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Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) Definition

When a car with an electric motor receives the energy it needs from a battery pack, it is considered an all-electric vehicle.

This vehicle requires recharging stations that correspond with how far it can travel on a charge. If the electric motor is fed

by the battery and a thermal engine, it is considered to be a hybrid vehicle.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES.

At least two energy converters, such as internal combustion engines (ICE), electric motors, hydraulic drives, etc., are

combined in a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). The ultimate aim of the HEV is to have the same power, range and

protection as a traditional vehicle while reducing fuel consumption and harmful emissions that are harmful for health

(Sanghvi and Gordon, 2021). Hybrid vehicles have the ability, including the following, to realize many benefits:

1. Higher efficiency of the electric machine: The electric machine is a simpler and more powerful machine
compared

with the ICE. For example, an electrical machine's moving parts consist primarily of the armature (DC motor) or

rotor (AC motor) and bearings.

2. Regenerative braking: A regenerative brake is an energy system that decreases the speed of a vehicle by

transforming some of its kinetic energy into a future storable type of energy, rather than dissipating it as heat as

with a conventional brake.

3. Improved torque characteristics: Electric machines are more suitable for automotive applications, with low-

speed high torque and lower cruising speed torque.

4. Reduced emissions - through smoothing and idle removal of transients.

5. For selected setups, optimum engine operation - run the engine in its 'sweet spot', staying close to its best output

hand.

6. Engine downsizing could be necessary in order to cope with average load (not peak load) and thereby reduce the

weight of the engine and powertrain.

7. It is possible to shut the engine off, thus reducing fuel consumption, pollution and NVH.
8. Accessory electrification enables the operation of parasitic loads on the necessary basis.
HEV drawbacks, however, include:

1. Powertrain and electronic complexity increased

2. Increased mass of the vehicle due to additional components

3. Increased cost due to extra components and power management difficulty

4. Overall system reliability can be lower due to increased complexity

5. If not optimized for the appropriate drive cycle, benefits may not be fully realized.

In order to comply with various applications, a variety of different device architectures are considered. They are generally

categorized as split sequence, parallel, and strength. Device design selection depends primarily on the program. The car

manufacturing organization is obliged to reduce the intensity of adverse effects on nature, as well as to increase the level

of safety of its products, such as cars (Tengiz, 2020b) (Tengiz, 2020a). Besides, due to the complexity of many car

manufacturing companies structures,a mathematical modeling becomes necessary in order to simplify reality using

models, thereby increasing the ability of car producers to make the right decisions.(Magradze, 2020a) (Magradze, 2020b).

How Hybrids Work

Most hybrids use several advanced technologies:

 Braking Regenerative. During coasting or braking, regenerative braking restores energy normally lost. It uses the

wheels' forward motion to spin the engine. This provides energy which makes the car slow down.

 Drive/Assist Electric Motor. In order to help the engine accelerate, move, or hill climb, the electric motor provides

power. This enables the use of a smaller, more-efficient engine. The electric motor alone propels the vehicle in

some hybrids at low speeds, where gasoline engines are the least powerful.

 Stop/Start Automatic. When the car comes to a halt, the engine automatically shuts off and restarts when the

accelerator is pressed. It minimizes wasted energy from idling.

Figure 1. Functionality of Hybrid cars

Classification:
HEV can historically be categorized into three types: HEV series, HEV parallel, and HEV combination.

2.1.1. Configuration of Series HEV.

We can see from Figure 1 that the HEV series consists of the ICE, generator, power converter, motor, and battery. There

is no mechanical connection between the ICE and the transmission, so the ICE will work at the maximum efficient point

by controlling the output power of the battery to fulfill the vehicle's required power. However, the power from the ICE is

transferred via the generator and the engine, so much more energy is lost. Because the engine is the final and sole drive

unit, the engine must be sufficiently large to meet the vehicle's output, so the regenerative braking power can almost be

stored by the engine in the battery. (Butler, Ehsani and Kamath, 1999)

Figure 2. Configuration of Series HEV.

In the HEV series, when it has to be recharged, an electric motor, coupled to an ICE, supplies electricity to the electric

machine to drive the vehicle and to the energy storage system. One of the main benefits of the series is that the speeds of

the engine and car are decoupled. As a result, the engine will run at its peak, substantially reducing the consumption of

fuel. However, because the electrical machine is the only one connected to the wheels and the engine/generator set is sized

for sustained grade power, this design includes a large pack of energy storage device, electrical machine and engine,

adding inefficiencies and weight.

Configuration of Parallel HEV.

We can see from Figure 2 that the parallel HEV allows both the electric motor and ICE to deliver power to drive the

vehicle in parallel, i.e. the ICE and motor can drive, respectively, or together. There is a mechanical relation between the

ICE and the transmission, unlike the HEV series, and therefore the rotational speed of the ICE depends on the driving

cycle, so that the ICE can run on the optimum running line by controlling the battery output power. (Tei et al., 2003)

Figure 3. Configuration of parallel HEV.

Both the electric vehicle and the engine have mechanical connections to the wheels of parallel hybrids. Since both the

electric machine and the engine are directly connected to the wheels, the power can be shared during accelerations.

Compared to series hybrids, it is also possible to downsize both the engine and the electric motor. Since the ICE speed is

linked to the vehicle speed, the ICE can operate close to its best efficiency curve only under certain conditions. However,

since both mechanical and electrical energies can be used to directly propel the vehicle, the powertrain efficiency is

increased compared to series configuration during most operating conditions.

2.1.3. Configuration of Combination HEV.
From Figure 3, we can see that the HEV combination combines the features of both series and parallel HEV, adding an

additional mechanical link between ICE and transmission compared to the hybrid series, and also adding an additional

generator compared to the parallel hybrid between ICE and power converter. Although structural complexity contributes

to more costly production.

Figure 3. Configuration of Combination HEV.

To build an incredibly successful method, the HEV mix blends the best elements of both series and parallel hybrids. This

system splits the power of the engine into two routes: one goes to the generator to generate electricity and one goes to

drive the wheels via a mechanical gear system. In general, the series path is avoided as it is less efficient. The key

additional characteristic is that the speeds of the engine, generator and motor are decoupled, allowing additional power

independence. A HEV combination system (transmission), two electrical machines and an enginemake up the most

common configuration, called an input split. Several variants of the HEV combination have been added, each offering

various benefits:

o The first electric machine is used to regulate the engine speed in a single HEV combination hybrid mode, while

the second one provides the remaining power needed to track the vehicle track.

o A two mode power system is composed of a compound mode, in addition to the input mode. In this case, the size

of the electric machine can be reduced as each motor is used to control the engine speed in various conditions. In
 addition to minimizing the electric machine power requirements, the system performance can be further increased

by reducing the energy recirculation by the use of the fixed gears.

2.2. Main Issues of HEV.

For the following purposes, the HEV can save fuel compared to traditional vehicles.

1. The HEV may store part of the kinetic energy of the vehicle in the battery during braking or downslope, where the heat

of the conventional vehicle is otherwise incinerated in the brake drums.

2. Without compromising the efficiency of the vehicle, the ICE in the HEV can be configured to have a smaller

displacement.

3. By controlling the output power of the battery to satisfy the necessary power of the vehicle, the HEV m ay make ICE

work at the maximum efficiency point or optimum operating line.

4. HEV is a multi-energy system; the key challenge for HEV is how to maximize the flow of energy to achieve the best fuel

economy or low emissions at lower costs, also referred to as the problem of energy management (EM). The problem will

be addressed in depth in the next segment.