb, use the same to form a question tag.
eg. Your sister can teach music, can’t she ? (‘can’ is an auxiliary verb)Radha has attended
the dance classes, hasn’t she ?

 If the sentence does not contain an auxiliary verb, use do/does/did to form a question
tag.
eg. The little boy broke the window pane, didn’t he ?
You work very hard, don’t you ?
Hari has a huge house, doesn’t he ?
(The above sentences do not contain an auxiliary verb so we use do /does / did)

 If the verb in the sentence is a form of ‘to be’ (whether as the main verb or auxiliary)
use the same verb as an auxiliary to form the question tag.
eg. The room is very spacious, isn’t it ? (‘is’ is the only verb)
The children were playing in the rain, weren’t they ? (‘were’ is the auxiliary verb)

 Imperative Sentences :
eg. If it is an order the question tag is ‘will you?’ If it is a
request the question tag is ‘ won’t you?’

 Some peculiar types :

eg. I am angry, aren’t I?
Let’s go to the beach, shall we?
There were many people on the road, weren’t there ?
Everybody has learnt the lesson, haven’t they ?

SOLVED EXAMPLES :

1. You like him, don’t you?

2. It isn’t ready yet, is it?
3. They will go home soon, won’t they?
4. He will never give up, will he?
5. You have tea for breakfast, don’t you?
6. But they had no money, did they?
7. Give and receive, won’t you?
8. The house is quiet, isn’t it?
9. I am of course day dreaming, aren’t I?
10. We should respect our elders, shouldn’t we?

EXERCISE : (Add A Question Tag)

1. Yet his voice was pleasant.

2. I believe in constantly raising the bar for myself.
3. Mom and I broke down.
4. We cannot encourage communalism.
5. We have hard work ahead.
6. Stop being stupid.
7. I’d gone to see Knowles.
8. We had reached the crossroad.
9. I’ll never worry about sports again.
10. I have done nothing for her.
11. No wall is too high for us.
12. Nearly everyone enjoys watching birds.
Meanining Punctuation Formation

Exclamator Expressing strongends in (!) What + a / an + adjective

y feelings subject + verb ! OR
+
How + adjective + subject + verb
!
Assertiv Declaring, statingends in an (.) Subject + verb + ..........
e .
Interogativ Question ends in an (?)‘Wh’ word + auxiliary verb +
e subject + main verb ....... ?
OR
Auxiliary verb + subject + main
verb ....... ?

Imperativ ends in an (.) Verb + ...... .

Command, request
e or advice The subject ‘you’ is hidden.

VI. INTERCHANGING INTERROGATIVE TO ASSERTIVE SENTENCES AND VICE. VERSA

Interrogative to Assertive

Real Questions : (answers are expected)

While changing these questions to assertive use one of the following :
I want to know. / I would like to know. / I wonder. eg. What is your
name?
I would like to know your name. eg. Do you think
India will win the game? I wonder if India will win the game.

Rhetorical Questions : (answers are not expected)

While changing these questions to assertive, change from affirmative to negative :
eg. Do you expect to pass without studying?
You cannot expect to pass without studying.
eg. Is this the way to behave?
This is not the way to behave.

Assertive to Interrogative

Assertive sentences : Subject + verb + ....... .

Interrogative : ‘Wh’ word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb ....... ? OR
Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb ....... ?
While changing from assertive to interrogative, use the question tag in the begining.
eg. They are very generous.
Aren’t they very generous? eg. Sam went
home early today.
Didn’t Sam go home early today ?

SOLVED EXAMPLES :
Change the Interrogative sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. How did she hide from the Nazis?
Ans. I don’t know how she hid from the Nazis.
2. Would he answer me?
Ans. I wonder if he would answer me.
3. Many of these millions have succeeded.
Ans. Haven’t many of these millions succeeded?
4. She went to the kitchen.
Ans. Didn’t she go to the kitchen?
5. Maggu’s achievements are particularly noteworthy.
Ans. Aren’t Maggu’s achievements particularly noteworthy?

EXERCISE :
Change the Interrogative sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. What made Cowboy a success?
2. Could I ever talk to him of Anne?
3. Were we not sent by Anne to keep her father company?
4. It is a fateful moment for us.
5. We think of our brothers and sisters.

VII. INTERCHANGING EXCLAMATORY TO ASSERTIVE SENTENCES AND VICE

VERSA.
Exclamatory Sentences Assertive Sentences

• Expressing strong • Declaring, stating

feelings • An assertive sentence
• An exclamatory sentence ends in an (.) Sentence
ends in (!) Sentence formation formation :
: Subject + verb + .......... .
What + a / an + adjective +
subject + verb !
OR
How + adjective + subject + verb e.g.: It is a very beautiful house.
! e.g.: The house is very beautiful.
e.g.: I wish I had studied.
e.g.: What a beautiful house it is !
e.g.: How beautiful the house is ! Add words like very,
e.g.: If only I had studied ! extremely, certainly
 Remove the words like very, Remove (!) and add (.)
extremely add ‘what, how’

Remove (.) and add (!)

SOLVED EXAMPLES :
Change the Exclamatory sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. Some are afraid to make friends.
Ans. How afraid some are to make friends!
2. He was pleased with the results.
Ans. How pleased he was with the results!
3. What a piece of art it is!
Ans. It is wonderful piece of art.
4. If only I were young again! Ans. I wish I were young again.
5. How you have grown!
Ans. You have really grown.

EXERCISE :
Change the Exclamatory sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. It is a horrible sight.
2. He leads a most unhappy life.
3. How stupid of me to forget your name!
4. I wish I had studied for the examination.
5. He was indeed amazing.

VIII. INTERCHANGING AFFIRMATIVE TO NEGATIVE SENTENCES AND

VICE VERSA.
EXERCISE :
Change the affirmative sentences to negative sentences and vice versa.
1. Vassa lost interest in everything in life.
2. The correspondence continued.
3. Shivaji was the best king that ever ruled over Maharashtra.
4. He is sometimes sad.
5. Dad would stand close by.
6. The king sent word to the prince not to waste gold on getting him back.
7. Only a rich man can afford such luxury.
8. He had no passport, no money and was not allowed to move out.
9. It is the only thing that can save the city.
10. Nobody was absent.

IX. INTERCHANGING IMPERATIVE TO ASSERTIVE SENTENCES AND

VICE VERSA.

Imperative to Assertive

Imperative sentences : Verb + ....... .

(The subject is ‘you’ and it is hidden)

Assertive : Subject + verb + ....... .

eg. Avoid eating junk food.

Ans. You should avoid eating junk food.
Note : use a modal auxiliary according to the context of the sentence. ( suggestion - should,
compulsion - must )
SOLVED EXAMPLES :
Change the Imperative sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. Don’t lose your calm if your friends’s opinions differ from yours.
Ans. You should not /There is no need to lose your calm if your friend’s opinions differ from
yours.
2. Tell your friends what you like about them.
Ans. You should tell your friends what you like about them.
3. Never put money and important documents in your checked-in luggage.
Ans. You should never put money and important documents in your checkedin luggage.
4. Mau the star never set.
Ans. I wish / hope the star never sets.
5. Allow your friends to be themselves.
Ans. You should not let yourself be used by your friends.

EXERCISE :
Change the Imperative sentence to Assertive and vice versa.
1. Accept your friends as they are.
2. To test your out capacity, take a deep breath and open the mouth wide.
3. No hiding my chin today.
4. Don’t keep fingering the sopt on your face.
5. Keep bags in between, rather than besides your feet.
6. Get a thorough medical check-up before you set out on a long trip.
7. Open schools and monasteries for the people.
8. Allow your friends to be themselves.
9. Don’t speak what should not be shared.
10. Don’t let yourself be used by your friends.

MIS. EXERCISE :
1. But they had no money. (Make
Affirmative)
2. How to nourish friendship? (Make Assertive)
3. My lack of vision is my strength. (Add Question
Tag)
4. He always answered. (Make Negative)
5. His voice was pleasant. (Make
Exclamatory)
6. What a beautiful piece ! (Make Assertive)
7. Academic institutions in India are less than sold on the idea of inclusive
education. (Make Negative)
8. Mom's condition took a turn for the worse. My performance is also taking a turn for the
worse. (Use Not only… but also)
9. What a feeling! (Make Assertive)
10. This one was probably for his mom. (Make Negative)
11. 11. I'm trying to help. (Add Question tag)
12.If I don't thank an Indian and die, I will never attain peace after death.(Use Unless)
13. We have often been unworthy followers of his. (Make Interrogative)
14. Isn't there a court order against this? (Make Assertive)

15. They shared their clothes and toys. (Use Not only…but
also)
16. As soon as she got home, Keryn hurried to her. (Use No
sooner…..than)