BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

Edited by
Draženko Macanović

TAP
Toronto Academic Press
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Editor: Draženko Macanović

Toronto Academic Press

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© 2025
ISBN: 978-1-77956-724-6 (e-book)

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ABOUT THE EDITOR

Draženko Macanović is an accomplished Automation Engineer with

extensive experience in power systems and networks. Born on July
18, 1992, in Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Draženko pursued
his education at the University of Banja Luka, where he earned his
degree in Electrical Engineering, focusing on power engineering. He
later completed his master’s degree at the University of Belgrade,
specializing in the analysis of weakly meshed LV distribution
networks with power electronic devices. In his professional career,
Draženko has held significant roles, beginning as an associate in
engineering and construction, where he oversaw the reconstruction
of medium and low voltage distribution grids. He later advanced to
an automation engineer role, where he worked on various critical
projects, including the integration of Smart City concepts and the
implementation of SCADA/PLC & HMI systems. Fluent in English with
basic knowledge of the German language, Draženko is known for his
strong communication skills, teamwork, and technical expertise. He is
proficient in a variety of software tools and programming languages,
including MS Office, Matlab, AutoCAD, Ladder programming, and
C, making him a versatile engineer in the field of automation and
electrical engineering. Outside of work, he enjoys maintaining a
healthy lifestyle, often spending his free time at the gym or running
in nature.
 Table of Contents

List of Figures xi
List of Tables xix
Preface xxi

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF Review Questions 29

References 30
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 1
2 RESISTIVE NETWORK
Introduction 2
ANALYSIS 31
1.1. Electric Circuit 3
1.1.1. Types of Electric Circuits 3 Introduction 32
1.1.2. Domestic Electric Circuit 5 2.1. Series Circuit 33
1.1.3. Electric Circuit Symbols 5 2.1.1. Current in a Series Circuit 34
1.1.4. Simple Circuit 6 2.1.2. How to Calculate Total
1.1.5. Electric Circuit Formulassss 7 Resistance in a Series Circuit 36
1.2. Circuit Elements and Sources 8 2.1.3. How to Calculate Voltage Drop
in a Series Circuit 36
1.2.1. Current 8
2.1.4. Applications of Series Circuit 37
1.2.2. Voltage or Potential Difference 9
2.2. Parallel Circuits 38
1.2.3. Circuit Loads 10
2.2.1. Key Principles of Parallel Circuit 38
1.2.4. Sign Convention 11
2.2.2. Working of Parallel Circuit 38
1.2.5. Passive Circuit Elements 12
2.2.3. Characteristics of Parallel Circuits 39
1.2.6. DC Sources 15
2.2.4. Advantages of Parallel Circuits 39
1.2.7. Power 18
2.2.5. Disadvantages of Parallel Circuits 40
1.2.8. Energy 19
2.2.6. Applications of Parallel Circuits 40
1.3. CIRCUIT THEOREMS 20
2.2.7. Difference Between Series and
1.3.1. Kirchoff’s Laws 20
Parallel Circuit 41
1.3.2. Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) 22
2.3. Resistors in Parallel 42
1.3.3. Electric Circuits Analysis 23
2.4. Voltage in a Parallel Circuit 45
1.3.4. Superposition Theorem 24
2.5. Kirchhoff’s Current Law 47
1.3.5. Thevenin’s Theorem 25
2.6. Total Parallel Resistance 51
1.3.6. Norton’s Theorem 26
2.6.1. Formula for Total Parallel
Summary 29 Resistance 51
 2.6.2. Calculator Tip 53 3.1.2. Series AC Circuits 92
2.6.3. The Case of Two Resistors in 3.1.3. Parallel AC Circuits 93
Parallel 53 3.2. Network Theorems 95
2.6.4. The Case of Equal-Value 3.3. Single-Phase AC Circuit 100
Resistors in Parallel 54
3.4. Resonance Circuit 103
2.6.5. Determining an Unknown Parallel
Resistor 55 3.4.1. Key Components in Resonance 103

2.6.6. Notation for Parallel Resistors 55 3.4.2. Effect of Resonance 104

2.7. Current Sources in Parallel 56 3.4.3. Characteristics of Resonance 104

2.8. Current Dividers 57 3.4.4. Types of Resonance 104

2.8.1. Current-Divider Formula 58 3.4.5. Application of Resonance 109

2.9. Power in Parallel Circuits 61 Summary 114

2.10. Parallel Circuit Applications 62 Review Questions 114

2.10.1. Automotive 62 References 115

2.10.2. Residential 63 4 AC POWER –

2.10.3. Control Circuits 63
GENERATION AND
2.10.4. Analog Ammeters 63
2.11. Troubleshooting 66
DISTRIBUTION 117
2.11.1. Open Branches 66
Introduction 118
2.11.2. Finding an Open Branch by
4.1. Three-Phase System 119
Current Measurement 68
4.1.1. Three-Phase Winding Connections 119
2.11.3. Finding an Open Branch by
Resistance Measurement 68 4.1.2. Factors Affecting Choice of
Connection 126
2.11.4. Shorted Branches 69
4.1.3. Pros and Cons of Transformer
2.12. Node Voltage Method 70
Connections 126
2.12.1. Node Voltage Method Steps 70
4.2. Power in AC Circuits 127
2.12.2. Verification of the Node Voltage
4.2.1. Active, Reactive, Apparent, and
Method Using SPICE 73
Complex Power in Sinusoidal
2.12.3. The Node Voltage Method Steady-State 127
Applied to an Unbalanced Wheatstone
4.2.2. Power Factor 129
Bridge 74
4.2.3. Reactive Power 130
2.13. Mesh Current Method 76
4.2.4. Unbalanced Sinusoidal Polyphase
2.13.1. How to Use the Mesh Current
Systems 131
Method 76
4.2.5. Multiple Frequency Systems 132
2.13.2. Advantages of Mesh Current vs.
Branch Current Methods 81 4.3. Three-Phase Power and Its
Measurement 133
Summary 86
4.3.1. Three Wattmeter Method 133
Review Questions 87
4.3.2. One Wattmeter Method 134
References 87
4.3.3. Two Wattmeter Method 134
3 AC NETWORK 4.3.4. Variation in Wattmeter
ANALYSIS 89 Reading (on Lagging PF) 135
4.3.5. Effect of Leading PF on Wattmeter
Introduction 90 Readings 136

3.1. AC Fundamentals 91 4.4. Balanced and Unbalanced Load 137

3.1.1. Passive Components in AC Circuits 91

 4.4.1. Analysis of Balanced 5.4.1. The Basics – Parallel and Series
Three Phase Circuit 137 Connection 176
4.4.2. Analysis of Unbalanced 5.4.2. The Current Measurement 177
Three Phase Circuit 138 5.4.3. The Voltage Measurement 178
4.5. Electrical Power System 140 5.4.4. Measurement of Resistance 178
4.5.1. Structure of Power System 140 5.4.5. Measure Electrical Power 182
4.5.2. Generation of Electrical Power 141 Summary 188
4.5.3. Transmission of Electrical Power 142 Review Questions 188
4.6. Residential Wiring 145 References 189
4.6.1. Color Coding Wires 145
4.7. Circuit Protective Devices 6 MAGNETISM,
and Safety Precautions 146 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS,
4.7.1. Nature of Protection Devices 146
AND ELECTROME-
4.7.2. Importance of Protection Devices 149
4.7.3. Use of Protective Equipment 149
CHANICAL ENERGY
4.7.4. General Protective Equipment and CONVERSION 191
Tools 149
4.7.5. Alerting Techniques 150 Introduction 192

Summary 153 6.1. Basic Concept of Magnetism 193

Review Questions 154 6.1.1. Origins of Magnetism 193

References 154 6.1.2. Magnetic Domains 194

6.1.3. Domain Structure 195
5 ELECTRONIC 6.1.4. Magnetic Field and Its Properties 196
INSTRUMENTATION 6.1.5. Description of Magnetic
AND MEASUREMENT 157 Field Lines 197
6.1.6. How Is the Magnetic
Field Produced? 199
Introduction 158
6.1.7. Operating the Magnetic Field 200
5.1. Conceptsof Measurement in
Electronics 159 6.2. Magnetic Materials 201
5.1.1. Measurement Theory 159 6.2.1. Types of Magnetic Materials 201
5.1.2. Types of Measurement Errors 160 6.2.2. Paramagnetic Materials 202
5.1.3. Electrical Measuring Instruments 163 6.2.3. Diamagnetic Materials 203
5.1.4. Main Electrical Measuring 6.2.4. Ferromagnetic Materials 203
Instruments 164 6.2.5. Ferrimagnetic Materials 204
5.2. Static and Dynamic 6.2.6. Antiferromagnetic Materials 205
Characteristics of Electrical Measuring
6.3. Magnetic Circuits and
Instruments 167
Electromechanical Energy Conversion 209
5.2.1. Static Characteristics of Electrical
6.3.1. Electromechanical Energy
Measuring Instruments 167
Conversion Principles 210
5.2.2. Dynamic Characteristics of
6.3.2. Magnetic Leakage and Fringing 211
Electrical Measuring Instruments 171
6.3.3. Magnetic Circuit – Series and
5.3. Units of Electrical Measurement 173
Parallel Magnetic Circuit 212
5.3.1. Multiples and Sub-Multiples 174
6.3.4. Attractive Force of
5.4. Measurement of Voltage, Current, Electromagnets 214
Resistance and Power 176
 6.3.5. Principles of Electromechanical
Energy Conversion 215
8 DC MACHINES 255
Summary 219
Introduction 256
Review Questions 219
8.1. Electromechanical Energy Conversion 257
References 220
8.1.1. Induced EMF 257
7 TRANSFORMER 221 8.1.2. Electromagnetic Force 258
8.1.3. Back EMF and Counter Torque 258
Introduction 222 8.2. DC Machines 259
7.1. Overview of Transformer 223 8.2.1. Construction of a DC Machine 259
7.1.1. Components of Electric 8.2.2. Armature Voltage 264
Transformers 223
8.2.3. Electromagnetic Torque 265
7.1.2. Working Principle of Transformer 227
8.2.4. Classification of DC Machines 267
7.1.3. Advantage and Disadvantage of
Electric Transformer 227 8.3. Types of DC Machines 269

7.2. Types of Transformers 230 8.3.1. DC Motor 269

7.2.1. Types of Transformers Based 8.3.2. DC Generator 270

on Voltage Levels 230 8.4. Losses IN DC Machines 271
7.2.2. Types of Transformers Based 8.4.1. Copper Losses 271
on the Core Medium Used 231 8.4.2. Iron Losses 271
7.2.3. Types of Transformers Based on 8.4.3. Hysteresis Loss 271
Winding Arrangement 232
8.4.4. Eddy Current Loss 272
7.2.4. Transformers Based on Usage 233
8.4.5. Mechanical Losses 272
7.2.5. Transformers Based on Phase 235
8.4.6. Constant and Variable Losses 272
7.3. Applications of Transformers 237
8.5. DC Machine Advantages 273
7.4. EMF Equation of Ideal Transformer 241
8.6. Applications of DC Machines 273
7.5. Transformer Testing 243
8.6.1. Applications of DC Generators 273
7.5.1. Type Test of Transformer 243
8.6.2. Applications of DC Motors 274
7.5.2. Routine Tests of Transformer 243
Summary 277
7.5.3. Special Tests of Transformer 243
Review Questions 278
7.5.4. Transformer Winding Resistance
Measurement 244 References 278

7.5.5. Transformer Ratio Test 244 9 THREE PHASE

7.5.6. Magnetic Balance Test of
Transformer 245
INDUCTION MOTORS 279
7.5.7. Magnetizing Current Test of
Introduction 280
Transformer 245
9.1. Overview of Three Phase
7.5.8. Vector Group Test of Transformer 246
Induction Motor 281
7.5.9. Insulation Resistance Test or
9.1.1. History 281
Megger Test of Transformer 246
9.1.2. Faraday’s Law of Induction Motor 282
7.5.10. Dielectric Tests of Transformer 247
9.1.3. Construction of Three Phase
7.5.11. Temperature Rise Test of
Induction Motor 283
Transformer 247
9.1.4. Types of Three Phase Induction
Summary 251
Motor 285
Review Questions 251
9.1.5. Working Principle of a
References 252 Three-Phase Induction Motor 285
 9.1.6. Advantages of Three Phase 10.1.1. Principle of Operation 316
Induction Motor 286 10.1.2. Classifications 316
9.1.7. Disadvantages of Three Phase 10.1.3. Specific Applications 318
Induction Motor 287
10.2. Alternator Voltage Regulation 320
9.2. Single Phase Induction Motors 288
10.3. Alternator on Load 324
9.2.1. Single Coil of a Single Phase Motor 288
10.3.1. Effect of Load on Alternator 324
9.2.2. Permanent-Split Capacitor Motor 289
10.3.2. Phasor Diagrams of
9.2.3. Capacitor-Start Induction Motor 290 Alternator on Load 326
9.2.4. Capacitor-Run Motor Induction 10.4. Synchronous Motor 329
Motor 290
10.4.1. Types of Synchronous Motor 330
9.2.5. Resistance Split-Phase Motor
Induction Motor 291 10.4.2. Control Techniques 332

9.2.6. Nola Power Factor Corrector 291 10.4.3. Synchronous Speed 333

9.3. Special Machines 293 10.4.4. Construction 334

9.3.1. Permanent Magnet Synchronous 10.4.5. Operation 334

Motors (PMSM) 293 10.4.6. Starting Methods 335
9.3.2. Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) 296 10.5. Armature 336
9.3.3. Stepper Motor 296 10.5.1. Armature Winding 336
9.3.4. PMBLDC Motor 305 10.5.2. Armature Reaction in an
Summary 311 Alternator or Synchronous Generator 338

Review Questions 312 10.5.3. Advantages of Stationary

Armature–Rotating Field Alternator 340
References 312
Summary 348
10 ALTERNATOR AND Review Questions 348
SYNCHRONOUS References 349

MOTOR 313 INDEX 351

Introduction 314
10.1. Alternator 315
List of Figures

Figure 1.1. The diagram of the electric circuit

Figure 1.2. An open circuit
Figure 1.3. A closed circuit
Figure 1.4. A short circuit
Figure 1.5. A series circuit
Figure 1.6. A parallel circuit
Figure 1.7. Electric circuit symbols
Figure 1.8. A simple circuit
Figure 1.9. An ammeter is connected in series to measure current, I, through the element, R
Figure 1.10. A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit element, R to measure
the voltage across it
Figure 1.11. The potential difference across R2 is 0 V, hence the current I is 0 A where Vs
and Is are the voltage and current sources respectively
Figure 1.12. Effect of reversing the voltage polarity on current direction
Figure 1.13. V−I relationship for a resistor according to Ohm’s law
Figure 1.14. Short circuit and open circuit resistance characteristics
Figure 1.15. In the circuit diagram determine the current
Figure 1.16. An ideal inductor can be replaced by a short circuit when the supply voltage
is DC
Figure 1.17. Schematic and characteristics of an ideal voltage source
Figure 1.18. Characteristics and model of a practical voltage source
Figure 1.19. No load and full load voltages specified on a V−I characteristic plot of a
practical voltage source
Figure 1.20. Ideal and non-ideal current sources
Figure 1.21. An electric network showing nodes, branches, elements and loops
Figure 1.22. Circuit diagrams to demonstrate the application of KVL in the above example
Figure 1.23. Series combination of two resistors
Figure 1.24. Parallel connection of resistors
Figure 1.25. An electric circuit containing multiple sources
Figure 1.26. Application of superposition theorem to figure 1.25
Figure 1.27. Illustration of Thevenin’s theorem
Figure 2.1. Distinction between loop and mesh illustrated
Figure 2.2. DC series circuit
Figure 2.3. Series circuit with a battery and three resistors
Figure 2.4. Series circuit with a battery and a single resistor
Figure 2.5. Current in a series circuit with a battery and three resistors
Figure 2.6. Circuit showing total equivalent resistance of series resistors
Figure 2.7. Calculated current for the series circuit
Figure 2.8. Parallel circuits
Figure 2.9. Resistors in parallel
Figure 2.10. Examples of circuits with two parallel paths
Figure 2.11. Voltage across parallel branches is the same
Figure 2.12. The same voltage appears across each resistor in parallel
Figure 2.13. Kirchhoff’s current law: The current into a node equals the current out of
that node
Figure 2.14. Generalized circuit node illustrating Kirchhoff’s current law
Figure 2.15. An illustration of Kirchhoff’s current law
Figure 2.16. Addition of resistors in parallel reduces total resistance and increases total
current
Figure 2.17. Circuit with n resistors in parallel
Figure 2.18. Total current divides between the two branches
Figure 2.19. The branch with the lower resistance has more current, and the branch with
the higher resistance has less current
Figure 2.20. A parallel circuit with n branches
Figure 2.21. Simplified diagram of the exterior light system of an automobile
Figure 2.22. Example of a parallel circuit in residential wiring
Figure 2.23. A 1 mA analog ammeter
Figure 2.24. A 10 mA analog ammeter
Figure 2.25. An analog ammeter with three ranges
Figure 2.26. When switch opens, total current decreases and current through R2 remains
unchanged
Figure 2.27. When one lamp opens, total current decreases and other branch currents
remain unchanged
Figure 2.28. Parallel branches (open or not) have the same voltage
Figure 2.29. Finding an open path by current measurement

xii
Figure 2.30. Circuit schematic for demonstration of the node voltage method of circuit
analysis
Figure 2.31. Conversion of a voltage source with series resistance to a current source with
parallel resistance
Figure 2.32. New circuit with current sources and parallel resistors
Figure 2.33. All resistance values are replaced by equivalent conductance
Figure 2.34. Simplified circuit
Figure 2.35. Wheatstone bridge for node voltage method application
Figure 2.36. Circuit schematic for explaining the mesh current method
Figure 2.37. Identify and label the current loops
Figure 2.38. Label the voltage drop polarities
Figure 2.39. Circuit with calculated mesh current values
Figure 2.40. Circuit with corrected mesh current direction for I2
Figure 2.41. Circuit with calculated branch currents
Figure 2.42. Example circuit with increased complexity
Figure 2.43. Complex circuit setup for branch current analysis
Figure 2.44. Complex circuit setup for mesh current analysis
Figure 3.1. Series RC circuit
Figure 3.2. Series RL circuit
Figure 3.3. Series LC circuit
Figure 3.4. Parallel RLC circuit
Figure 3.5. Parallel RL circuit
Figure 3.6. Parallel LC circuit
Figure 3.7. Super position theorem
Figure 3.8. Thevenin’s theorem
Figure 3.9. Norton’s theorem
Figure 3.10. Maximum power transfer theorem
Figure 3.11. Reciprocity theorem
Figure 3.12. Compensation theorem
Figure 3.13. Millman’s theorem
Figure 3.14. Miller’s theorem
Figure 3.15. Sine wave
Figure 3.16. Circuit with load
Figure 3.17. Phasor diagram in a single-phase AC circuit
Figure 3.18. Series resonance circuit
Figure 3.19. Series resonance
Figure 3.20. Parallel resonance

xiii
Figure 4.1. A standard 0° angular displacement delta/delta connection
Figure 4.2. A standard 30° angular displacement delta/wye connection
Figure 4.3. A standard 30° angular displacement wye/delta connection
Figure 4.4. A standard 0° angular displacement wye/wye connection
Figure 4.5. Open delta connection
Figure 4.6. Scott-T connection
Figure 4.7. High leg delta connection
Figure 4.8. Toroidal transformer coir
Figure 4.9. The power triangle. The complex power is the vector sum of active and reactive
power. The apparent power is the magnitude of the complex power
Figure 4.10. In the case of delta connected circuits, power measurement by three wattmeter
method is very difficult because phase coils of load are required to be broken for inserting
the current coils of wattmeter
Figure 4.11. The two wattmeter method of power measurement in three-phase circuits is
suitable for every type of three-phase circuit weather circuit is balanced or unbalanced
and star connected or delta connected
Figure 4.12. Three windings of a three-phase AC generator
Figure 4.13. The three-phase load connected in the star
Figure 4.14. The delta connection of three-phase loads
Figure 4.15. Types of electrical wires
Figure 4.16: A miniature time-delay 250 V fuse that will interrupt a 0.3 A current at after
100 s, or a 15 A current in 0.1 s. 32 mm (1 1/4”) long
Figure 4.17. Resettable fuses - PolySwitch devices
Figure 4.18. An example of a rail-mounted RCBO
Figure 4.19. Metal-oxide varistor manufactured by Siemens & Halske AG
Figure 4.20. A compact fluorescent bulb is a household application of a gas-filled tube
Figure 4.21. Four one-pole miniature circuit breakers
Figure 5.1. Accuracy and precision
Figure 5.2. Linearity
Figure 5.3. Parallel (left) and series (right) connection
Figure 5.4. Ammeter in an electric circuit
Figure 5.5. Voltmeter in an electric circuit
Figure 5.6. Resistance measurement circuit of an analog meter
Figure 5.7. Two-terminal measurement method
Figure 5.8. Four-terminal measurement method
Figure 5.9. Clip type lead (clip-type lead for 4-terminal measurement)
Figure 5.10. Resistance meters
Figure 5.11. Capturing the temperature-converted resistance value

xiv
Figure 5.12. Power measurement: Dual-wattmeter method (Aron configuration; consumer,
e.g., motor)
Figure 5.13. Power measurement: simplified measurement with accessible or artificial neutral
Figure 5.14. Power measurement: hub-type torque meter
Figure 5.15. Power measurement: disc-type torque meter
Figure 6.1. The orbit of a spinning electron about the nucleus of an atom
Figure 6.2. Magnetic domains
Figure 6.3. Domain structure
Figure 6.4. Antiferromagnetic ordering
Figure 6.5. Antiferromagnetic order may exist at sufficiently low temperatures
Figure 6.6. Variation of susceptibility and inverse susceptibility with temperature in an
AFM material
Figure 6.7. Magnetic leakage and fringing
Figure 6.8. Magnetic circuit
Figure 6.9. Series magnetic circuit
Figure 6.10. Parallel magnetic circuit
Figure 7.1. Transformer winding
Figure 7.2. Core and winding
Figure 7.3. Insulation of a transformer
Figure 7.4. Transformer tank
Figure 7.5. Tap changer
Figure 7.6. Working principle of transformer
Figure 7.7. Step-up transformer
Figure 7.8. Step-down transformer
Figure 7.9. Air-core transformer
Figure 7.10. Iron core transformer
Figure 7.11. Autotransformer
Figure 7.12. Power transformer
Figure 7.13. Distribution transformer
Figure 7.14. Current transformer
Figure 7.15. Current transformer
Figure 7.16. Instrument transformers
Figure 7.17. Single phase transformer
Figure 7.18. Three phase transformer
Figure 7.19. Transformer in tesla coil
Figure 7.20. Transformers in railway usage
Figure 7.21. Transformers in arc furnaces

xv
Figure 7.22. EMF equation of ideal transformer
Figure 8.1. Electromechanical energy conversion
Figure 8.2. Different views of DC machine
Figure 8.3. Armature lamination of DC machine
Figure 8.4. Commutator segment mounted on a shaft
Figure 8.5. Turn, coil and winding of DC machine
Figure 8.6. Lap winding
Figure 8.7. Wave winding
Figure 8.8. Different connections of DC machines (a) separately excited Dc machine; (b)
series DC machine; (c) Shunt DC machine; and (d) Compound DC machine
Figure 8.9. DC machine as motor
Figure 8.10. DC machine as generator
Figure 9.1. Three phase wave-forms
Figure 9.2. Construction of three-phase induction motor
Figure 9.3. Squirrel cage induction motor rotor
Figure 9.4. Working principle of a 3-phase induction motor
Figure 9.5. 3-φ motor runs from 1-φ power but does not start
Figure 9.6. Single-phase stator produces a nonrotating, pulsating magnetic field
Figure 9.7. Permanent-split capacitor induction motor
Figure 9.8. Single-phase induction motor with embedded stator coils
Figure 9.9. Capacitor-start induction motor
Figure 9.10. Capacitor-run motor induction motor
Figure 9.11. Resistance split-phase motor induction motor
Figure 9.12. Permanent magnet synchronous motor control
Figure 9.13. Cross-section of a stepper motor
Figure 9.14. Stepper motor steps
Figure 9.15. Permanent magnet stepper motor
Figure 9.16. Hybrid stepper motor
Figure 9.17. Two-phase stator winding (left), three-phase stator winding (right)
Figure 9.18. Two-phase, single-pole pair stator (left) and two-phase, dipole pair stator
(right). The letters show the magnetic field generated when positive voltage is applied
between A+ and A–
Figure 9.19. Motor control basic scheme
Figure 9.20. Direction of the magnetic field based on the direction of the coil current
Figure 9.21. Unipolar stepper motor driving circuit
Figure 9.22. Bipolar stepper motor driving circuit
Figure 9.23. Wave mode steps

xvi
Figure 9.24. Full-step mode steps
Figure 9.25. Half-step mode steps
Figure 9.26. Microstepping
Figure 10.1. Exploded view of an alternator
Figure 10.2. Restoration of voltage as a function of response time
Figure 10.3. Silverstat voltage regulator on an AC generator
Figure 10.4. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance
Figure 10.5. Phasor diagram of voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance
Figure 10.6. Phasor diagram of an alternator for unity power factor load
Figure 10.7. Phasor diagrams of alternator on load
Figure 10.8. Phasor diagram of an alternator for leading power factor load
Figure 10.9. Structure of synchronous motor
Figure 10.10. Permanent magnet synchronous motor
Figure 10.11. Lap winding
Figure 10.12. Wave winding
Figure 10.13. Structure of a detailed excitation system model

xvii
List of Tables

Table 1.1. Various formulas that are used in solving electric circuits
Table 1.2. Standard quantities and their units commonly found in electric circuits
Table 1.3. Common circuit elements and their representation in an electric circuit
Table 1.4. V−I relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor
Table 2.1. Difference between series and parallel circuits
Table 3.1. Differentiate between series and parallel resonance
Table 5.1. Standard electrical units of measure
Table 5.2. The names and abbreviations of electrical units
Table 6.1. Magnetic properties of minerals
 PREFACE

The narrative of electrical engineering is a captivating journey that melds ancient insights
with groundbreaking innovations. It begins with a nod to early civilizations and their grasp
of electricity, exemplified by pioneers like Edison, Tesla, and Faraday.
Centuries ago, well before the dawn of modern electrical engineering, ancient societies
displayed a rudimentary understanding of electricity and magnetism. The ancient Egyptians,
for instance, crafted a mysterious artifact known as the Baghdad Battery. This device,
consisting of a clay jar enclosing a copper cylinder, an iron rod, and an acidic solution,
demonstrated their primitive knowledge of electricity. When the copper and iron were
connected, it generated an electric current used to gild silver objects—a remarkable feat
of ancient electrical application.
Similarly, the ancient Greeks coined the term “Elektron” from the Greek word for amber,
highlighting their observation that rubbing amber could generate static electricity, attracting
lightweight objects like feathers and leaves—a rudimentary understanding of electrostatic
forces.
The 19th century marked a pivotal era for electrical engineering, driven by visionaries such
as Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, and Michael Faraday, who elevated the discipline to new
heights despite its early origins. Thomas Edison, renowned for his groundbreaking inventions
including the practical electric light bulb, phonograph, and motion picture projector, founded
the Edison Electric Light Company, which pioneered the widespread adoption of electric
power in homes and businesses, revolutionizing daily life and work. Nikola Tesla, celebrated
for his advancements in alternating current (AC) electricity, significantly improved upon
the limitations of direct current (DC). His revolutionary AC system enabled efficient long-
distance power transmission, transforming the global energy landscape. Michael Faraday,
a British physicist, made foundational discoveries in electricity and magnetism. His work
on electromagnetic induction laid the groundwork for electric motors and generators, while
his elucidation of electrolysis principles facilitated the production of crucial materials like
aluminum. The legacies of Edison, Tesla, Faraday, and their contemporaries established the
bedrock of modern electrical engineering. Today, electrical engineers play pivotal roles in
designing systems that power our homes, fuel technological advancements, and support
our daily needs.
From ancient experiments to 19th-century breakthroughs, the historical trajectory of
electrical engineering continues to shape our modern world. Whether through electric
vehicles, smart grids, robotics, or consumer electronics, electrical engineering remains at
the forefront of technological innovation, driving societal progress in myriad ways.
For today’s aspiring engineers, understanding the future landscape of electrical engineering
is crucial. Emerging sectors such as electric vehicles, smart grids, and advanced consumer
electronics promise substantial growth and career opportunities. By exploring cutting-
edge technologies and career paths within electrical engineering, students can align their
studies and ambitions with the evolving demands of the field, ensuring a meaningful and
impactful career in engineering.

Content/Structure of the Book

This textbook is organized into ten comprehensive chapters, each designed to cover
essential concepts and principles in the field of electrical engineering.
Chapter 1 lays the foundation for understanding electric circuits. It covers the basic
principles of electricity, including voltage, current, resistance, and power. The chapter also
introduces Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws, which are fundamental to circuit analysis.
Chapter 2 explores various methods for analyzing complex resistor networks, such as
series and parallel combinations, the use of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems, and the
application of mesh and nodal analysis techniques.
Chapter 3 shifts focus to alternating current (AC) circuits, discussing their behavior and
characteristics. It covers the analysis of AC circuits using phasor diagrams, impedance,
and admittance. Key topics include resonance, frequency response, and the use of complex
numbers in AC circuit analysis.
In Chapter 4, the book examines the generation and distribution of AC power. It covers the
principles of power generation in power plants, the types of power generation methods,
and the transmission and distribution of electrical power to consumers. The chapter also
discusses the components of the power grid and the challenges of power distribution.
Chapter 5 focuses on the instruments and methods used for measuring electrical quantities.
It introduces various types of electrical measuring instruments, such as voltmeters, ammeters,
and oscilloscopes, and explains how to use them effectively. The chapter also covers
measurement techniques and error analysis.
In Chapter 6, the book explores the principles of magnetism and magnetic circuits. It
explains magnetic fields, magnetic flux, and the laws governing magnetic circuits. The
chapter also discusses electromechanical energy conversion, focusing on how electrical
energy is converted into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Chapter 7 provides an in-depth look at transformers, essential components in electrical
power systems. It covers the construction, operation, and types of transformers. Key
topics include the principle of electromagnetic induction, transformer equivalent circuits,
efficiency, and voltage regulation.
The book then moves into direct current (DC) machines, discussing their construction,
operation, and applications. It covers different types of DC machines, including DC motors

xxii
and generators, their characteristics, and the methods used to control their speed and
torque.
Chapter 9 focuses on three-phase induction motors, widely used in industrial applications.
It explains the construction and working principles of these motors, their performance
characteristics, and methods of starting and controlling them. The chapter also covers the
analysis of their equivalent circuits and efficiency.
The final chapter examines alternators and synchronous motors, key components in power
generation and industrial applications. It covers the construction, operation, and types
of alternators, as well as their synchronization with the power grid. The chapter also
discusses the principles and applications of synchronous motors, including their operation
under various load conditions.
Each chapter in this book is thoughtfully crafted to provide a detailed and coherent
understanding of electrical engineering principles, ensuring that readers can grasp both
fundamental concepts and their practical applications in the field.

Audience
This book is tailored for students and professionals entering or advancing in the field
of electrical engineering. It serves as an essential primer for undergraduate students
pursuing degrees in electrical engineering, providing a solid foundation in core concepts
and fundamental principles. The content is structured to accommodate learners at various
stages, from introductory courses to more advanced topics, ensuring clarity and depth in
understanding key theories and applications. Beyond academia, the book also caters to
technicians and practitioners seeking to enhance their practical knowledge and proficiency
in electrical systems. It offers practical insights into electrical circuits, devices, and systems,
bridging theoretical learning with real-world applications. Additionally, the book appeals to
individuals transitioning into electrical engineering careers from related fields or seeking to
refresh their understanding of foundational concepts. It covers a wide spectrum of topics
including circuit analysis, electromagnetism, power systems, and electronics, making it a
comprehensive resource for professional development and lifelong learning in the electrical
engineering discipline. By combining theoretical rigor with practical relevance, this book
aims to empower its audience with the knowledge and skills necessary to excel in both
academic pursuits and professional endeavors within the dynamic and evolving field of
electrical engineering.

Learning Features
■■ Start-of-chapter learning objectives
■■ Key terms in each chapter
■■ Summary Points at the end of each chapter
■■ Review Questions at the end of each chapter
■■ Case Studies and Activities in each chapter for solving real problems
■■ References at the end of each chapter

xxiii
 CHAPTER
Fundamentals of
1 Electric Circuits

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Give an overview of electric circuit
• Explain circuit elements and sources
• Illustrate circuit theorems

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Ammeter Amperes Capacitor
Circuit Closed circuit Current
Ideal current Inductor Load
Mesh analysis Open circuit Resistance
Switch Voltage Voltage polarity
INTRODUCTION
The fundamentals of electric circuits form the backbone of modern electrical engineering
and technology. At the core of electric circuits is the flow of electric current through
a pathway composed of various electronic components. These pathways, or circuits,
are driven by a potential difference known as voltage, which propels the movement of
electrons, creating an electric current measured in amperes. The concept of resistance,
measured in ohms, plays a crucial role in determining the extent of this current flow
by opposing it. This relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is elegantly
described by Ohm’s Law, which states that the current passing through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across those points and
inversely proportional to the resistance, formulated as V=IR.
Key to understanding complex circuits are Kirchhoff’s Laws. Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) asserts that the total current entering a junction in a circuit must equal the total
current leaving it, ensuring the conservation of charge. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
maintains that the sum of all electrical potential differences around a closed loop is zero,
which helps in analyzing the energy conservation within the circuit. Circuit components
like resistors, which impede current flow and drop voltage; capacitors, which store and
release electrical energy; and inductors, which store energy in a magnetic field when
current flows through them, are fundamental elements in the design and functioning of
electric circuits. Power sources such as batteries or power supplies provide the necessary
voltage and current to drive these circuits. Mastery of these basics enables the design,
analysis, and troubleshooting of more complex electronic systems, forming the basis for
advancements in electronics, communications, and a myriad of technological applications
that power our modern world. Understanding these principles is essential for anyone
involved in the study or application of electrical engineering.

2 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1.1. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
An electric circuit is a model of an actual circuit which links various devices together.
Electric circuits consist of different components, and understanding these components
is essential in comprehending the flow of current within the circuit.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta became the first person to conceive of an electric circuit.
Through his experiments, Volta found that by connecting bowls of salt solution with
metal strips, he could generate a constant stream of electricity. He later constructed a
voltaic pile using layers of copper, zinc, and soaked cardboard discs, creating an early
version of a battery. By linking a wire from top to bottom, Volta successfully directed
the flow of electric current through the circuit.

An electric circuit is a closed loop or When the positive end of the battery
path through which current flows. Various is connected to the positive terminal of
components are added to electric circuits the bulb, the bulb does not light up.
to perform specific tasks. Essentially, an However, when the other end of the battery
electric circuit is a collection of elements is connected to the bulb, completing the
arranged to guide electric current in a circuit, the bulb lights up. This shows that
specific direction. The source is where the current only flows in an electric circuit when
current begins, and the return points are it is closed, and circuits that allow current
where it ends. to flow are called complete circuits.
The diagram of the electric circuit is Failure to secure all connections in
show in Figure 1.1, let’s learn about the a circuit could potentially lead to a fire
electric circuit through the diagram. that cannot be put out using conventional
methods. It is important to note that using
water to extinguish an electrical fire is
dangerous and can result in electric shock.

1.1.1. Types of Electric Circuits

Many types of electrical circuits are used
in our daily life some of the most common
electric circuits are;
Figure 1.1. The diagram of the electric circuit.
• Open Circuit
Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp- • Closed Circuit
content/uploads/20230227144415/Circuit-on-
off-gif.gif. • Short Circuit
• Series Circuit
The above electric circuit has;
• Parallel Circuit
• Electric bulb • Open Circuit: An open circuit is a
• Wire (Conductor) circuit where the switch is open
• A battery and no current is flowing through

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 3

4 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

it. Figure 1.2 illustrates an open

circuit.

Figure 1.4. A short circuit.

Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-
Figure 1.2. An open circuit. content/uploads/20230402112108/Electric-
Circuit-5.jpg.
Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-
content/uploads/20230227144444/Electric- The result of a short circuit is the
Circuit-4.jpg. potential ignition of the electric board or
system. The primary reason behind electric
• Closed Circuit: An open circuit is fires is often attributed to short circuits.
a circuit in which the switch is The picture below depicts a fire ignited by
closed and allows current to flow a short circuit.
through it. Figure 1.3 illustrates a
closed circuit. • Series Circuit: A series circuit
is formed when all resistors are
connected in a series combination,
as shown in the Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.3. A closed circuit.

Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-
content/uploads/20230227144514/Electric-
Circuit-3.jpg. Figure 1.5. A series circuit.

• Short Circuit: A short circuit occurs Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-

content/uploads/20230227151617/Comb-1-(2).
when the current in the circuit takes
png.
a shorter path than its intended
route. Figure 1.4 illustrates a short • Parallel Circuit: A parallel circuit
circuit. is formed when all the resistors
are connected in parallel. Figure
1.6 displays a parallel circuit.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 5

Figure 1.6. A parallel circuit.

Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230227152358/Comb-2-(2).png.

1.1.2. Domestic Electric Circuit

The electrical circuit utilized in our household is known as a Domestic circuit, designed
specifically for residential use. Several components included in the domestic circuit are:
• Mains Supply: Electric power we receive in our houses is called the main supply.
• Cables: Electric power is supplied by cables which are either open or underground.
There are three types of wires used in domestic circuits which are:
• Earth Wire;
• Live Wire; and
• Neutral Wire.
• Potential Difference (or Voltage): In our country, the current is supplied at
220 V in domestic circuits.
Our house receives electric current at 220 volts through a circuit protection element
known as a fuse. If the current supplied exceeds the allowed amount, the fuse wire will
break/melt, halting the flow of current. The current then goes through the meter board.
From the meter board generally, two types of current are supplied to the circuit:

• 15 Amp Current: This current is used by appliances with higher power ratings,
like geysers, ACs, refrigerators, electric motors, and others; and
• 5 Amp Current: This current is used by appliances with lower power ratings,
like TV, fans, bulbs, computers, smartphones, and others.

1.1.3. Electric Circuit Symbols

In the drawing of electric circuits, a variety of symbols are utilized. Among the key
symbols used in physics for this purpose are (Figure 1.7):
6 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 1.7. Electric circuit symbols.

Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230419183956/Electric-Circuit-2.
webp.

1.1.4. Simple Circuit

A basic circuit includes a power source, conductors, switch, and load. It does not contain
multiple components, and the Figure 1.8 displays an example of a simple circuit.

Figure 1.8. A simple circuit.

Source: https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230227144647/Electric-Circuit-1.
png.

• Cell: It is the power source that provides the potential difference in the electric
circuit.
• Load: A resistor that consumes electrical power in a circuit is called the load.
Generally, a load is a bulb.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 7
• Conductors: Copper conductors that conduct electricity in a circuit are called
conductors.
• Switch: A device that controls the incoming flow of current in an electric circuit
is called a switch.

1.1.5. Electric Circuit Formula (Table 1.1)

Table 1.1. Various Formulas that are Used in Solving Electric Circuits

Formula Notations
Electric I = Q/t • I is the current flowing
current
• Q is the charge flowing
• t is the time period
Voltage V = IR • V is the potential dif-
ference
Resistance R = ρ l/A • R is the resistance of
the circuit
• ρ is the specific
resistivity per length of
the wire
• l is the length of the
wire
• A is the cross-sectional
area
Power P = VI or E/t • P is the power
• E is the energy gain or
loss
• t is the time period
Series Req = R1 + R2 + … • Req is the equivalent
Resistance + Rn resistance of the resis-
tors in series
• R1, R2… Rn are the indi-
vidual resistors added
in series
Parallel 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 • Req is the equivalent
Resistance + … + 1/Rn resistance of the resis-
tors in parallel
• R1, R2… Rn are the indi-
vidual resistors added
in parallel
Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/electric-circuit/.
8 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1.2. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

AND SOURCES
This gives an overview of the most frequently used elements in electric circuits, including
the laws that govern current flow and voltage across these components, as well as the
power supplied/dissipated and energy storage within this context. It also discusses
the difference between ideal and non-ideal voltage and current sources, highlighting
the importance of understanding sign conventions such as voltage polarity and current
direction.
The concepts of current and voltage are initially presented as they are essential
components in electronics and electrical engineering.

1.2.1. Current
Current is the movement of electric charge through a conductor. The unit of current is
Ampere, while charge is measured in Coulombs.
• Definition of an Ampere: An Ampere is defined as the amount of total charge
that flows through any random cross section of a conducting material in one
second.
Mathematically;

Q
=I = or Q It
t (1)
Where; Q is the symbol of charge measured in Coulombs (C), I is the current in
amperes (A) and t is the time in seconds (s).
The current can also be defined as the rate of charge passing through a point in
an electric circuit i.e.,

dQ
i=
dt (2)
A constant current, represented by the symbol I, is also known as direct current or
DC. On the other hand, a time-varying current, symbolized by i or i(t), is also known
as alternating current or AC. Current is always measured across a circuit element. In
Figure 1.9, an ampere-meter or ammeter is shown connected in series with a circuit
element, R, to measure the current flowing through it (Naeem, 2009).
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 9

Figure 1.9. An ammeter is connected in series

to measure current, I, through the element, R.
Figure 1.10. A voltmeter is connected in parallel
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with the circuit element, R to measure the voltage
uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.
across it.
pdf.
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uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.
Example pdf.
Determine the current in a circuit if a charge An energy source, such as a voltage
of 80 coulombs (C) passes a given point in source, is necessary to provide the
20 seconds (s). electromotive force needed for current flow.
However, current will only flow if there is
a potential difference and a clear path for
it to follow.

(3)

1.2.2. Voltage or Potential

Difference
If 1 joule of energy is used to transfer 1
coulomb of charge between two points in
an electric circuit, the voltage or potential
difference between those points is 1 volt.
Voltage is typically represented by the Figure 1.11. The potential difference across R2 is
symbol V and measured in volts (V). It’s 0 V, hence the current I is 0 A where Vs and Is
are the voltage and current sources respectively.
worth noting that both the symbol and unit
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but this rarely leads to confusion. uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.
pdf.
The symbol V represents a constant
voltage (DC), while a time-varying voltage If there is no potential difference,
(AC) is represented by the symbol v or v(t). indicated by a voltage of 0 V between two
points, then no current will flow. In the
Voltage is consistently measured across scenario shown in Figure 1.11, the current
a circuit component, as depicted in Figure I is 0 A because there is no potential
1.10 by Wasif Naeem in 2009.
10 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

difference across R2. This means that although there is a physical path for the current
to travel, there is no potential difference driving it, essentially creating an open circuit
(Wasif Naeem, 2009).
Table 1.2 summarizes the fundamental electric circuit quantities, their symbols and
standard units.

1.2.3. Circuit Loads

The term “load” typically describes a device or item that is connected to the output
of an electrical circuit. This could include various circuit elements such as resistors,
capacitors, or inductors.
• Resistor (R)
• Inductor (L)
• Capacitor (C)
Concepts in Electric Circuits Circuit Elements and Sources
Table 1.2. Standard Quantities and Their Units Commonly Found in Electric Circuits

Quantity Symbol Unit

Voltage V Volts (V)
Current I Ampere (A)
Charge Q Coulomb (C)
Power P Watts (W)
Energy W Joules (J)
Time t seconds (s)

Table 2.1: Standard quantities and their units commonly found in electric circuits.
Source: https://sietm.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.pdf.

Loadscircuit
canelements
be resistive, inductive, or capacitive, or a combination. For instance, a
light bulb is purely resistive, while a transformer is both inductive and resistive. A
circuit load1.isResistor (R)
also known as a sink, as it consumes energy, while the voltage or current
supply is a2.source.
Inductor (L)
Table 1.3 displays
3. Capacitor (C)the fundamental circuit components, including their symbols and
schematics, utilized in an electric circuit. The components R, L, and C are considered
passive, meaning theybedo
A load can either of not produce
resistive, inductivetheir own electromotive
or capacitive nature or a blend offorce
them. (emf). Contrastingly,
For example, a
the DC voltage and
light bulb is current
a purely sources
resistive load whereareas aconsidered active
transformer is both elements.
inductive and resistive. A circuit
load can also be referred to as a sink since it dissipates energy whereas the voltage or current supply
can be termed as a source.

Table 2.2 shows the basic circuit elements along with their symbols and schematics used in an electric
circuit. The R, L and C are all passive components i.e. they do not generate their own emf whereas
the DC voltage and current sources are active elements.

Circuit Element Symbol Schematic

Resistor R

Inductor L
 A load can either be of resistive, inductive or capacitive nature or a blend of them. For example, a
light bulb is a purely resistive load where as a transformer is both inductive and resistive. A circuit
load can also be referred to as a sink since it dissipates energy whereas the voltage or current supply
can be termed as a source.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Table 2.2 shows the basic circuit elements along with their symbols and schematics used in an electric 11
Table 1.3.circuit.
Common The R, L and C are all passive components i.e. they do not generate their own emf whereas
Circuit Elements and Their Representation in an Electric Circuit
the DC voltage and current sources are active elements.

Circuit Element Symbol Schematic

Resistor R

Inductor L

Capacitor C

DC Voltage Source Vs

2.5 Sign DC Convention

Current Source I s

2.5 Sign Convention

2.5
Concepts Sign
It isSource:
common Convention
in Electric
to Table 2.2: Common circuit elements and their representation in an electric circuit. Circuit Elements and Sources
Circuits
think of current as the flow of electrons. However, the standard convention is to take
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the schematic diagram of Figure 2.4(a) where Vs is the source voltage, VL is the voltage across the
load and I is the loop current flowing in the clockwise direction.
load and I is the loop current flowing in the clockwise direction.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4: Effect(a) of reversing the voltage polarity on(b)current direction.

Figure 1.12.Figure
Effect 2.4: Effect
(a) of reversing the voltage polarity on(b)current direction.
of reversing
(a) ofthe voltage polarity on current direction.
Figure 2.4: Effect
Please observe that the voltage polarity reversing the voltage
and current polarity
direction on(b)current
in a sink direction.
is opposite to that of the source.
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Effect
of reversing
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of reversing
the voltage
and current
the voltage
polarity
direction
polarity
on current
in a sink
on
direction.
is opposite
current to that of the source.
direction.
Please observe
In Source that the voltage polarity and current direction
current leaves from the positive terminal in a sink is opposite to that of the source.
Please
Loadobserve
In Source(Sink) that the voltage
current enterspolarity
leaves from theand currentterminal
positive direction in a sink is opposite to that of the source.
Please observe
In Source that the voltage polarity and current direction in a sink is opposite to that of the source.
current leaves from the positive terminal
In Load (Sink) current enters from the positive terminal
In Source
A Load (Sink)
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in source leavespolarity
enters
voltage from thechanges
positivethe
terminal
direction of the current flow and vice versa as
In Source current leaves from the positive terminal
12 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Please observe that the voltage polarity

and current direction in a sink is opposite
to that of the source.
In Source current leaves from the
positive terminal
In Load (Sink) current enters from the
positive terminal
A reversal in source voltage polarity
changes the direction of the current flow
and vice versa as depicted in Figure 1.12(a)
and 1.12(b).

1.2.5. Passive Circuit Elements Figure 1.13. V−I relationship for a resistor
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• Ohm’s Law: The most basic
At any given point in the above graph,
principle utilized in circuit analysis
the ratio of voltage to current is always
is Ohm’s Law, which offers a
constant.
straightforward equation that
explains the relationship between
voltage and current in a conducting Example
material.
Find R if the voltage V and current I in
– Statement: The voltage
Figure 1.13 are equal to 10 V and 5 A
across a conducting material
respectively.
is directly proportional to the
current passing through it.
– Mathematically: (5)
Using Ohm’s Law

(4) (6)
Where the constant of proportionality R is
called the resistance or electrical resistance, (7)
measured in ohms (Ω). Graphically, the
V−I relationship for a resistor according to A short circuit between two points represents
Ohm’s law is depicted in Figure 1.13 (Wasif a zero resistance whereas an open circuit
Naeem, 2009). corresponds to an infinite resistance as
demonstrated in Figure 1.14 (Wasif Naeem,
2009).
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 13

Figure 1.14. Short circuit and open circuit resistance characteristics.

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Using Ohm’s law;

When R = 0 (short circuit), V = 0 V

When R = ∞ (open circuit), I = 0 A

• Conductance: Conductance (G) is the exact opposite of resistance. In mathematical

terms;

(8)
Where; G is measured in siemens (S) and sometimes also represented by the unit
mho (upside-down omega).
• Capacitor: A capacitor is a passive component in circuits that can store charge
in an electric field. It is commonly used in electric circuits as a filter. The
relationship between voltage and current in a capacitor is determined by the
following equation:

(9)
Where; C is the capacitance measured in Farads (F) and v(0) is the initial voltage
or initial charge stored in the capacitor

When; v = V (constant DC voltage), , and i = 0. Hence a capacitor acts as an

open circuit to DC.

Example
For the circuit diagram shown in Figure 1.15, determine the current, I flowing through
the 5 Ω resistance (Wasif Naeem, 2009).
 14 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 1.15. In the circuit diagram determine the current.

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Since the supply voltage is DC, therefore the capacitor will act as an open circuit.
Hence no current can flow through the circuit regardless of the values of capacitor and
resistor i.e.,
Concepts in Electric Circuits Circuit Elements and Sou
I = 0
where L is the inductance in Henrys (H) and i(0) is the initial current stored in the magnetic field of
the inductor.• Inductor: An inductor is a conducting wire wound around a ferromagnetic core.
where L is the inductance
While they in canHenrys
be used(H)as and
filters
i(0) is capacitors,
like the initial current stored
their most in theapplication
common magnetic field of
is in AC transformers and power supplies to convert voltage levels.
the inductor.In an inductor, the V – I relationship is 0.
given by the following acts
differential equation:
When i = I (constant DC current), dt di
= 0, v = Hence an inductor as a short circuit to DC.
An ideal inductor is just a piece of conducting material with no internal resistance or capacitance.
When i = I (constant DC current), (10)dt = 0, v = 0. Hence an inductor acts as a short circuit to DC.
di
The schematics in Figure 2.8 are equivalent when the supply voltage is DC.
An idealWhere;
inductor
L isisthe
justinductance
a piece ofinconducting
Henrys (H)material
and i(0)with noinitial
is the internal resistance
current storedorincapacitance.
the
The schematics in Figure 2.8 are equivalent when the supply voltage is DC.
magnetic field of the inductor.

Figure 2.8: An ideal inductor can be replaced by a short circuit when the supply voltage is DC.

Figure 2.8: 1.16.

Figure An ideal inductor
An ideal can
inductor bebereplaced
can replaced by a short
by a shortcircuit
circuitwhen
whenthethe supply
supply voltage
voltage is DC.
is DC.
A summary of the V − I relationships for the three passive circuit elements is provided in Table 2.3.
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ACircuit
summaryElement Voltage
of the V − I relationships for the three passive circuit elementsCurrent
is provided in Table 2.3.

Circuit Element Voltage Current

V
Resistor V = IR I=
R
V
Resistor V = IR I= 
 where L is the inductance in Henrys (H) and i(0) is the initial current stored in the magnetic field of
the inductor.
When i = I (constant DC current), dt di
= 0, v = 0. Hence an inductor acts as a short circuit to DC.
An ideal inductor is just a piece of conducting material with no internal resistance or capacitance.
When i = I (constant DC current), dt di
= 0, v = 0. Hence an inductor acts as a short circuit to DC.
The schematics in Figure 2.8 are equivalent when the supply voltage is DC.
15
An ideal inductor is just a piece of conducting material with no internal resistance or capacitance.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
The schematics in Figure 2.8 are equivalent when the supply voltage is DC.

When i = I (constant DC current), . Hence an inductor acts as a short

circuit to DC. An ideal inductor is just a piece of conducting material with no internal
resistance or capacitance. The schematics in Figure 1.16 are equivalent when the supply
voltage is DC (Wasif Naeem, 2009).
Figureof
A summary 2.8:
theAn V−I
ideal inductor can be replaced
relationships by a short
for the three circuit when thecircuit
passive supply voltage is DC. is provided
elements
in Table 1.4.
Figure 2.8: An ideal inductor can be replaced by a short circuit when the supply voltage is DC.
A summary of the V − I relationships for the three passive circuit elements is provided in Table 2.3.
Table 1.4. V−I Relationships for a Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor
ACircuit
summaryElement Voltage
of the V − I relationships for the three passive circuit elementsCurrent
is provided in Table 2.3.

Circuit Element Voltage Current

V
Resistor V = IR I=
R
V
Resistor V = IR I=  t
di 1R
Inductor v = L , v = 0 for DC i= vdt + i(0)
dt L 0 t
di 1
Inductor v = L  , tv = 0 for DC i= vdt + i(0)
1 dt L dv0
Capacitor v= idt + v(0) i = C , i = 0 for DC
C 0 t dt
1 dv
Capacitor v= idt + v(0) i = C , i = 0 for DC
C 0 dt
Table 2.3: V − I relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Table 2.3: V − I relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor.

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2.7 DC Sources
1.2.6. DC
2.7 Sources
DCthere
In general, Sources
are two main types of DC sources
In generally, there are two main types of DC sources:
In general, there are(Voltage
1. Independent two main types
and of DCSources
Current) sources
1. Independent (Voltage and Current) Source
1.
2. Independent (Voltageand
Dependent (Voltage andCurrent)
Current)Sources
Sources
2. Dependent (Voltage and Current) Sources
An2.independent
Dependentsource
(Voltage and Current)
produces Sources
its own voltage and current through some chemical reaction and
Independentdoes sources
not depend generate
on any other their
voltageown voltage
or current variableand
in thecurrent through
circuit. The output ofaa chemical
dependent reaction
and are notAninfluenced
independent source produces its variables
own voltage inandthe
current throughOnsome chemical reaction and
source, on the other hand, is subject to a certain parameter (voltage or current) change in a the
by any other circuit. the contrary, circuitoutput of a
dependentdoes not depend
source
element. Herein,
on any otherby
is impacted
the discussion
voltage
shall
or current
changes variable
into
be confined
in the circuit.
aindependent
specific parameter
sources
The output of a dependent
only. (voltage or current) in a
source, on the other hand, is subject to a certain parameter
circuit element. This discussion will focus solely on independent sources.(voltage or current) change in a circuit
element. Herein, the discussion shall be confined to independent sources only.
2.7.1 DC Voltage Source
• DC Voltage Source: This can be further subcategorized into ideal and non-ideal
sources.
2.7.1canDC
This Voltage
be further Source
subcategorised into ideal and non-ideal sources.
–This can
The Idealsubcategorised
be further Voltage Source: According
into ideal and to Download
non-ideal sources. Figure free
1.17(a),
ebooks an ideal voltage
at bookboon.com
source maintains a consistent terminal 19
voltage regardless of load changes.
While the supply current may fluctuate, the terminal voltage (VL) remains
steady. This property is illustrated in Figure 1.17(b) (Naeem, 2009).
 The Ideal Voltage Source An ideal voltage source, shown in Figure 2.9(a), has a terminal voltage
which isConcepts
independent ofCircuits
in Electric the variations in load. In other words, for an ideal voltage Circuit source, theSources
Elements and sup-
ply current alters with changes in load but the terminal voltage, VL always remains constant. This
16 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
characteristic is depicted
The Ideal Voltage in FigureAn2.9(b).
Source ideal voltage source, shown in Figure 2.9(a), has a terminal voltage
which is independent of the variations in load. In other words, for an ideal voltage source, the sup-
ply current alters with changes in load but the terminal voltage, VL always remains constant. This
characteristic is depicted in Figure 2.9(b).

(a) An ideal voltage source. (b) V − I characteristics of an ideal voltage

(a) An ideal voltage source.
source.
(b) V − I characteristics of an ideal voltage
source.
Figure 1.17. Schematic and Schematic
Figure 2.9: characteristics of an ideal voltage
and characteristics source.
of an ideal voltage source
Figure 2.9: Schematic and characteristics of an ideal voltage source
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– Non-Ideal or Practical Voltage Source: In practical applications, the

Non-Ideal or Practical
Non-Ideal
terminal Voltage
or Practical
voltage Source
Voltage SourceFor
decreases a apractical
For
as practical
the loadsource,
source, theterminal
the
current terminal voltage
voltage
increases. falls
falls off
This off with
with
relationship
an increase in load
an increase current.
in This
load current.
is illustrated can
inThis be shown
can
Figure graphically
be 1.18(a).
shown in Figure
graphically in Figure2.10(a).
2.10(a).
This behavior can be represented by adding an internal resistance, Rs, in series
with This behaviour can be modelled by assigning an internal Rs , in series with the source as
resistance,2009).
This the source,
behaviour canas
be depicted
modelled by inassigning
Figure 1.18(b) (Naeem,
an internal resistance, Rs , in series with the source as
shown in Figure 2.10(b).
shown in Figure 2.10(b).

(a) V −I characteristics of a practical volt- (b) A practical voltage source has an internal resis-
age source tance connected in series with the source.

Figure 2.10:
Figure 1.18. Characteristics and Characteristics and model of
model of a practical a practical
voltage voltage source
source.
(a) V −I characteristics of a practical volt- (b) A practical voltage source has an internal resis-
age source tance connected in series with the source.
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where RL represents the load resistance.

Where; RL represents
Figure 2.10: the load resistance.
Characteristics and model of a practical voltage source
The characteristic equation of the practical voltage source can be written as
The characteristic equation of the practical voltage source can be written as;
where RL represents the load resistance. VL = Vs − Rs I
V L = V s − R sI
For an ideal source, Rs = 0 and therefore V = V .
L s
TheFor an ideal equation
characteristic source, of
Rsthe
= 0 and therefore
practical VL =can
voltage source Vs.be written as
Download free ebooks at bookboon.com

20
VL = Vs − Rs I

For an ideal source, Rs = 0 and therefore VL = Vs .

Download free ebooks at bookboon.com

20
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 17
Example If VNL and VF L represents the no load
and full load voltages, then the VR of a
The terminal voltage of a battery is 14 V source is defined mathematically as:
at no load. When the battery is supplying
100 A of current to a load, the terminal
voltage drops to 12 V. Calculate the source (12)
impedance. For an ideal source, there is no internal
resistance and hence VNL = VF L and
V R = 0%
Hence, the smaller the regulation, the better
the source.
In the previous example, VNL = 14.0 V and
VF L = 12.0 V, therefore;

(11)
(13)
• Voltage Regulation: Voltage
regulation (VR) is a critical indicator • DC Current Source: A current
of the quality of a power source. It source, in contrast to a DC voltage
quantifies the change in terminal source, does not exist in physical
voltage from no load to full load form. Nonetheless, it is valuable in
conditions, as displayed in Figure creating equivalent circuit diagrams
1.19 (Wasif Naeem, 2009). for semiconductor devices like
transistors. Current sources can be
further classified as either ideal or
non-ideal.
– The Ideal Current Source: In
Figure 1.20(a), an ideal current
source is shown, which
provides a constant current
regardless of changes in load.
This means that the current
from an ideal current source
remains constant regardless of
the voltage across the load.
– Non-Ideal or Practical Current
Source: As the load or load
Figure 1.19. No load and full load voltages voltage increases, the current
specified on a V−I characteristic plot of a practical provided by a practical current
voltage source. source decreases. This can
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uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits. parallel resistance to the ideal
pdf. current source, as illustrated
in Figure 1.20(b). The internal
18 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Concepts in Electric
resistance Circuit
Circuits of the current source is denoted by R , while R Elements and
represents Sources
the
s L
load (Naeem, 2009).

(a) An ideal current source (b) A practical current source has an

internal resistance connected in parallel
with the source.

Figure 2.12:
Figure 1.20. Ideal and non-ideal Ideal
current and non-ideal current sources.
sources.

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resistance of the current source and RL represents the load.
The characteristic equation of the
practical current source can be written as;
The characteristic equation of the practical current source can be written as

(14) VL
IL = Is −
In an ideal current source, Rs = ∞ (open Rs
In an ideal
circuit), IL = Is.Rs = ∞ (open circuit), therefore IL = Is .
current source,
therefore
(16)
1.2.7.
2.8 Power
Power • Alternate Expressions for Power
Power can be determined by multiplying Using Ohm’s Law: Using Ohm’s
theGiven
magnitudes of V and I together, and
the magnitudes of V and I, power can be evaluated as thelawproduct
i.e., V
of =
theIR,
twotwo moreand
quantities useful
is
it is measured in Watts (W). expressions for the power absorbed/
measured in Watts (W).
delivered can be derived as follows:
Mathematically;
(17)
Mathematically
(15)
Also; (18)
Example P = V I(W)
(19)
If the power dissipated in a circuit element
Example
is 100 W and a current of 10 A is flowing Example
through it, calculate the voltage across and
If the power dissipated in a circuit element is 100 A WLight
and a bulb
current of 100.5
draws A isA flowing
currentthrough it,
at an input
resistance of the element.
calculate the voltage across and resistance of the element.
voltage of 230 V. Determine the resistance of
the filament and also the power dissipated.
P = 100 W, I = 10 A, V = ?, R = ?

P =VI
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 19
• From Ohm’s Law it is converted and released as
heat. This process is irreversible
(20) and often referred to as i2R losses.

Since a bulb is a purely resistive load,

therefore all the power is dissipated in the (24)
form of heat. This can be calculated using
any of the three power relationships shown • Inductor
above.
(25)
Total energy supplied from 0 to t is:
(21)

1.2.8. Energy
Energy refers to the ability of a physical (26)
system to do work. In electric circuits, the
The magnetic field of the inductor stores
relationship between energy (w) and power
this energy, and it can be returned to the
is as follows.
circuit when the original source is taken
away.
(22)
• Capacitor:
i.e., power is the rate of change of energy.
(27)
Voltage can also be written in terms of
energy as the work done or energy supplied Total energy supplied from 0 to t is:
per unit charge (q) i.e.,

(23)
(28)
In terms of the three passive circuit
elements, R, L and C, the energy relationships This energy is stored in the electric
can be derived as follows field of the capacitor which is supplied back
to the circuit when the actual source is
• Resistor: When electrical power or removed.
energy is supplied to a resistor,
1.3. CIRCUIT THEOREMS
This text discusses the essential laws and theorems needed to analyze and solve electric
circuits. It also covers the relationships between different laws and techniques for writing
equations through inspection. Numerous examples are included to illustrate how these
laws are applied. Furthermore, it addresses situations where applying the concepts
directly may not be possible, and offers solutions for overcoming these challenges.

1.3.1. Kirchoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are widely regarded as the most common and
fundamental set of laws for analyzing electric circuits. These laws form the basis for
deriving many other useful relationships in circuit analysis.
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The total sum of voltages in a closed loop,
including rises and drops, is zero. This means that the total increase in voltage
is equal to the total decrease in voltage in the closed loop.
In Figure 1.21, consider mesh BEDB, then according to KVL

(29)

Figure 1.21. An electric network showing nodes, branches, elements and loops.

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Example
In each of the circuit diagrams in Figure 1.22, write the mesh equations using KVL
(Wasif Naeem, 2009).

20 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 21

Figure 1.22. Circuit diagrams to demonstrate the application of KVL in the above example.

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Figure 1.22(a) contains a single loop Given Vs, R1, R2 & R3, Equations can be
hence a single current, I is flowing around solved simultaneously to evaluate I1 and I2.
it. Therefore, a single equation will result
as given below: In Figure 1.22(c) circuit diagram, three
equations must be written. It is important
(30) to note that loops 2 and 3 do not share any
circuit element, so I2 and I3 are independent
If Vs, R1 and R2 are known, then I can variables.
be found.
• Left Bottom Loop
Figure 1.22(b) contains two meshes with
currents I1 and I2 hence there will be two
equations as shown below. Note that the (33)
branch containing R2 is common to both • Right Bottom Loop
meshes with currents I1 and I2 flowing in
opposite directions.
(34)
• Left Loop
• Upper Loop
(31)
(35)
• Right Loop
If Vs and resistors’ values are known,
the mesh currents can be evaluated by
(32) solving.
22 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Resistors in Series: Figure 1.23 • Voltage Divider Rule (VDR):

illustrates a circuit containing one The Voltage divider rule is a
voltage source and two resistors handy formula that can be used
connected in series to create a to calculate the voltage across a
single mesh with current I (Naeem, specific resistor when multiple
2009). resistors are connected in series
to a voltage source. Figure 1.23
shows how the voltage across each
resistor can be expressed based
on the supply voltage and the
resistance values of the individual
resistors.

(39)

(40)
In general, for n number of resistors
connected in series, the voltage across the
ith resistor can be specified as:

Figure 1.23. Series combination of two resistors. (41)

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pdf.
1.3.2. Kirchoff’s Current Law
(KCL)
According to KVL
The total current entering or leaving a node
(36) in an electric circuit must be zero. This
implies that the sum of currents entering a
Using Ohm’s law (V = IR); node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the node. For instance, if we consider node B
in Figure 1.21, this principle can be applied
(37) according to Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
Where; Req is the combined or equivalent
resistance of the series network. Hence (42)
the equivalent resistance of two or more
resistors connected in series is given by • Resistors in Parallel: Examine
the algebraic sum of all the resistances. Figure 1.24 featuring a single
In general, for n number of serial resistors, current source and two resistors
Req is given by: connected in parallel. In parallel
circuits, all elements have the same
voltage, V across them, meaning V1
(38)
= V2 = V (Naeem, 2009).
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 23

(47)
Observe the contrast between VDR
and CDR (for two resistors) in relation to
the resistor value in the numerators. To
extend CDR to a general case of n resistors,
Figure 1.24. Parallel connection of resistors. the conductance parameter is employed.
Therefore, to determine the current through
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uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits. the following equation can be utilized.
pdf.

Applying KCL at node A

(48)
(43) The equation shown above is structurally
similar to the generalized VDR, but with the
Using Ohm’s law
variable R substituted for G and voltages
replaced with current variables.

(44) 1.3.3. Electric Circuits Analysis

The main tools for analyzing DC electric
Where; Req is the equivalent resistance circuits are Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),
of the parallel network of resistors. For n Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), and Ohm’s
number of resistors connected in parallel, Law. Nodal analysis is typically used when
the combined resistance is given by: applying KCL to electric circuits, while
loop or mesh analysis is used with KVL
for problem solving.
(45)
The mesh and nodal analysis methods
or in terms of conductance, G
described are highly organized and typically
yield a solution for a given problem. Yet,
(46) they can be quite complex computationally.
• Current Divider Rule (CDR): The An easier alternative may involve circuit
current divider rule is a helpful way reduction techniques like combining
to calculate the current flow through resistors in series/parallel or using voltage
individual components connected division ratio/current division ratio methods.
in parallel. In the circuit shown in • Mesh Analysis: The mesh analysis
Figure 1.24, the current through technique consists of the following
each resistor can be determined steps
using the following equations.
– Transform all currents sources
to voltage sources, if possible.
– Identify and assign a current
24 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

to each mesh of the network any element is the sum of the individual
(preferably in the same currents or voltages from each source, with
direction). all other sources removed from the circuit.
– Write mesh equations using Linearity is a necessary condition for the
KVL and simplify them. theorem to apply. Fortunately, the v, i
– Solve the simultaneous system relationship for R, L and C are all linear.
of equations.
– Number of equations is equal The sources can be removed using the
to number of meshes in the following methodology:
network. 1. Ideal voltage sources are short-cir-
• Nodal Analysis: The following steps cuited
describe the nodal analysis method
2. Ideal current sources are open-circuit-
– Transform all voltage sources ed
to current sources, if possible
– Identify and assign an In general, practical sources are replaced
arbitrary voltage to each node by their internal resistances.
including the reference node
in the network assuming all
Example
currents leaving the node. The
reference node is normally Find the voltage VL using Superposition
assumed to be at zero theorem in the circuit diagram of Figure
potential. 1.25 (Wasif Naeem, 2009).
– Write nodal equations using
KCL and simplify them.
– Solve the simultaneous system
of equations.
– Number of equations is N −
1 where N is the number of
nodes in the network including
the reference node. Figure 1.25. An electric circuit containing
multiple sources.

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uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.
The Superposition theorem is a valuable tool
pdf.
for analyzing electric circuits with multiple
active sources. It involves evaluating the • Step 1: Suppressing the 1 A
current or voltage of a component by Current Source by Replacing it
considering each source individually, and With an Open Circuit: This will
then summing up the effects of all sources result in the circuit diagram of
acting independently. This theorem can be Figure 1.26(a). The output voltage,
formally expressed as:
now called , is the voltage across
In a linear circuit with multiple sources, the 5 Ω resistance. Since both 10
the total current through or voltage across Ω and 5 Ω are in series, VDR can
be applied here
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 25

(49)

Figure 1.26. Application of superposition theorem to figure 1.25.

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• Step 2: Suppressing the 10 V evaluated until the net voltage or

Voltage Source by Replacing it current is found. This is because:
with a Short Circuit: The resulting
circuit diagram is shown in Figure
1.26(b). The output voltage is now (52)
represented by and has the
same polarity as VL. It is obvious
that both the resistors are in
1.3.5. Thevenin’s Theorem
parallel and therefore CDR can be Thevenin’s theorem is a beneficial tool for
applied to determine the current simplifying the analysis of complex and large
flowing through 5 Ω resistor. electric circuits by converting them into a
single voltage source connected in series
with a resistor. This method is especially
useful when dealing with circuits that have
(50) a variable resistor or load.
The total voltage, according to the
superposition theorem is then given by the Formally, the Thevenin’s theorem can
be stated as;
sum of and i.e.,
A linear electric circuit with resistors
(51) and sources can be simplified by replacing
• Superposition Theorem – Power it with a single voltage source and resistor
Calculation: Although the connected in series across the load.
superposition theorem can be used The current IL passing through the load
to find the voltage across and resistance RL is consistent in the circuit
current through a circuit element by diagrams depicted in Figure 1.27, indicating
adding the responses due to each equivalence between the circuits with
source acting alone, the power (as regards to the load resistor RL (Naeem,
a nonlinear relationship) cannot be 2009).
26 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 1.27. Illustration of Thevenin’s theorem.

Source: https://sietm.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/concepts-in-electric-circuits.pdf.

The following steps outline the procedure to simplify an electric circuit using
Thevenin’s theorem where VT H and RT H are the Thevenin’s voltage and Thevenin’s
resistance, respectively.
• Remove the load resistance RL.
• VT H is the open circuit (OC) voltage across the load terminals and
• RT H is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by
their internal resistances.
Alternatively, measure the OC voltage across, and the short circuit (SC) current
through the load terminals. Then

(53)

1.3.6. Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit can be represented as a practical voltage source, while
Norton’s equivalent circuit can be represented as a practical current source. In other
words, any linear two-terminal circuit consisting of resistors and sources can be replaced
by a single current source connected in parallel with a resistor.
To determine Norton’s equivalent circuit, Norton current, IN, and Norton resistance,
RN, are required. The following steps outline the procedure required.
• Remove the load resistance, RL.
• IN is the SC current through the load terminals and
• RN is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their
internal resistances. Clearly RN = RT H.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 27

CASE STUDY

NEW MAINS DISTRIBUTION, CABLE MANAGEMENT, MACHINE

CIRCUITS, LIGHTING CIRCUITS AT SUSSEX ENGINEERING CO.

About:
Based in Rustington, West Sussex, IEC Engineering Ltd delivers uniquely integrated
precision engineering solutions. Part of the Nasmyth Group of companies, IEC Engineering
manufacture high quality components and working assemblies with specialist experience
in machining high quality complex components using multi-axis CNC machines. They
supply solutions for safety critical markets including Commercial Aerospace, Submarine,
Medical, Surveillance, Mobility, Instrumentation, and nuclear industries.

Summary:
IEC Engineering has been upgrading and updating their factory units by installing new
mains distribution systems, galvanized steel tray cable management systems, and new
machine circuits.
These works have been carried out while the factory is in full production and whilst
the office and factory staff are working. The aim was to minimize disruption and also
make sure that productions levels remained effective as much as possible.
These machines have been designated new positions and all required new feed
cables isolators, localized fuse box and distribution circuits. This also included new
lighting supplies, fittings and localized power sockets in the new areas.

Brief:
To work with the maintenance department in design and structure for the new layout.
This included the rearrangement of existing machines to a new more efficient layout,
with space for increased production levels of machining areas.
To include completely new wiring for each unit in turn (4 units in total). This ranged
from:
• MCCB mains distribution systems with galvanized steel cable tray management
systems fixed from suspended ceiling fixings
• New sub main cables to feed localized distribution system
28 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• New fuse boxes close to new machine positions

• Individual circuits for each machine with means of isolation and small power
circuits for socket outlets where required

Delivery
Completed over several months to ensure minimal disruption to the client and production.
The project was completed fully with all the client’s objectives met:
• New three-phase mains distribution boards (MCCB) panel boards
• New main galvanized steel cable tray cable management system
• New three-phase Sub main circuits feeding local fuse box / distribution boards
• New single-phase sub main circuits feeding local fuse box / distribution boards
• New machine circuits for each new position of existing machine
• New isolation for each machine
• New power circuits from new sub main fuse boxes for socket outlets in new
positions
• New lighting circuits wired from new lighting fuse boxes and switch positions
• New emergency lighting system designed and installed
• New main earthing and earth bonds to main water, gas and steel
• Testing and NICEIC certification upon completion

CLASS ACTIVITY
Students will apply Ohm’s Law to calculate the expected current and voltage drops,
comparing their theoretical calculations with actual measurements. To extend the activity,
students can modify the circuit by adding additional resistors in series or parallel and
observe how these changes affect the overall circuit behavior, reinforcing concepts like
total resistance and voltage division.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS 29
SUMMARY
• An electric circuit is a representation of a real circuit that is used to connect
different devices.
• A circuit in which the switch is open and current does not flow through the
circuit is called an open circuit.
• Whenever the current in the circuit follows a shorter path rather than following
its usual path short circuit happens.
• Electric current is passed to our house at 220 volts through a circuit called a
Fuse. If the supplied voltage varies a lot as compared to the allowed voltage
the fuse wire gets to break and stopped the flow of current in the circuit.
• Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material.
The unit of current is Ampere whilst charge is measured in Coulombs.
• Voltage or potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is 1
V if 1 J (Joule) of energy is expended in transferring 1 C of charge between
those points.
• A circuit load can also be referred to as a sink since it dissipates energy whereas
the voltage or current supply can be termed as a source.
• The voltage or potential difference across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the material.
• A capacitor is a passive circuit element that has the capacity to store charge
in an electric field. It is widely used in electric circuits in the form of a filter.
• An independent source produces its own voltage and current through some
chemical reaction and does not depend on any other voltage or current variable
in the circuit.
• A current source, unlike the DC voltage source, is not a physical reality. However,
it is useful in deriving equivalent circuit models of semiconductor devices such
as a transistor.
• Voltage divider rule provides a useful formula to determine the voltage across
any resistor when two or more resistors are connected in series with a voltage
source.
• Current divider rule provides a useful relationship for determining the current
through individual circuit elements that are connected in parallel.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is electric circuit? Explain the types of electric circuits.
2. What is simple circuit?
3. What are the different circuit elements? Explain each of them.
4. Elaborate the Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL).
5. What is electric circuits analysis?
30 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

REFERENCES
1. Cathey, J., & Nasar, S. (1997). Basic Electrical Engineering (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
2. Dorf, R. C., & Svoboda, J. A. (2014). Introduction to Electric Circuits (9th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Fitzgerald, A. E., Higginbotham, D. E., & Grabel, A. (1975). Basic Electrical Engineering.
McGraw-Hill.
4. Hambley, A. R. (2019). Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications (7th ed.,
global ed.). Pearson Education Limited. Available from: https://ebookcentral.proquest.
com/lib/gla/detail.action?docID=5573664 (accessed on 1 July 2024).
5. Kuphaldt, T. (2021). Using the Spice circuit simulation program. In Lessons in
electricity: Reference (Vol. 5, Ch. 7). Retrieved from: https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/
electricCircuits/Ref/REF.pdf.
6. Naeem, W. (2009). Concepts in Electric Circuits. ISBN 978-87-7681-499-1.
7. Nahvi, M., & Edminister, J. (2014). Schaum’s Outlines Electric Circuits (6th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education. Available from: http://www.vlebooks.com/vleweb/product/
openreader?id=GlasgowUni&isbn=9780071830461 (accessed on 1 July 2024).
8. Nilsson, J. W., & Riedel, S. A. (2015). Electric Circuits (10th ed.). Pearson.
9. Nilsson, J., & Riedel, S. (1999). Electric Circuits (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
10. Robbins, A., & Miller, W. (2000). Circuit Analysis: Theory and Practice (6th ed.).
Delmar.
11. Spiegel, M. R., & Stephens, L. J. (2018). Schaum’s Outlines: Statistics (6th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education. Available from: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/gla/
detail.action?docID=6255552 (accessed on 1 July 2024).
 CHAPTER
Resistive Network
2 Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand about series circuit
• Learn about parallel circuits
• Identify a parallel resistive circuit
• Determine the voltage across each branch in a parallel circuit
• Apply Kirchhoff’s current law
• Determine total parallel resistance
• Determine the total effect of current sources in parallel
• Use a parallel circuit as a current divider
• Determine power in a parallel circuit
• Describe some basic applications of parallel circuits
• Troubleshoot parallel circuits
• Demonstrate the node voltage method
• Provide a step-by-step introduction to using the mesh current method

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Branch Branch current Circuit
Current divider Current flow Current source
Currents Electrical circuit Electrical network
Kirchhoff’s current law Kirchhoff’s voltage law Loop
Mesh Millman’s theorem Network analysis
Node Norton’s theorem Ohm’s Law
INTRODUCTION
Many circuit elements connected in a necessary way and powered by one or more
voltage or current sources make up a network. The computation of circuit voltage and
current is a component of network analysis. Calculating the potential difference between
any two points in the network or the current passing through a specific circuit element
may be necessary. For this purpose, various techniques are available. When performing
calculations, an expert will employ the best method. The following list includes some
fundamental terms related to electrical networks.
• Network elements: An electrical network will have interconnected components
such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, and diode. The network will also have
voltage source or current source or both.
• Branch: An electrical network will have a number of branches. Each branch
will have two terminals.
• Node: In a network, two or more branches meet at certain points. The junction
point of two or more branches in a network is called node.
• Loop or Mesh: A closed path is called a loop, and the current that travels along
the closed path after a loop is known as loop current. Any closed path in a
network is called a loop. The smallest loop that exists in a network is called a
mesh. Any loop devoid of any other loops is called a mesh. The terms mentioned
above are illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Distinction between loop and mesh illustrated.

Source: S. K. Bhattacharya. Basic Electrical Engineering. Pearson. ISBN: 9788131763261.

Voltage sources and resistances make up the network elements. There are nodes
at A and B. Current flows through three loops, denoted as I1, I2, and I3, respectively.
Current I1 and I2, respectively, are flowing through two independent loops. The smallest
loops are these ones. We refer to them as mesh.
The voltage equations for each loop can be written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage
law. We can compute the loop current and, in turn, the branch currents I by solving
the equations. e. every component in the circuit has current flowing through it.

32 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 33

2.1. SERIES CIRCUIT

A series circuit is a type of electrical circuit arrangement in which all of the parts
are connected end to end to create a single path for current flow. Consequently, the
circuit’s current will pass through each component one after the other. As the number
of resistors connected in a series circuit increases, the total resistance—which is the
sum of the individual resistances of the circuit’s components—increases.

• This is because the current goes on through each resistor, one after the other,
then the resistance it will face is the sum of the resistances of each resistor.
• This is because the voltage drop in each element on which current is flowing
is constant and proportional to the element’s resistance.
• A key characteristic of the series circuit is that if one part or component fails or
is removed, the circuit would be broken so that no current will flow through it.
Four resistors are shown in series with a voltage source in Figure 2.2. All points
in a series circuit have the same amount of current. This is due to the fact that the
current flowing into and out of any given point in this circuit must always be equal.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the total voltage source in a closed path in a
circuit should equal the sum of all the voltage drops surrounding it.

Figure 2.2. DC series circuit.

Source: S. K. Bhattacharya. Basic Electrical Engineering. Pearson. ISBN: 9788131763261.

The voltage drops across the resistances are V1, V2, V3, and V4, respectively. Since
the same current is flowing through all the resistances, we can write;
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, & V4 = IR4 (1)
Again, the total voltage applied is V is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across
the resistances. Thus, we can write;
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (2)
To find the value of equivalent resistance of a number of resistances connected in
series, we equate the voltage, V of the two equivalents in units are shown in Figure
2.2(a) and Figure 2.2(b) as;
34 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 (3) same two points in a circuit is a crucial
qualification to Ohm’s law. Let’s look at this
or idea for a circuit with a single resistor before
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 (4) moving on to the more intricate series circuit
shown in Figure 2.3.
Assuming
Req equal to R, R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 (5) 2.1.1.1. Using Ohm’s Law in a Single
Resistor Circuit
Resistances connected in series
can therefore be understood to have an In this preliminary analysis, we will assess
equivalent resistance across the supply the voltage and current for the circuit with
that is equal to the sum of the individual a single resistor shown in Figure 2.4.
resistances.

2.1.1. Current in a Series

Circuit
Every component in a circuit that is
connected in series receives the same
amount of current. This is due to the fact
that the current flow has only one path.
Because electric charge moves through
conductors like marbles through a tube, Figure 2.4. Series circuit with a battery and a
there must always be an equal marble speed single resistor.
or flow rate throughout the circuit (tube)
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/
at all times. textbook/direct-current/chpt-5/simple-series-
circuits/.

We can state that point 1 is electrically

common to point 2 and that point 3 is
electrically common to point 4 because
points 1 and 2 as well as points 3 and
4 are connected together with a wire of
negligible resistance.
The circuit must drop 9 V between
points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor)
Figure 2.3. Series circuit with a battery and
three resistors. since it has 9 V of electromotive force
between points 1 and 4 (directly across the
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/ battery). This is due to the requirement of
textbook/direct-current/chpt-5/simple-series- Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, which states that
circuits/. the total of all loop voltages must equal
zero.
The requirement that all quantities
(voltage, current, resistance, and power) Since we are aware of the voltage (V)
relate to one another in terms of the across the resistor and its resistance (R), we
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 35
can use Ohm’s Law (I = V/R) to calculate circuit of Figure 2.5 is 9 V, which is present
the current flowing through it. We can apply between points 1 and 4. To attempt to
Ohm’s law formula without any reservations determine the current value, we are unable
because all terms (V, I, and R) relate to the to divide the 9 V value by 3 kΩ, 10 kΩ, or
same two points in the circuit as well as 5 kΩ since we are unsure of the voltage
that resistor: across each of those resistors separately.
While the values of 3 kΩ, 10 kΩ, or 5
(6) kΩ correspond to the individual resistors,
the voltage value of 9 V represents the
total quantity for the entire circuit. The
result would not precisely correspond to any
(7)
quantity in the actual circuit if we were to
enter a value for individual resistance and
2.1.1.2. Using Ohm’s Law for Series Circuits a value for total voltage into an Ohm’s law
with Multiple Resistors equation.
Looking back at the circuit in Figure 2.3, we For R1, Ohm’s law will relate the amount
can observe that the 9 V battery’s polarity of voltage across R1 with the current through
will once more cause a current, I, to flow R1, given R1’s resistance of 3 kΩ:
from point 1 to point 2 to point 3 to point
4 and back to point 1. Figure 2.5 provides
an illustration of this idea.
(8)
ER1 = IR1…3 kΩ (9)
However, we are unable to perform any
calculations using either formula because we
do not know the voltage across R1 (only the
total voltage supplied by the battery across
the three-resistor series combination) or the
current flowing through R1. For R2 and R3,
the same holds true: we can only use Ohm’s
Figure 2.5. Current in a series circuit with a law equations if every term represents the
battery and three resistors. quantity between the same two points in
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/ the circuit. We know the resistance of each
textbook/direct-current/chpt-5/simple-series- resistor and the voltage of the source (9
circuits/. V) applied across the series combination
of R1, R2, and R3. So, what can we do? We
Three resistances and one voltage are unable to calculate the circuit current
source, though, are what we have. From using Ohm’s law, though, because those
there, we could think about applying Ohm’s quantities aren’t in the same context. We
law in this case. could use our value for total voltage (I =
V/R) to calculate the total current if we only
The electromotive force driving the
knew the circuit’s total resistance.
current through the series combination of
R1, R2, and R3 in the three-resistor example
36 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.1.2.1. Using Ohm’s Law to Calculate

2.1.2. How to Calculate Total
Circuit Current in a Series Circuit
Resistance in a Series Circuit
After completing all of those computations,
This leads us to the second principle of
we now have the voltage between points
series circuits: the sum of the individual
1 and 4 (9 V) and the resistance between
resistances in a series circuit equals the
points 1 and 4 (18 kΩ), which allows us to
total resistance of the circuit.
compute the circuit current for Figure 2.6.
This should make intuitive sense; in
essence, the more resistors in series the
current must pass through, the more
challenging the current will be to flow. (13)

In the example problem, we had a 3 kΩ,

10 kΩ, and 5 kΩ resistors in series, giving
us a total resistance of 18 kΩ: (14)

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 (10)
2.1.3. How to Calculate Voltage
Rtotal = 3 kΩ + 10 kΩ + 5 kΩ (11)
Drop in a Series Circuit
Rtotal = 18 kΩ (12) We can refer back to our initial circuit
Essentially, what we have determined is schematic of Figure 2.6 and observe the
the total equivalent resistance of R1, R2, and current through each component, as shown
R3 taken together. With this knowledge, we in Figure 2.7, knowing that current flows
can recreate the circuit (Figure 2.6) using equally through all of a series circuit’s
just one equivalent resistor to stand in for components (we have just found the current
the R1, R2, and R3 series combination. through the battery).

Figure 2.7. Calculated current for the series

Figure 2.6. Circuit showing total equivalent circuit.
resistance of series resistors.
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/ textbook/direct-current/chpt-5/simple-series-
textbook/direct-current/chpt-5/simple-series- circuits/.
circuits/.
We can use Ohm’s law to calculate the
voltage drop across each resistor now that
we know how much current flows through
them (using Ohm’s law appropriately):
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 37
VR1 = IR1 ⋅ R1 = (500 μA) ⋅ (3 kΩ) = 1.5 (15)

VR2 = IR2 ⋅ R2 = (500 μA) ⋅ (10 kΩ) = 5.0 (16)

VR3 = IR3 ⋅ R3 = (500 μA) ⋅ (5 kΩ) = 2.5 (17)

Notice that sum of the voltage drops (1.5 + 5.0 + 2.5 = 9.0 V) is equal to the battery
(supply) voltage of 9 V.
This is the third principle of series circuits—the total voltage drop in a series circuit
equals the sum of the individual voltage drops.

2.1.4. Applications of Series Circuit

Series circuits have various applications, including:
• Lighting Circuits: The lighting boards have a series circuit because the bulbs
are connected in series there. Any incident, like one lightbulb burning out, will
cause an electrical circuit, which will break the connection and turn off all of
the bulbs. Older holiday light strings frequently have this feature.
• Voltage Dividers: When using a voltage divider circuit, which has an output
voltage that is a fraction of the input voltage, a series circuit is frequently used.
Using a couple of resistors to create a series circuit that produces a voltage
across a single resistor, this technique is achieved.
• Temperature Sensors: Temperature sensors are a practical illustration of a series
circuit; the true temperature of a temperature-variable resistor (thermistor) is
measured by measuring the change in resistance of the resistor. The circuit
contains two thermistors. The thermistor is connected to the voltage divider
circuit and the fixed resistor in series.
• Battery Packs: One tool for raising the battery’s overall output voltage is a series
circuit. As you connect the batteries in series, the voltage gradually rises. In
this manner, a high output voltage can be obtained, which has numerous uses,
such as in mobile electronics and electric vehicles.
• Electrical Safety Devices: Circuit breakers and fuses are examples of series
circuits. The latter are circuit-protecting devices that, upon detection of an
overload or short circuit, interrupt the circuit to preserve its constituent parts.
38 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.2. PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Electric current can travel through several paths in a parallel circuit. The current can
flow through it in two or more paths. One of the two circuit configurations that give
the impression of being in parallel is a parallel circuit, where all of the devices share
an end point.
Each resistor offers a distinct path for current when they are connected in parallel
and a voltage is applied across the parallel circuit. As more resistors are connected in
parallel, the total resistance of the circuit is lowered. The voltage applied across the
parallel circuit as a whole is equal to the voltage across each parallel resistor.
When current flows from a node to several paths that eventually converge at a
common node, the circuit is said to be parallel. The name “parallel circuits” comes from
the path’s apparent parallel appearance caused by the branching. Each branch has a
different current flow because of branching, but it’s crucial to remember that every
branch has the same potential difference—that is, the potential drop between the two
node points.
The current in these circuits is first branched out before being recombined at the
common point. Elements in a parallel circuit aren’t connected end to end.

2.2.1. Key Principles of Parallel Circuit

Here are the three key principles of laws of the parallel circuit:
• Voltage: In a parallel circuit, voltage is significant. The voltage is the same
across all parts. This indicates that there is always the same voltage drop in
each branch of a parallel circuit.
• Resistance: Reduced resistances add up to a smaller overall resistance. This
indicates that as more components are added, the circuit’s overall resistance
decreases, leading to a smaller overall resistance.
• Current: A higher total current is obtained by adding the branch currents. This
indicates that the total current in the circuit increases when we add the current
of each individual branch. Using Ohm’s Law for Parallel Circuits to Determine
Current.

2.2.2. Working of Parallel Circuit

The parallel circuit looks like any other circuit with the addition of branching as shown
below:
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 39
common nodes where each branch
starts and ends. Between these
two common points, there can be
multiple branches
• Voltage is the same across each
branch of the parallel circuit equal
to the potential drop between the
two nodes.
• The sum of the currents through
each branch is equal to the
total current that flows from the
Figure 2.8. Parallel circuits. source. This means current I = I1
+ I2+…………..In.
Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/parallel-
circuits/. • The Total circuit resistance
decreases as the number of
In a parallel circuit, the current flowing branches increases. This can be
in the circuit is equal to the sum of current shown mathematically, equivalent
in the individual branch. We will apply this resistance of a parallel circuit is
in the above circuit. less than the smallest individual
resistance in the circuit.
Hence; I = I1 + I2 + I3
• Each component in a parallel circuit
Since the voltage across each branch works on its own i.e., it operates
is the same we write I = V/Ri independently. If one component
gets damaged or is removed, the
I = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 (18) others will continue to function
Let Req be the equivalent Resistance of without having any effect.
the circuit then
V/Req = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 (19)
2.2.4. Advantages of Parallel
Circuits
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (20)
The advantages of parallel circuits are:
Hence equivalent resistance of the
• Independent Components: In a
circuit is;
parallel circuit, all components
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (21) operate independently. Since the
components have an independent
voltage they work even when a
2.2.3. Characteristics of Parallel component in any other branch is
Circuits not working.
Some characteristics of parallel circuits are • Different Current Distribution: In
mentioned below: the real world, every appliance has
its current requirement depending
• Instead of being connected end- on its rating. In a parallel circuit,
to-end, each device joins the every branch may have a different
same two spots i.e., there are two
40 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

current flowing through it thereby allowing different current distribution.

• Stable Voltage: Each device in a parallel circuit receives constant voltage, this
stable running voltage is the same across each branch ensuring a stable circuit.
• Low Resistance: In a parallel circuit, the equivalent resistance is less than the
smallest individual resistance. As we know current is inversely proportional to
resistance. This can result in increased current flow, hence being useful when
a high current is required.
• Low Complexity: Parallel circuits are easy to design due to their low complexity
and are reliable circuits.

2.2.5. Disadvantages of Parallel Circuits

The disadvantages of parallel circuits are:
• Additional Cost: Due to additional components in parallel circuits as compared
to series circuits, parallel circuits have an additional cost associated with
purchasing components.
• Power Consumption: Due to more components in parallel circuits than series
circuits, the power consumption of these circuits can increase drastically. This
is common when multiple components are operating simultaneously.
• Complex Diagnosis: In a parallel circuit, identifying the source of an error can
be more difficult as compared to a series circuit because there are multiple
paths for current to flow hence multiple sources of error.

2.2.6. Applications of Parallel Circuits

There is a need for Parallel circuits because they have various applications in different
fields some of which are given below:
• Parallel circuits form the major circuit of housing outlets. Since there are different
appliances in the household, a parallel circuit ensures each appliance is getting
an equal and stable voltage supply.
• Parallel circuits are commonly used in a factory. If someone shuts off a conveyor
belt, it’s not going to impact the performance of any other piece of equipment
on the factory floor like rollers will still be working. This way we can run the
industry in case one equipment fails.
• Security systems also utilize parallel circuits. Earlier security cameras were
installed using series circuits but parallel circuits have overpowered them now
due to the errors in series circuits. One major issue with a series circuit was
that if one part of the circuit fails, the other parts will fail as well resulting in
a failed security system. Thereby we use parallel circuits for this.
• Parallel circuits are also used within automobile units, specifically for wiring
car headlights. The effectiveness of the other lights is unaffected by a single
damaged tail light, ensuring safety.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 41
2.2.7. Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuit
The Table 2.1 represents the difference between series and parallel circuits
Table 2.1. Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuits

Parameter Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Voltage Voltage across each The voltage across each
distribution component may not branch is necessarily the
necessarily same same
Current Current across each Current is divided so
distribution component is necessarily current across each
the same component may not be
necessarily the same
Overall Total Resistance has a Overall Resistance has
Resistance larger value than the less value than the
maximum resistance minimum resistance
Alignment In this electrical circuit, In this electrical
components are arranged circuit, components are
in a line arranged parallel to
each other
Dependency If one component in the Other components will
Circuit breaks down, the function even if one
whole circuit will get component breaks down
damaged. since components are
independent
Example An example of a series Parallel circuits are like
circuit is a string of the smaller veins that
Diwali lights. If any divide into branches
one of the bulbs gets from our heart and then
damaged, no current will connect to other parts
flow and none of the to return blood to the
lights will go on. heart.
2.3. RESISTORS IN
PARALLEL
In a circuit, resistors are connected in parallel when two or more of them are connected
individually between two different points, or nodes. Multiple paths for current flow are
provided by a parallel circuit.
A parallel circuit is one that has multiple branches, each of which is referred to
as a current path. Figure 2.9(a) depicts two resistors connected in parallel. When the
current leaves the source (IT) and reaches point A, it splits, as part (b) illustrates. I1
passes through R1, and I2 passes via R2. More current paths are available between
point A and point B if additional resistors are connected in parallel with the first two,
as seen in Figure 2.9(c). Every point along the top, represented by the color blue, is
electrically equivalent to point A, and every point along the bottom, represented by the
color green, is electrically equivalent to point B.

Figure 2.9. Resistors in parallel.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

It is clear that the resistors are connected in parallel in Figure 2.9. In real circuit
diagrams, the parallel relationship is frequently not as obvious. It is imperative that
you acquire the ability to identify parallel circuits, irrespective of their drawing style.
A rule for identifying parallel circuits is as follows:
There is a parallel circuit between two points if there are multiple current paths, or
branches, connecting them and if the voltage across each branch is present between
the two points.
Parallel resistors drawn in various configurations between two distinct points, A
and B, are shown in Figure 2.10. Notably, there are two routes for the current to travel
from point A to point B in each instance, and the voltage across each branch is the
same. There can be any number of resistors in parallel, even though these examples
only display two parallel paths.

42 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 43

Figure 2.10. Examples of circuits with two parallel paths.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Example 1
The figure below illustrates the placement of five resistors on a protoboard. Align all
of the resistors in parallel between A and B using the wiring that is needed. Put the
values of the resistors on each label and draw a schematic.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

• Solution: The wiring diagram in figure (a) below illustrates how the wires are
connected. Figure below (b) displays the schematic. Remember that the resistor
arrangement as it is in reality need not always be depicted in the schematic.
The schematic illustrates the electrical connections between the parts.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

44 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Example 2 Parallel Resistor Calculator: Provide all of

the resistance values in parallel, separated
The following are tools to calculate the by a comma “,” and click the “Calculate”
ohm value and tolerance based on resistor button to determine total resistance.
color codes, the total resistance of a group
of resistors in parallel or in series, and the
resistance of a conductor based on size and
conductivity.
Result
Resistor color code calculator: Use this
calculator to find out the ohm value and To t a l resistance in parallel is
tolerance based on resistor color codes. 1.2703136679494.
Resistors in Series Calculator: Provide all
of the resistance values in series separated
Result
by a comma “,” and click the “Calculate”
52 MΩ ±5% (J) button to determine total resistance.

Result
Total resistance in series is 155.
Resistance of a Conductor: Use the
following to calculate the resistance of
a conductor. This calculator assumes the
conductor is round.

Result
Total resistance of the conductor is
0.40371174065481 ohm (Ω).

Source: https://www.calculator.net/resistor-
calculator.html
2.4. VOLTAGE IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Any branch in a parallel circuit has a voltage across it that is equal to the voltage
across all the other branches in the circuit. As you are aware, in a parallel circuit, every
current path is referred to as a branch. Let’s look at Figure 2.11(a) to see voltage in a
parallel circuit illustrated. Because the voltage is the same along this line, points A, B,
C, and D on the left side of the parallel circuit are electrically identical. You can imagine
that a single wire connects each of these points to the battery’s negative terminal. The
voltage at each of the points E, F, G, and H on the right side of the circuit is the same
as the voltage at the source’s positive terminal. As a result, the voltage across every
parallel resistor is the same and equal to the voltage at the source. Take note of how
Figure 2.11’s parallel circuit resembles a ladder.

The circuit shown in Part (a) of Figure 2.11(b) is the same, but it is drawn slightly differently.
Here, the negative battery terminal serves as the single point to which the left side of each
resistor is connected. Every resistor has a single point of connection, the positive battery
terminal, on its right side. All of the resistors across the source are still connected in parallel.

Figure 2.11. Voltage across parallel branches is the same.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Three parallel resistors are connected across a 12 V battery in Figure 2.12. The
values obtained from measuring the voltage across the battery and then across each
resistor are identical. As you can see, in a parallel circuit, every branch exhibits the
same voltage.

RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 45

46 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Example 3
Determine the voltage across each resistor
in figure below.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric

Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

• Solution: The five resistors are in

parallel, so the voltage across each
one is equal to the applied source
Figure 2.12. The same voltage appears across voltage. There is no voltage across
each resistor in parallel. the fuse. The voltage across the
Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric resistors is;
Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667. V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = VS = 25 V (22)
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 47

2.5. KIRCHHOFF’S
CURRENT LAW
Regarding voltages in a single closed path, Kirchhoff’s voltage law applies. Kirchhoff’s
law of currents in multiple paths is applicable (Athavale Prashant, 2018).
Kirchhoff’s current law, often abbreviated KCL, can be stated as follows:
A node’s total current in (total current in) and total current out (total current out)
are the same.
Any junction or point in a circuit where two or more components are connected
is called a node. A node, also known as a junction, is where the parallel branches of
a circuit come together. Point A and Point B are two examples of nodes in the circuit
shown in Figure 2.13. Let’s follow the current and begin at the source’s positive terminal.
Node A is receiving all of the source’s current IT. This is where the current divides into
the three branches as shown. Node A is the source of all three branch currents (I1, I2,
and I3). Kirchhoff’s current law says that the total current into node A is equal to the
total current out of node A; that is;
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 (23)
The currents in Figure 2.13 now show that they re-join at node B after passing
through the three branches. Nodes I1, I2, and I3 are receiving currents, while node B is
receiving IT. Therefore, at node B, Kirchhoff’s current law formula is the same as it is
at node A.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 (24)

Figure 2.13. Kirchhoff’s current law: The current into a node equals the current out of that node.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

48 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 2.14 illustrates the general case of Kirchhoff’s current law and can be written
as a mathematical relationship:

(25)
Moving the terms on the right side to the left side and changing the sign results in
the following equivalent equation:

(26)
This equation shows that all current into and out of the junction sums to zero and can
be stated as;
The algebraic sum of all of the currents entering and leaving a node is equal to zero.
Kirchhoff’s current law can be written in an equivalent manner using mathematical
summation shorthand.

(27)

Figure 2.14. Generalized circuit node illustrating Kirchhoff’s current law.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

This method of expressing Kirchhoff’s current law involves giving each current a
sequential subscript (1, 2, 3, and so on), regardless of whether the current is entering
or exiting the node. Positive currents enter the node, and negative currents exit the
node. As shown in Figure 2.15, you can confirm Kirchhoff’s current law by connecting
a circuit and measuring the current flowing through each branch as well as the total
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 49
current coming from the source. The total Solution
current will equal the sum of the branch
currents when they are added together. The total current out of node A is the sum
Any number of branches are covered by of the two branch currents. So the total
this rule (Oldham, Kalil T. Swain (2008). current into node A is;

The following four examples illustrate IT = I1 + I2 = 5 mA + 12 mA = 17 mA (28)

use of Kirchhoff’s current law.
The total current entering node B is the
sum of the two branch currents. So, the
total current out of node B is;
IT = I1 + I2 = 5 mA + 12 mA = 17 Ma (29)

Example 5
Determine the current I2 through R2 in figure
below.

Figure 2.15. An illustration of Kirchhoff’s current

law.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric

Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric

Example 4 Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

The branch currents are shown in the circuit

of figure below. Determine the total current Solution
entering node A and the total current
leaving node B. The total current into the junction of the
three branches is IT = I1 + I2 + I3. From this
figure, you know the total current and the
branch currents through R1 and R3. Solve
for I2 as follows:
I2 = IT – I1 – I3 = 100 mA – 30 mA – 20 mA
= 50 mA (30)

Example 6
Use Kirchhoff’s current law to find the
Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric
Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.
current measured by ammeters A3 and A5
in figure below.
50 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Solution
The total current into node X is 5 mA. Two currents are out of node X: 1.5 mA through
resistor R1 and the current through A3. Kirchhoff’s current law applied at node X gives;
5 mA – 1.5 mA – IA3 = 0 (31)
Solving for IA3 yields
IA3 = 5 mA – 1.5 mA = 3.5 mA (32)
The total current into node Y is IA3 = 3.5 mA. Two currents are out of node Y: 1
mA through resistor R2 and the current through A5 and Kirchhoff’s current law applied
at node Y gives
3.5 mA – 1 mA – IA5 = 0 (33)
Solving for IA5 yields
IA5 = 3.5 mA – 1 mA = 2.5 mA (34)

Example 7
Using Kirchhoff’s current law, find the current in each of two taillights given that the
total current from the battery is 8.0 A and together the headlights draw 5.6 A.

Solution
IBAT – IT(HEAD) – IT(TAIL) = 0 (35)
Rearranging and changing the signs,
IT(TAIL) = IBAT – IT(HEAD) = 8.0 A – 5.6 A = 2.4 A (36)
Because the taillights are identical, each draws 2.4 A/2 = 1.2 A.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 51

2.6. TOTAL PARALLEL

RESISTANCE
The circuit’s overall resistance drops when resistors are connected in parallel. In a
parallel circuit, the total resistance is always less than the value of the smallest resistor.
For instance, the total resistance is less than 10 Ω when two resistors, 10 Ω and 100
Ω, are connected in parallel.
As you are aware, there are multiple paths for the current to travel when resistors
are connected in parallel. The number of parallel branches and the number of current
paths are equal.
Because the circuit in Figure 2.16(a) is a series circuit, there is only one current
path. A specific amount of current, I1, flows through R1. As seen in Figure 2.16(b), when
resistor R2 is connected in parallel with R1, more current, I2, flows through R2. With the
parallel resistor added, the source’s overall current has increased. According to Ohm’s
law, an increase in the total current coming from the source indicates a decrease in the
total resistance, assuming that the source voltage remains constant. Further parallel
connections between resistors will lower resistance even more while raising total current.

Figure 2.16. Addition of resistors in parallel reduces total resistance and increases total current.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

2.6.1. Formula for Total Parallel Resistance

A general example of n resistors connected in parallel is shown in the circuit in Figure
2.17 (n can be any integer greater than 1). From Kirchhoff’s current law, the equation
for current is;
52 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(37)

Figure 2.17. Circuit with n resistors in parallel.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Since VS is the voltage across each of the parallel resistors, by Ohm’s law, I1 = VS/
R1, I2 = VS/R2, and so on. By substitution into the equation for current;

(38)
Only the resistance terms remain after factoring out the term VS from the right side
of the equation and canceling it with VS on the left.

(39)
Remember that conductance, represented by G, is the reciprocal of resistance (1/R).
The Siemen is the unit of conductance (S). The equation for 1/RT can be expressed in
terms of conductance as

(40)
Solve for RT by taking the reciprocal of (that is, by inverting) both sides of the
equation for 1/RT.

(41)
Eqn. (41) demonstrates that you must add up all of the 1/R (or conductance, G) terms and
then take the reciprocal of the total to determine the total parallel resistance.

(42)
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 53
Example 8 then use the x–1 key to get its reciprocal.
Calculate the total parallel resistance On certain calculators, the reciprocal is a
between points A and B of the circuit in secondary function. Afterwards, hit the +
figure below. key. After entering R2’s value and finding
its reciprocal with the x–1 key, hit the + key
once more. Once all of the resistor values
have been entered, repeat this process and
hit ENTER. To obtain RT, the last step is to
press the x–1 and ENTER keys. On the display
at this point is the total parallel resistance.
Depending on the calculator in question, the
display format may change. For example, the
steps required for a typical calculator solution
Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric
Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.
of Example 2.7 are as follows:

• Enter 100. Display shows 100.

Solution • Press x–1 (or 2nd then x–1). Display
shows 100–1.
To calculate the total parallel resistance
• Press +. Display shows 100–1 + .
when you know the individual resistances,
first find the conductance, which is the • Enter 47. Display shows 100–1 + 47.
reciprocal of the resistance, of each of the • Press x–1 (or 2nd then x–1). Display
three resistors. shows 100–1 + 47–1.
• Press +. Display shows 100–1 + 47–1
+ .
• Enter 22. Display shows 100–1 +
47–1 + 22.
(43) • Press x–1 (or 2nd then x–1). Display
shows 100–1 + 47–1 + 22–1.
Next, calculate RT by adding G1, G2, and • Press ENTER. Display shows a
G3 and taking the reciprocal of the sum. result of 76.7311411992E–3.
• Press x–1 (or 2nd then x–1) and then
(44) ENTER. Display shows a result of
13.0325182758E0.
For a quick accuracy check, notice that the
The number displayed in Step 10 is the
value of RT (13.0 Ω) is smaller than the
total resistance in ohms. Round it to 13.0 Ω.
smallest value in parallel, which is RT (22
Ω) as it should be.
2.6.3. The Case of Two
2.6.2. Calculator Tip Resistors in Parallel
Eqn. (41) can be used to quickly solve the A general formula for calculating the total
parallel-resistance formula on a calculator. resistance of any number of resistors
Typically, you would enter R1’s value and connected in parallel is Eqn. (41). In practice,
54 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

it is common to combine two resistors

in parallel. As an alternative method of
determining the RT, resistors in parallel of
any number can also be divided into pairs.
Based on Eqn. (41), the formula for the total
resistance of two resistors in parallel is:

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric

Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.
(45)
Combining the terms in the denominator Solution
yields
Use Eqn. (47).

(48)

(46)
2.6.4. The Case of Equal-Value
Which can be rewritten as follows:
Resistors in Parallel
The parallel connection of multiple resistors
with the same resistance value is another
(47) special case of a parallel circuit. When this
The total resistance for two resistors situation arises, there is a quick way to
connected in parallel is equal to the product calculate RT.
of the resistors divided by the total of the If several resistors in parallel have the
resistors, according to Eqn. (47). same resistance, they can be assigned
The “product over the sum” formula is the same symbol R. For example,
another name for this equation. . Starting with
Eqn. (41), you can develop a special formula
for finding RT.
Example 9
Calculate the total resistance connected to
the voltage source of the circuit in figure (49)
below.
Observe that the same term, 1/R, is
added n times to the denominator (n being
the number of parallel equal-value resistors).
Therefore, the formula can be written as:

(50)
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 55
or

(51)
The resistance divided by the number of
resistors in parallel, or RT, is what happens
when any number of resistors (n) with
the same resistance (R) are connected in
parallel, according to Eqn. (51). (53)
Where; Rx is the unknown resistor and RA
is the known or selected value.
Example 10
Example 11
Four 8 Ω speakers are connected in parallel
to the output of an amplifier. What is the Suppose that you wish to obtain a resistance
total resistance across the output of the as close to 150 Ω as possible by combining
amplifier? two resistors in parallel. There is a 330 Ω
resistor available. What other value do you
need?
Solution
Solution
There are four 8 Ω resistors in parallel. Use
Equation 51 as follows: RT = 150 Ω and RA = 330 Ω. Therefore;

(54)
(52)
The closest standard value is 270 Ω.

2.6.5. Determining an Unknown 2.6.6. Notation for Parallel

Parallel Resistor Resistors
There are situations when you need to figure Two parallel vertical marks are sometimes
out the resistor values that go together to used to identify parallel resistors for ease of
create the desired total resistance. To get use. For instance, R1 and R2 can be written
a known total resistance, for instance, you as R1 ‖ R2. Additionally, this notation can
can use two resistors in parallel. Eqn. (47) be applied when multiple resistors are
for two parallel resistors can be used to connected in parallel. For example;
determine the second resistor value if you
know or choose at random the value of the (55)
first resistor. The formula for determining
Indicates that R1 through R5 are all in parallel.
the value of an unknown resistor R x is
developed as follows: This notation is also used with resistance
values. For example;

(56)
Means that a 10 kΩ resistor is in parallel
with a 5 kΩ resistor.
2.7. CURRENT SOURCES
IN PARALLEL
An energy source that supplies a steady current to a load regardless of the load’s
resistance is known as a current source. In electronic circuits, current sources are crucial
because a transistor can serve as a current source.
Generally speaking, the algebraic sum of the individual current sources equals the
total current generated by current sources operating in parallel. When combining the
sources in parallel, the algebraic sum requires you to take the current’s direction into
account. For instance, the three parallel current sources in figure below (a) supply
current in the same direction (into node A). So the total current into node A is;
IT = 1 A + 2 A + 2 A = 5 A (57)
In figure below (b), the 1 A source provides current in a direction opposite to the
other two. The total current into node A in this case is;
IT = 2 A + 2 A – 1 A = 3 A (58)

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Example 12 Solution
Determine the current through RL in figure The two current sources are in the same
below. direction; so, the current through RL is:

(59)

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric

Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

56 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 57

2.8. CURRENT DIVIDERS

Because the current entering the junction of parallel branches “divides” up into several
separate branch currents, a parallel circuit functions as a current divider. Total current
flowing into the junction of parallel branches in a circuit splits among the branches.
Therefore, a current divider is a parallel circuit. For a two-branch parallel circuit, where
part of the total current IT passes through R1 and part through R2, Figure 2.18 illustrates
the current-divider principle.
The branch currents are inversely proportional to the resistor values because each
resistor in parallel is experiencing the same voltage. For instance, if R2 is twice as
valuable as R1, then I2 is half as valuable as I1. Stated differently, the total current splits
into currents inversely proportional to the resistance values among the parallel resistors.

Figure 2.18. Total current divides between the two branches.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Ohm’s law states that current flows more through branches with lower resistance
and less through branches with higher resistance. Branch currents are equal if there
is a uniform resistance across all branches.

Figure 2.19. The branch with the lower resistance has more current, and the branch with the
higher resistance has less current.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

58 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The values in Figure 2.19 illustrate how the currents split based on the branch
resistances. It is noticeable that in this instance, the upper branch current is ten times
greater than the lower branch current, despite the upper branch resistance being one-
tenth that of the lower branch.

2.8.1. Current-Divider Formula

As seen in Figure 2.20, you can create a formula to find the ratio of currents among
any number of parallel resistors, where n is the total number of resistors.

Figure 2.20. A parallel circuit with n branches.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Any resistor in the parallel configuration has a current of Ix, where x is the resistor
number (1, 2, 3, and so on). The current flowing through any resistor in Figure 2.20 can
be expressed as follows using Ohm’s law:

(60)
Each parallel resistor has the source voltage, VS, across it, and any one of the resistors
is represented by Rx. The total current multiplied by the total parallel resistance equals
the total source voltage, or VS.
VS = ITRT (61)
Substituting ITRT for VS in the expression for Ix results in;

(62)
Rearranging terms yields

(63)
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 59
where x = 1, 2, 3, etc. The general current-divider formula, which can be applied to
any number of branches in a parallel circuit, is Eqn. (63).
The total current (IT) into the junction of parallel branches multiplied by the total
parallel resistance (RT) divided by the resistance (Rx) of that branch yields the current
(Ix) through that branch.

Example 13
Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit of figure below.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Solution
First calculate the total parallel resistance.

(64)
The total current is 10 mA. Use Eqn. (63) to calculate each branch current.

(65)
60 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Current-Divider Formulas for Two Branches: Practical circuits typically have

two parallel resistors, as the figure below illustrates. As you know from Eqn.
(47);

(66)

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

The general current-divider formula found in Eqn. (63) can be used to write the I1
and I2 formulas as follows:

(67)
Substituting R1R2/(R1 + R2) for RT and canceling terms result in:

(68)
Therefore, the current-divider formulas for the special case of two branches are:

(69)

(70)
Keep in mind that the current in one of the branches in Eqns. (69) and (70) is
equal to the resistance of the opposite branch divided by the total of the two resistors,
multiplied by the total current. You need to know the total current flowing into the
parallel branches in order to use the current-divider equations in any application.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 61

2.9. POWER IN PARALLEL

CIRCUITS
The sum of the powers of each individual resistor in a parallel circuit yields the total power,
just as in series circuits.

Eqn. (71) provides a concise formula for calculating total power for any number of
resistors connected in parallel.

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +  + Pn
(71)
Where; PT is the total power and Pn is the power in the last resistor in parallel. As
you can see, the powers are additive, just as in a series circuit.
Parallel circuits can be directly addressed by power formulas. The total power PT
is computed using the following formulas:

PT = VIT
PT = IT2 RT
V2
PT =
RT (72)

Where; V is the voltage across the parallel circuit, IT is the total current into the
parallel circuit, and RT is the total resistance of the parallel circuit.
2.10. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
APPLICATIONS
Almost every electronic system has some sort of parallel circuit. For the time being,
let’s examine a few typical and well-known uses for parallel circuits.

2.10.1. Automotive
The fact that the other branches remain unaffected when one branch opens gives a
parallel circuit an advantage over a series circuit. For instance, a simplified diagram
of a car lighting system can be found in Figure 2.21. Due to their parallel design, an
automobile’s headlights do not automatically go out when one goes out.

Figure 2.21. Simplified diagram of the exterior light system of an automobile.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Take note of the brake lights’ separate on/off switches from the headlights and
taillights. They only turn on when the driver depresses the brake pedal to close the
brake light switch. The headlights and taillights are both on when the lights switch
is in the closed position. A dashed line connects the switches; when the headlights
are on, the parking lights are off, and vice versa. There is still current flowing through
all of the lights in the event that one burns out or opens. Engaging the reverse gear
causes the backup lights to come on.
The rear window defroster in an automobile is another device that uses parallel
resistances. You are aware that resistance causes power to be lost as heat. When power
is applied, a set of parallel resistance wires in the defroster warms the glass. Across
the window, a standard defroster can dissipate more than 100 W. Resistance heating is
easy to use and reasonably priced in situations such as this, despite its inferior efficiency
compared to other heat sources.

62 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 63
2.10.2. Residential control circuits, but additional control
components (switches, relays, timers, and
In residential electrical systems, parallel
more) are added. Ladder logic is the term
circuits are also frequently used. In a house,
for the logical diagram that is produced
every light and appliance is connected in
when control elements are added. Because
parallel. A typical room wiring configuration
ladder logic is simple to comprehend, it is
with two switch-controlled lights and three
frequently used to illustrate control logic
parallel wall outlets is depicted in Figure
in industrial settings like factories or food
2.22.
processing facilities.

2.10.4. Analog Ammeters

The analog (needle-type) ammeter and
milliammeter use parallel circuits. Even
though they are less common than they
formerly were, analog millimeters and panel
meters are still made and can be used in
Figure 2.22. Example of a parallel circuit in some situations. Because parallel circuits
residential wiring. enable the selection of multiple ranges for
the purpose of measuring a wide range of
Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric
Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667. current values, they are a crucial component
of analog ammeter operation.
The meter movement in an ammeter
2.10.3. Control Circuits is the mechanism that moves the pointer
A production line is one example of an in proportion to the current. For the time
industrial process that many control being, knowing that a particular meter
systems monitor and control using parallel movement has a maximum current and a
circuits or equivalent circuits. The majority specific resistance is sufficient.
of sophisticated control applications are
run on programmable logic controllers The pointer moves all the way to
(PLCs), which are specialized computers. the end of the scale as a result of this
An analogous parallel circuit is shown maximum current, also known as the full-
by a PLC and appears on a computer scale deflection current. For instance, a
screen. Internally, the circuit might only particular meter movement has a full-scale
exist as computer code that is written in deflection current of 1 mA and a resistance
a programming language for computers. of 50 Ω.

On the other hand, the circuit that This specific movement of the meter
is shown can theoretically be built using allows it to measure currents of 1 mA or
hardware. These circuits can be represented less, as shown in Figure 2.23(a) and (b).
as a ladder, with the two main nodes As shown in part (c), currents higher than
represented by the rails and the load (and 1 mA will cause the pointer to “peg”—
source) represented by the rungs. (Note, for or stop—slightly past the full scale mark,
instance, how the lights and wall outlets potentially damaging the meter.
in Figure 2.22 resemble a ladder on its
side). Ladder diagrams are used in parallel
64 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 2.23. A 1 mA analog ammeter.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

A basic ammeter with a resistor in parallel with the 1 mA meter movement is

depicted in Figure 2.24; this resistor is known as a shunt resistor. Its goal is to increase
the amount of current that can be measured by bypassing a portion of the current that
flows around the meter movement. In particular, the figure displays 1 mA through the
meter movement and 9 mA through the shunt resistor. So, it is possible to measure up
to 10 mA. Just multiply the scale reading by ten to determine the current value.

Figure 2.24. A 10 mA analog ammeter.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

A range switch on a multiple-range ammeter allows the user to choose between

multiple full-scale current settings. A parallel resistor bypasses a specific amount of
current in each switch position, which is based on the resistance value. The current
flowing through the movement in our example is never more than 1 mA.
A meter with three ranges—1 mA, 10 mA, and 100 mA—is shown in Figure 2.25.
All of the current entering the meter passes through the meter movement when the
range switch is in the 1 mA position. Up to 9 mA can flow through RSH1 and up to 1
mA can flow through the movement when using the 10 mA setting. Up to 99 mA can
pass through RSH2 when the 100 mA setting is used, and the movement can still only
have 1 mA at full scale.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 65

Figure 2.25. An analog ammeter with three ranges.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

The range setting determines how the scale reading should be interpreted. For
instance, in Figure 2.25, the needle points at 0.5 on the scale when 50 mA of current
is being measured; to find the current value, multiply 0.5 by 100. In this case, 49.5 mA
are through RSH2, and 0.5 mA are through the movement (half-scale deflection).
66 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.11. TROUBLESHOOTING
Remember that an open circuit is one where there is no current and the current path
is broken. This section looks at what happens when a parallel circuit branch opens.

2.11.1. Open Branches

As seen in Figure 2.26, a switch can create an open or closed path if it is connected in
a branch of a parallel circuit. As shown in Figure 2.26(a), R1 and R2 are in parallel when
the switch is closed. Two parallel 100 Ω resistors make up the total resistance of 50 Ω.
With both resistors, current flows. R1 is essentially taken out of the circuit and there is
100 Ω of resistance overall if the switch is opened, as shown in Figure 2.26(b). Right
now, only R2 is being used. Generally speaking, when a parallel branch opens, all of
the remaining parallel paths continue to carry the same current while total resistance
and total current both rise.
The amount of current that was previously in the open branch is equal to the
decrease in total current. There is no change in the other branch currents.

Figure 2.26. When switch opens, total current decreases and current through R2 remains unchanged.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

Examine the lamp circuit depicted in Figure 2.27. A 12 V source is connected in

parallel to four bulbs. Every bulb in section (a) has current flowing through it. Now
imagine that one of the lightbulbs burns out, leaving an exposed path as Figure 2.27(b)
illustrates. There is no current flowing through the open path, so this light will go out.
Observe, nevertheless, that all of the other parallel bulbs are still receiving current and
are still glowing. The current flowing through each branch stays constant, and the open
branch has no effect on the voltage across the parallel branches, which stays at 12 V.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 67

Figure 2.27. When one lamp opens, total current decreases and other branch currents remain
unchanged.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

When it comes to lighting systems, it is evident that a parallel circuit has an advantage
over a series circuit since the remaining parallel bulbs will continue to function even in
the event that one or more burn out. When a single bulb in a series circuit burns out,
the current path is totally disrupted, which also causes the other bulbs to burn out.
Because the voltage across all of the branches in a parallel circuit is the same, it
is impossible to locate the open resistor by measuring the voltage across the branches.
Therefore, merely measuring voltage will not reveal which resistor is open. As shown in
Figure 2.28, the good resistors will always have the same voltage as the open resistor
(note that the middle resistor is open).
Current measurements must be used to locate the open resistor if a visual inspection
is unable to identify it. In actuality, measuring current requires inserting the ammeter
in series, making it more challenging than measuring voltage. To connect the ammeter
in series, therefore, one must cut or disconnect a wire or a PC board connection, or lift
one end of a component off the circuit board. Naturally, when voltage measurements
are taken, this process is not necessary because the meter leads are just connected
across a component.

Figure 2.28. Parallel branches (open or not) have the same voltage.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

68 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.11.2. Finding an Open Branch by Current Measurement

The total current in a parallel circuit with a possible open branch can be measured to
identify the open. The total current, IT, is always less than its typical value when a
parallel resistor opens. When all the resistors have different resistance values, you can
calculate which resistor is open by knowing IT and the voltage across the branches.
Examine the circuit with two branches shown in Figure 2.29(a). The total current
will equal the current in the good resistor if one of the resistors opens. You can quickly
determine the recommended current in each resistor by using Ohm’s law.

(73)
As shown in Figure 2.29(b), the total current when R2 is open is 89.3 mA. As shown in
Figure 2.29(c), the total current is 500 mA if R1 is open.

Figure 2.29. Finding an open path by current measurement.

Source: Thomas L. Floyd. Principles of Electric Circuits. Pearson. ISBN: 9781292025667.

You can repeat this process with any number of branches that have different
resistances. The current in each branch must be examined if the parallel resistances
are all the same until a branch with no current is found. This resistor is open.

2.11.3. Finding an Open Branch by Resistance Measurement

An open branch can be found by measuring the total resistance of the parallel circuit
to be checked, provided that it can be disconnected from both its voltage source and
any other circuit to which it might be connected.
Remember that the unit of conductance, G, is the Siemen (S), and that it is the
reciprocal of resistance (1/R). The total of all the resistors’ conductances is the circuit’s
conductance in parallel.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 69

(74)
To locate an open branch, do the following steps:
1. Calculate what the total conductance should be using the individual resistor
values.

(75)
2. Measure the total resistance with an ohmmeter and calculate the total measured
conductance.

(76)
3. Subtract the measured total conductance (Step 2) from the calculated total
conductance (Step 1). The result is the conductance of the open branch and
the resistance is obtained by taking its reciprocal (R = 1/G).

(77)

2.11.4. Shorted Branches

A fuse or circuit breaker will blow when a branch in a parallel circuit shorts, resulting
in an excessive current surge. This makes it challenging to isolate the shorted branch,
which makes troubleshooting the issue challenging.
To locate shorts in a circuit, two common tools are pulsers and current tracers. They
work well in any kind of circuit and are not limited to use in digital circuits. A pen-
shaped device known as a pulser applies pulses to a specific point in a circuit, shorting
out the path and causing current pulses to flow through it. Another pen-shaped device
that detects current pulses is the current tracer.
70 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.12. NODE VOLTAGE

METHOD
A DC network analysis method called the node voltage method is based on a methodical
application of Kirchhoff’s current law. Using this technique, resistances are swapped out for
equivalent conductances and voltage sources are changed to current sources.

The Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) system of equations is used in the node voltage
method of DC network analysis to solve for unknown voltages at circuit nodes. Because
it substitutes equal current sources for voltage sources, this analysis appears odd.
Additionally, equivalent conductances (G = 1/R) with units of siemens (S) are used in
place of resistor values in ohms. Once grasped, the node voltage method can offer a
straightforward method for rapidly resolving a variety of intricate circuits.

2.12.1. Node Voltage Method Steps

Let’s begin by looking at a circuit with traditional voltage sources, as shown in Figure
2.30.

Figure 2.30. Circuit schematic for demonstration of the node voltage method of circuit analysis.

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• Step 1: Label All Unique Voltage Nodes: The ground node in the circuit is
usually designated as the common node, or V0, for reference purposes. This
point will be used to calculate the other unknown node voltages in our Figure
2.30 circuit, V1 and V2.
• Step 2: Replace All Voltage Sources and Series Resistors with Current Sources
and Parallel Resistors: The next step is to swap out all of the voltage sources
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 71
and series resistors for equal current sources and parallel resistors. The current
source value is calculated as:

(78)
The voltage source, B1, in Figure 2.30 is in series with resistor, R1, which has a
current source value of 5 A:

(79)
The series resistance and the parallel resistance have the same value. With the
resistance and current source values in hand, we can sketch the analogous parallel
circuit, as seen in Figure 2.31.

Figure 2.31. Conversion of a voltage source with series resistance to a current source with parallel
resistance.

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For battery B2, we must convert its voltage source to current source using the same
series resistor R5 from our circuit shown in Figure 2.30.

(80)
This allows us to redraw our circuit, as seen in Figure 2.32, adding two current
sources and parallel resistors.

Figure 2.32. New circuit with current sources and parallel resistors.

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72 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Step 3: Replace Resistor Resistance in Ohms with Conductance in Siemens: We

now need to change the resistance value in ohms for every resistor in our circuit to
its reciprocal conductance value in siemens. The current unit of conductance is the
siemens, which took the place of the antiquated mho (inverse of an ohm) unit.

(81)

(82)

(83)

(84)

(85)
These calculated conductance values allow us to update our drawing (Figure 2.33).

Figure 2.33. All resistance values are replaced by equivalent conductance.

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At this stage, adding parallel conductors to the circuit will also help to simplify it.
For this, we just use addition. Two sets of parallel conductors are present in our circuit
in Figure 2.33.
GA = G1 + G2 = 0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75 S (86)

GB = G4 + G5 = 0.2 + 1 = 1.2 S (87)

Figure 2.34 depicts our simplified circuit, which is prepared for use with the node voltage
method.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 73
KCL equations, the node voltage method
can be used to analyze a large number of
circuits quickly.
• Step 5: Solve the Set of
Simultaneous KCL Equations for
the Unknown Voltages: From here,
we can solve for the two unknown
Figure 2.34. Simplified circuit.
voltages in our circuit using the
Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/ two equations. We can replace
textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/node-voltage- the unknown conductances and
method/. currents with our own and reorder
them to make sense.
• Step 4: Write KCL Equations for
Each Unknown Voltage Node: We I1 = 5 = (0.75 + 0.4) V1 − 0.4V2 =
now write KCL equations for all 1.15V1 − 0.4V2 (92)
unknown voltage nodes using the I2 = −4 = (1.2 + 0.4) V2 − 0.4V1 =
node voltage method. There are −0.4V1 + 1.6V2 (93)
just two unknown node voltages
in our example circuit: V1 and V2. Solving these simultaneous equations,
I1 = GAV1 + G3(V1 − V2) (88) we get the following results for our node
voltages:
I2 = GBV2 + G3(V2 − V1) (89)
V1 = 3.8095 V (94)
To show how to write these equations
by inspection, let’s rewrite these two V2 = −1.5476 V (95)
equations.
I1 = (GA + G3) V1 − G3V2 (90) 2.12.2. Verification of the Node
I2 = (GB + G3) V2 − G3V1 (91)
Voltage Method Using SPICE
The original schematic diagram with voltage
Take note of how these two equations sources can then be used to verify the
are similar. The positive coefficient of the first solution using SPICE. On the other hand,
voltage (V1) at the first KCL node is equal to it was also possible to simulate the circuit
the sum of the conductances connected to it containing the current sources.
(GA + G3). Similarly, the positive coefficient
of the voltage, V2, is equal to the total of * Node Voltage Method circuit simulation
the conductances linked to that KCL node.
V1 11 0 DC 10
The conductances between additional non-
common nodes are represented by the other V2 22 0 DC -4
negative coefficients.
r1 11 1 2
The left-hand side of each equation
equals the corresponding current source r2 1 0 4
that is attached to the node. We can quickly
r3 1 2 2.5
write the equations by looking at this
pattern. Through the use of conductances r4 2 0 5
and a relatively simple pattern to write the
74 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

r5 2 22 1 Writing equations for the three nodes

(V 1, V 2, and V3) can be done by visual
.DC V1 10 10 1 V2 -4 -4 1 inspection. Recall that for conductors
.print DC V(1) V(2) connected to the node for which we are
creating the KCL equation, the conductance
.end coefficients are positive. There are no other
negative conductance coefficients.
v(1) v(2)
For the time being, the subscripted G’s
3.809524e+00 – 1.547619e+00
are listed as the coefficients because we
are too lazy to compute the conductances
2.12.3. The Node Voltage for the resistors on the diagram.
Method Applied to an I1 = 0.136092 = (G1 + G2) V1 − G1V2 − G2V3 (96)

Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge I2 = 0 = (G1 + G3 + G4) V2 − G1V1 − G3V3 (97)

Using the node voltage method, let’s I3 = 0 = (G2 + G3 + G5) V3 − G2V1 − G3V2 (98)
examine another example of circuit analysis
(Paul, Clayton R. 2001). Together with the Next, we can reorder to align the unknown
common voltage node, V0, the circuit of voltages to make it easier to solve the
Figure 2.35 is referred to as an unbalanced simultaneous equations:
Wheatstone bridge. It consists of three
unknown voltage nodes. 0.136092 = (G1 + G2) V1 − G1V2 − G2V3 (99)

0 = −G1V1 + (G1 + G3 + G4) V2 − G3V3 (100)

0 = −G2V1 − G3V2 + (G2 + G3 + G5) (101)

Once more, because we are so indolent, we

will solve this using GNU Octave. We will
enter reciprocal resistances and their sums
into the Octave “A” matrix and then allow
Octave to compute the conductance matrix
after “A =.”

The first entry line was divided into

three rows due to its length. The starting
Figure 2.35. Wheatstone bridge for node voltage and ending square brackets define the
method application. entered “A” matrix. Elements in columns
are separated by spaces. Rows are divided
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textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/node-voltage-
into “new lines.” There is no need to use
method/. semicolons and commas as separators.
However, a column vector of currents is
It’s crucial to remember that the produced by semicolon-separating the
schematic diagram does not include a list current vector at “b.”
of conductances. But G1 = 1/R1, and so on.
octave:12> A = [1/150+1/50 -1/150 -1/50
> -1/150 1/150+1/100+1/300 -1/100
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 75
> -1/50 -1/100 1/50+1/100+1/250]
A =
0.0266667 -0.0066667 -0.0200000
-0.0066667 0.0200000 -0.0100000
-0.0200000 -0.0100000 0.0340000
octave:13> b = [0.136092;0;0]
b =
0.13609
0.00000
0.00000
octave:14> x=A\b
x =
24.000
17.655
19.310
The diagonal coefficients in the “A” matrix are positive, whereas the other coefficients
in the matrix must all be negative due to the requirements of our node voltage method
equation writing rules.
The voltage vector solution is given in “x”:
• V1 = 24.000 V
• V2 = 17.655 V
• V3 = 19.310 V
These three voltages match the outcomes we got from the mesh current analysis
and the unbalanced Wheatstone bridge SPICE simulation. This is not by accident; in
that problem, the 0.13609 A current source was selected on purpose to produce the 24
V needed as a voltage source.
2.13. MESH CURRENT
METHOD
In the mesh current method, Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Ohm’s law are applied
methodically to solve for the unknown currents and voltages after mesh (or loop) current
directions are arbitrarily assigned.
An overview of the mesh current method, also called the loop current method, for
electrical circuit analysis is given in this section. To ascertain unknown currents in a
network, the mesh current method applies Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), Ohm’s law,
and simultaneous equations.
The branch current method and the mesh current method are fairly similar. But it
doesn’t apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and it can typically solve a circuit with
fewer simultaneous equations and unknown variables.

2.13.1. How to Use the Mesh Current Method

Before we dive into the mesh current method, it’s crucial to remember that we’ll be
introducing other network analysis methods using the same example circuit (Figure 2.36):
• Branch current
• Superposition theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Millman’s theorem

Figure 2.36. Circuit schematic for explaining the mesh current method.

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• Step 1: Identify and Label the Current Loops: The mesh current method starts
with locating and labeling the circuit’s current “loops.” We need to identify at

76 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 77
least one loop current flowing through each component in the circuit in order
to accomplish this.
In Figure 2.37, our example circuit, the loop composed of B1, R1, and R2 will be the
first loop, and the loop composed of B2, R2, and R3 will be the second.

Figure 2.37. Identify and label the current loops.

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The most peculiar aspect of the mesh current approach is the idea of having currents
flowing through each loop. The idea that these currents mesh together between loops
like a set of rotating gears is actually how this technique gets its name.
The direction of each current loop can be chosen at will, but if the currents flow
through components with multiple current loops in the same direction, the resulting
equations are frequently simpler to solve. As an illustration, observe how currents I1
and I2 “down” or “mesh” at resistor R2, where they intersect. The answer for a mesh
current will be negative if the assumed direction of the current is incorrect.
• Step 2: Label the Voltage Drop Polarities: As indicated in Figure 2.38, the next
step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors in accordance with
the assumed directions of the mesh currents.

Figure 2.38. Label the voltage drop polarities.

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78 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Recall that a resistor’s “upstream” end is always going to be positive and its
“downstream” end is always going to be negative. This occurs as a result of the resistor
acting as a load, lowering voltage when current passes through it.
Note that battery polarities may or may not “agree” with resistor polarities and
assumed loop current directions depending on their symbol orientations in the diagram.
• Step 3: Apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to Each Loop: We can now step around
each of these loops using Kirchhoff’s voltage law to create equations that
represent the component voltage drops and polarities. Similar to the branch
current method, the voltage drop of a resistor will be expressed as the product
of its mesh current (which is currently unknown) and resistance (measured in
ohms). The resistor current is the total of the two meshing currents, and we
will write the term in the equation where two currents mesh together.
Both the beginning point and the direction of the voltage drop tracing around each
loop are randomly chosen. Let’s start at the lower-left corner of the circuit’s left loop
and work our way around it in a clockwise manner, counting polarity as if we were
holding a voltmeter: red lead at the point forward, black lead at the point behind. For
the left loop with current I1, we get the following equation:
28 − R1I1 − R2(I1 + I2) = 28 − 4I1 − 2(I1 + I2) = 0 (102)

It is important to note that the current through resistor R2 in the middle term of the equation
is determined by adding the mesh currents I1 and I2. This is because mesh currents I1 and I2
complement one another because they are flowing through R2 in the same direction.

We can distribute the coefficient of 2 to the I1 and I2 terms and then combine the I1 terms to
simplify the equation as:

28 − 4I1 − 2I1 − 2I2 = 28 − 6I1 − 2I2 = 0 (103)

We currently have one equation that has two unknowns. We need two equations in order to
be able to solve for two unknown mesh currents.

Let’s now repeat the procedure for the circuit’s right loop using current I2. This will give us
an additional KVL equation. We can find the currents using just two equations and the two
unknown currents. Due to habit, we’ll begin at the lower-left corner of the right loop once
more and work our way clockwise:

R2(I1 + I2) + R3I2 – 7 = 2(I1 + I2) + 1I2 − 7 = 0 (104)

Simplifying the equation as before, we end up with:

2I1 + 2I2 + 1I2 – 7 = 2I1 + 3I2 – 7 = 0 (105)

• Step 4: Solve the Simultaneous Equations for the Unknown Currents: Now that we
have two equations, we can solve for the unknown currents I1 and I2 mathematically
using a variety of techniques. First, let’s rearrange the two equations for an easier
solution:
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 79
6I1 + 2I2 = 28 (106)

2I1 + 3I2 = 7 (107)

Now, solving for the currents, we get:

I1 = 5 A (108)

I2 = −1 A (109)

• Step 5: Redraw the Mesh Currents and Determine the Branch Currents: We
must refer back to our diagram to see how these solutions fit together to provide
currents through all components, keeping in mind that these values correspond
to mesh currents rather than branch currents (Figure 2.39).

Figure 2.39. Circuit with calculated mesh current values.

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Our initial assumption about the current direction was incorrect, as indicated by
the solution of -1 A for I2. Actually, I2 moves at a value of +1 A in a clockwise manner.
Let’s redraw our circuit using this correction, altering the resistor R3’s voltage drop and
the I2’s current flow direction, as seen in Figure 2.40.

Figure 2.40. Circuit with corrected mesh current direction for I2.

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80 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

We can now calculate the branch currents for our circuit using these mesh currents.
Since only mesh current I1 passes through B1 and R1, we can easily see that the current
through those two circuit components is 5 A. Likewise, 1 A of current is passing through
R3 and into B2.
The R2, which has two mesh currents flowing through it, may then raise the question,
“What about it?” Mesh currents I1 and I2 are 5 A and 1 A, respectively, flowing “down”
and “up” through R2.
We need to observe how mesh currents I1 and I2 interact in order to ascertain the
true current flowing through R2. They are opposing one another in this instance and
moving in different directions. We can algebraically add them to arrive at a final value:
IR2 = I1 − I2 = 5 – 1 = 4 A (110)
A 4 A value, or “down,” must be the current flowing through R2. The branch currents
are all displayed in Figure 2.41.

Figure 2.41. Circuit with calculated branch currents.

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• Step 6: Calculate the Voltage Drops: Now that we are aware of every branch
current, we can use Ohm’s law to determine the circuit’s unknown voltage
drops across the resistors.
VR1 = IR1R1 = I1R1 = 5⋅4 = 20 V (111)
VR2 = IR2R2 = (I1 − I2) R1 = (5−1)⋅2 = 8 V (112)
VR3 = IR3R3 = I2R3 = 1⋅1 = 1 V (113)
We could check our results by returning to Kirchhoff’s voltage law for our two loops:
VB1 − VR1 − VR2 = 28 – 20 – 8 = 0 V (114)
VR2 − VR3 − VB2 = 8 − 1 − 7 = 0 V (115)
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 81
2.13.2. Advantages of Mesh Current vs. Branch Current Methods
Mesh current analysis’s main benefit is that it typically makes it possible to solve a big
network with fewer simultaneous equations and unknown values. The branch current
method in our example circuit requires the solution of three equations, whereas the
mesh current method only requires the solution of two equations. This benefit may be
more noticeable in networks with higher levels of complexity, like the circuit depicted
in Figure 2.42.

Figure 2.42. Example circuit with increased complexity.

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/mesh-current-method/.

As shown in Figure 2.43, in order to solve this network using branch currents, we
would need to create five variables (I1 through I5), one for each unique current in the
circuit.

Figure 2.43. Complex circuit setup for branch current analysis.

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/mesh-current-method/.

To solve this, we would need five equations: three KVL equations for the loops and
two KCL equations at the nodes.
For the circuit of Figure 2.43, our five equations would be:
82 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I1 − I2 − I3 = 0 KCL at node 1 (116)

I3 − I4 − I5 = 0 KCL at node 2 (117)
VB1 − I1R1 − I2R2 = 0 KVL of the left loop (118)
I2R2 − I3R3 − I4R4 = 0 KVL of the middle loop (119)
I4R4 − I5R5 − VB2 = 0 KVL of the right loop (120)
Overall, you might not mind using the branch current method of analysis for this
circuit if you have nothing better to do with your time than solve for five unknown
variables using five equations. That being said, the mesh current method—which requires
only three unknowns and three equations to solve—is much simpler for those of us
with more important things to do with our time. Figure 2.44 illustrates this.

Figure 2.44. Complex circuit setup for mesh current analysis.

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/mesh-current-method/.

Our three KVL equations using the mesh current method are:
VB1 − I1R1 − (I1 − I2) R2 = 0 KVL of the left loop (121)
(I2 − I1)R2 − I2R3 − (I2 − I3) R4 = 0 KVL of the middle loop (122)
(I3 − I2)R4 − I3R5 − VB2 = 0 KVL of the right loop (123)

This approach has a distinct advantage because it requires fewer equations to solve,
particularly when solving simultaneous equations manually without the aid of a calculator
or computer.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 83

ROLE MODEL
GUSTAV KIRCHHOFF
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist and
mathematician who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits,
spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined
the term black-body radiation in 1860.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustav_Robert_Kirchhoff.
jpg/220px-Gustav_Robert_Kirchhoff.jpg.

Several different sets of concepts are named “Kirchhoff’s laws” after him, which
include Kirchhoff’s circuit laws, Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation, and Kirchhoff’s
law of thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after
Kirchhoff and his colleague, Robert Bunsen.

Life and Work:

Gustav Kirchhoff was born on 12 March 1824 in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich
Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke. His family were Lutherans in the
Evangelical Church of Prussia. He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg
in 1847 where he attended the mathematico-physical seminar directed by Carl Gustav
Jacob Jacobi, Franz Ernst Neumann and Friedrich Julius Richelot. In the same year, he
moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Later,
in 1857, he married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot.
The couple had five children. Clara died in 1869. He married Luise Brömmel in 1872.
Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical
engineering, in 1845, while he was still a student. He completed this study as a seminar
84 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation. He was called to the University of
Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen.
In 1857, he calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the
wire at the speed of light. He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a
proof in 1861. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, which Kirchhoff
used to pioneer the identification of the elements in the Sun, showing in 1859 that the
Sun contains sodium. He and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861. At
Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modeled on Franz Ernst Neumann’s,
with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar
were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya.
He contributed greatly to the field of spectroscopy by formalizing three laws that
describe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, building
substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Ångström. In 1862,
he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the fixed lines of the solar
spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light. In 1875
Kirchhoff accepted the first chair dedicated specifically to theoretical physics at Berlin.
He also contributed to optics, carefully solving the wave equation to provide a solid
foundation for Huygens’ principle (and correct it in the process).
In 1864, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
In 1884, he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Sciences.
Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in
Schöneberg, Berlin (just a few meters from the graves of the Brothers Grimm). Leopold
Kronecker is buried in the same cemetery.

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws:

Kirchhoff’s first law is that the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors
meeting at a point (or node) is zero. The second law is that in a closed circuit, the
directed sums of the voltages in the system is zero.

Kirchhoff’s Three Laws of Spectroscopy:

1. A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all
wavelengths and thus produce a continuous spectrum.
2. A low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths,
and this produces an emission spectrum.
3. If light composing a continuous spectrum passes through a cool, low-density
gas, the result will be an absorption spectrum.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 85

Kirchhoff did not know about the existence of energy levels in atoms. The existence
of discrete spectral lines was known since Fraunhofer discovered them in 1814. And
that the lines formed a discrete mathematical pattern was described by Johann Balmer
in 1885. Joseph Larmor explained the splitting of the spectral lines in a magnetic field
known as the Zeeman Effect by the oscillation of electrons. But these discrete spectral
lines were not explained as electron transitions until the Bohr model of the atom in
1913, which helped lead to quantum mechanics.
• Kirchhoff’s Law of Thermal Radiation: It was Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation
in which he proposed an unknown universal law for radiation that led Max
Planck to the discovery of the quantum of action leading to quantum mechanics.
• Kirchhoff’s Law of Thermochemistry: Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that, in
thermochemistry, the variation of the heat of a chemical reaction is given by
the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants:
 ∂∆H 
  = ∆C p .
 ∂T  p

Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one
temperature from measurements at another temperature.
• Kirchhoff’s Theorem in Graph Theory: Kirchhoff also worked in the mathematical
field of graph theory, in which he proved Kirchhoff’s matrix tree theorem.

CLASS ACTIVITY
A series circuit has a 120 V power source, a 10 Ω resistor, and a 15 Ω resistor. Students
calculate the current flowing in the circuit and the voltage drop across each of the
resistor.
86 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUMMARY
• A network comprises number of a circuit elements interconnected in a required
manner and energized by one or more voltage or current sources. Network
analysis involves the calculation of voltage and currents in the circuit. It may
be required to calculate the current flowing through a particular circuit element
or the potential difference between any two points in the network.
• Series circuit is an electrical circuit configuration where components are linked
to each other end-to-end, creating a single path for the current flow. Thus, the
current in the circuit will flow through every component successively.
• In a series circuit, the same amount of current flows through each component
in the circuit. This is because there is only one path for the current flow. Since
electric charge flows through conductors like marbles in a tube, the rate of
flow (marble speed) at any point in the circuit (tube) at any specific point in
time must be equal.
• A parallel circuit is where the electric current has multiple paths to flow through.
It has two or more paths for current flow. Parallel circuits are one of the two
types of circuits in which the devices have a common ending point making
them appear to be in parallel.
• When two or more resistors are individually connected between two separate
points (nodes) in a circuit, they are in parallel with each other. A parallel circuit
provides more than one path for current.
• The voltage across any given branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the voltage
across each of the other branches in parallel. As you know, each current path
in a parallel circuit is called a branch.
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law deals with voltages in a single closed path. Kirchhoff’s
current law applies to currents in multiple paths.
• When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit
decreases. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the value
of the smallest resistor.
• A current source is a type of energy source that provides a constant current to
a load even if the resistance of that load changes. A transistor can be used as
a current source; therefore, current sources are important in electronic circuits.
• A parallel circuit acts as a current divider because the current entering the
junction of parallel branches “divides” up into several individual branch currents.
• Total power in a parallel circuit is found by adding up the powers of all the
individual resistors, the same as for series circuits.
• The node voltage method is a DC network analysis technique based on the
structured application of Kirchhoff’s current law. This method involves converting
voltage sources to current sources and replacing resistances with equivalent
conductances.
 RESISTIVE NETWORK ANALYSIS 87
• The mesh current method is a network analysis technique where mesh (or
loop) current directions are assigned arbitrarily, and then Kirchhoff’s voltage
law (KVL) and Ohm’s law are applied systematically to solve for the unknown
currents and voltages.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a series circuit?
2. How to calculate voltage drop in a series circuit? Describe.
3. Describe the applications of series circuit.
4. What is a parallel circuit?
5. How are the resistors connected in a parallel circuit?
6. State Kirchhoff’s current law in two ways.
7. Write the general current-divider formula.
8. What is the purpose of a shunt resistor in an analog meter movement?
9. What is the node voltage method?
10. What is the mesh current method?

REFERENCES
1. Alexander, C., & Sadiku, M. (2007). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (p. 392).
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-128441-7.
2. Nilsson, J., & Riedel, S. (2015). Electric Circuits (p. 85). Pearson Education Limited.
ISBN 978-1-292-06054-5.
3. Oldham, K. T. S. (2008). The doctrine of description: Gustav Kirchhoff, Classical
Physics, and the “Purpose of all Science” in 19th-century Germany (p. 52). Ph. D.
dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
(Docket 3331743).
4. Paul, C. R. (2001). Fundamentals of Electric Circuit Analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 0-471-37195-5.
5. Williams, T. (2005). The Circuit Designer’s Companion. Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 0-7506-6370-7.
 CHAPTER
AC Network
3 Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Discuss on AC fundamentals
• Describe the network theorems
• Explain the single-phase AC circuit
• Define the resonance circuit

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Alternating current (AC) Audio and radio signals
Capacitive Circuit Current Change
Direct current (DC) Electric circuit theorems
Frequency Selectivity Fully Resistive Circuit
Inductive Circuit linear network
Parallel LC Circuit Reciprocity theorem
Series RC Circuit Series Resonance
Square waves Superposition theorem
Triangular waves Voltage Change
INTRODUCTION
AC is an electric current that changes direction periodically and varies in magnitude
continuously over time, unlike DC which flows in only one direction. AC is commonly
used to power businesses and homes, and is the type of electricity used when plugging
in appliances like kitchen appliances, televisions, fans, and lamps. The terms AC and
DC are often used to represent alternating and direct current, respectively, particularly
when referring to current or voltage. The typical waveform of AC in electric circuits is
a sine wave, where the positive half-period aligns with the current direction. Different
waveforms, such as triangular waves or square waves, are utilized in specific applications
like guitar amplifiers. Examples of alternating current include audio and radio signals
transmitted through electrical wires. This type of current carries information like sound,
images, and video through modulation of an AC carrier signal. The frequencies of these
currents are typically higher than those used in power transmission (Kuehni, & Lorraine,
1938).

90 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3.1. AC FUNDAMENTALS
Essential principles of AC (Alternating Current) focus on electrical currents that change
direction periodically, unlike DC (Direct Current) which flows in a single direction. The
main feature of AC is its sinusoidal waveform, commonly identified by characteristics
like amplitude (peak value), frequency (number of cycles per second, measured in Hertz),
and phase (the waveform’s position compared to a reference point). The voltage in an
AC system can be expressed as V(t)=Vmsin(ωt+ϕ) where Vm is the maximum voltage, ω
is the angular frequency (ω=2πf, with f being the frequency), and ϕ is the phase angle.

AC systems are widely used because voltage, the RMS value is VRMS= . This
they offer numerous benefits in power concept is crucial for accurately measuring
generation, transmission, and distribution. and comparing AC and DC power levels.
High voltage AC transmission helps decrease
energy losses when delivering electricity Overall, AC fundamentals encompass
over long distances, and transformers make the principles of sinusoidal waveforms,
it simple to adjust AC voltages to suit impedance, phasor analysis, and power
different needs. In AC circuits, the presence relationships, forming the basis for analyzing
of inductors and capacitors introduces and designing AC electrical systems.
reactance, along with resistance, to create
impedance (Z), a complex quantity that
combines resistive and reactive effects. The 3.1.1. Passive Components in
connection between voltage and current in AC Circuits
these circuits is explained using complex Resistance can be denoted as R, capacitance
numbers, allowing for phasor analysis to as C, and inductance as L. Regardless of
make calculations easier. AC circuits exhibit whether resistors are utilized in DC or AC
power through three distinct quantities: real circuits, their resistance value remains
power (P), representing work performed, constant regardless of the supply frequency.
reactive power (Q), which alternates This is due to resistors being considered
between the source and load, and apparent pure, with parasitic properties like zero
power (S), the result of multiplying the RMS inductance (L = 0) and infinite capacitance
voltage and current, showcasing the overall (C = ∞). In fully resistive circuits, voltage
power supplied. The power factor, which is and current are always in phase, allowing
the ratio of real power to apparent power, for the calculation of power consumption
signifies the efficiency of power utilization. at any moment by multiplying the voltage
A power factor of 1 corresponds to purely and current.
resistive loads, while values below 1 point to
the existence of reactance in the circuit (N. Capacitors and inductors have a unique
N. Bhargava & D. C. Kulshreshtha (1983)). type of AC resistance called reactance (XL
and XC), which was previously mentioned.
AC fundamentals also include Reactance impedes the flow of current, but
understanding RMS (Root Mean Square) unlike a resistor with a fixed resistance
values, which provide a measure of the value, the amount of reactance in a capacitor
equivalent DC value that would deliver the or inductor is not constant. The reactance of
same power to a load. For a sinusoidal

AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 91
92 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

these components depends on the frequency high frequencies, a capacitor has

of the supply current and the DC value of zero impedance (acting as a short
the element itself. circuit). Impedance and current
value can be found using the
In AC circuits, there is a well-known following equations:
list of passive components along with
equations that can be used to determine
their impedance and reactance value for
circuit current. It is important to note
that in this discussion, we have assumed
ideal components without any resistance. (2)
However, in practical applications,
components typically have some resistance 3. Fully Inductive Circuit: An inductor
in addition to their other properties. is composed of a wire coil that
generates a magnetic field either
1. Fully Resistive Circuit: Resistors within the coil itself or in a central
control the flow of current in a core when an electrical current
specific direction by impeding, passes through it. The inductance
regulating, or adjusting it. They of an inductor is typically measured
can also limit the voltage within in Henries (H). In direct current
an electrical circuit based on (DC) circuits, an inductor acts as a
this current flow. Resistors have short circuit with zero impedance.
a resistance measure known However, at high frequencies, an
as impedance, denoted as R, inductor behaves as an open circuit
which is measured in Ohms (Ω). with infinite impedance. Impedance
Resistors come in either fixed and current value can be found
values or variable values, such as using the following equations:
potentiometers. Impedance and
current value can be found using
the following equations:

(3)

3.1.2. Series AC Circuits

(1) We can connect passive components
2. Fully Capacitive Circuit: A together in series combinations in AC
capacitor is a component with the circuits to form RC, RL, and LC circuits,
ability to store energy in the form as explained below (Figure 3.1).
of an electrical charge, similar to a • Series RC Circuit: The circuit and
small battery. The capacitance of the equation for the series RC
a capacitor is measured in Farads circuit are:
(F), and in a DC circuit, it has
infinite impedance (acting as an
open circuit). Conversely, at very
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 93
• Series LC Circuit
The circuit diagram and the equation
for the series LC circuit are (Figure 3.3):

(4)

(6)

Figure 3.1. Series RC circuit.

Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
ac-circuit/.
Figure 3.3. Series LC circuit.
• Series RL Circuit: The circuit
Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
diagram and the equation for the
ac-circuit/.
series RL circuit are (Figure 3.2):

3.1.3. Parallel AC Circuits

We can connect passive components
together in series combinations in AC
circuits to form RC, RL and LC circuits, as
explained below.
(5)
• Parallel RC Circuit: The circuit
diagram and the equation for the
parallel RC circuit are (Figure 3.4):

Figure 3.2. Series RL circuit.

Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
ac-circuit/.
(7)
94 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Parallel LC Circuit: The circuit

diagram and the equation for the
parallel LC circuit are (Figure 3.6):

Figure 3.4. Parallel RLC circuit.

Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
ac-circuit/.
(9)
• Parallel RL Circuit: The circuit
diagram and the equation for the
parallel RL circuit are (Figure 3.5):

Figure 3.6. Parallel LC circuit.

Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
ac-circuit/.

(8)

Figure 3.5. Parallel RL circuit.

Source: https://www.linquip.com/blog/what-is-
ac-circuit/.
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 95

3.2. NETWORK THEOREMS

Electric circuit theorems are useful tools for determining voltage and current values in
complex circuits with multiple loops. These theorems utilize fundamental principles and
mathematical equations to analyze the basic elements of electrical parameters, such as
voltage, current, and resistance. The fundamental theorems in circuit analysis consist of
foundational principles like Superposition, Tellegen’s, Norton’s, Maximum Power Transfer,
and Thevenin’s theorems. Another set of network theorems commonly utilized in circuit
analysis are Compensation, Substitution, Reciprocity, Millman’s, and Miller’s theorems.
All the network theorems are briefly discussed below:
1. Super Position Theorem: The Superposition theorem allows for the analysis of
currents and voltages in a circuit with multiple sources by considering each
source individually. It states that in a linear network with various voltage or
current sources and resistances, the current in any branch is the sum of the
currents caused by each source acting alone (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7. Super position theorem.

Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basics-of-network-theorems-in-electrical-engineering/.

The Superposition theorem is specifically utilized in linear networks, including both AC and
DC circuits, to create Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits. The circuit shown above is
divided into two separate circuits based on the theorem mentioned. This division simplifies
the overall circuit design, making it easier to analyze. By simplifying each individual circuit
and then combining them again, one can easily determine specific parameters such as
voltage drops across each resistor, node voltages, currents, and more.
96 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2. Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear network consisting of a number of voltage sources

and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent network having a single
voltage source called Thevenin’s voltage (Vth) and a single resistance called
(Rth) (Figure 3.8).
Vth = Voc
Rth = Voc/Isc

Figure 3.8. Thevenin’s theorem.

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The above figure explains how this theorem is applicable for circuit analysis. Thevinens
voltage is calculated by the given formula between the terminals A and B by breaking
the loop at the terminals A and B. Also, Thevinens resistance or equivalent resistance
is calculated by shorting voltage sources and open circuiting current sources as shown
in the figure.
This theorem can be applied to both linear and bilateral networks. It is mainly used
for measuring the resistance with a Wheatstone bridge.
3. Norton’s Theorem: This theorem asserts that a linear circuit with multiple energy
sources and resistances can be substituted by a single fixed current generator
connected in parallel with a single resistor (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9. Norton’s theorem.

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 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 97
This concept is similar to Thevenin’s 5. Reciprocity Theorem: The
theorem, where we calculate Thevenin’s reciprocity theorem allows for the
equivalent voltage and resistance values. identification of the second solution
However, in this case, we determine the without the need for additional
equivalent current values. The process of analysis after examining the circuit
finding these values is shown as given in for one solution. It asserts that
the example within the Figure 3.9. within a linear passive bilateral
network, the excitation source
4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: and its response can be swapped
This theorem describes the optimal (Figure 3.11).
conditions for maximum power
transfer to a load within different
circuit scenarios. It states that the
power transferred from a source to
a load is at its maximum when the
resistance of the load matches the
internal resistance of the source in Figure 3.11. Reciprocity theorem.
the network. In AC circuits, the load
impedance should be matched with Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basics-of-
network-theorems-in-electrical-engineering/.
the source impedance for optimal
power transfer, regardless of the In the Figure 3.11 shown, the current
load’s power factor (Figure 3.10). in the R3 branch is labeled as I3 and is
supplied by a single source Vs. If this source
is moved to the R3 branch and the original
source location is shorted, then the current
flowing from the original location (labeled as
I1) will be equal to I3. This method allows
us to find equivalent solutions for the circuit
by analyzing it with a single solution.
6. Compensation Theorem: In a
Figure 3.10. Maximum power transfer theorem. bilateral active network, adjusting
Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basics-of-
the impedance from its original
network-theorems-in-electrical-engineering/. value to a different value carrying
current I will induce changes in
For instance, the above figure depicts a other branches equivalent to those
circuit diagram wherein a circuit is simplified caused by inserting a voltage
up to a level of source with internal source in the modified branch with
resistance using Thevenin’s theorem. The a negative sign. This compensation
power transfer will be maximum when theorem can be seen Figure 3.12,
this Thevinens resistance is equal to the illustrating its application in circuit
load resistance. The Practical application analysis (Figure 3.12).
of this theorem includes an audio system
wherein the resistance of the speaker must
be matched to the audio power amplifier
to obtain maximum output.
98 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 3.12. Compensation theorem.

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7. Millman’s Theorem: According to Millman’s theorem, multiple voltage sources

with finite internal resistance can be simplified into a single voltage source
with series equivalent impedance when operating in parallel. The equivalent
voltage for these sources can be calculated using the formula provided in the
figure above (Figure 3.13).

Figure 3.13. Millman’s theorem.

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8. Tellegen’s Theorem: This theorem applies to circuits containing linear or

nonlinear, passive or active, and hysteric or non-hysteric networks. It asserts
that the total instantaneous power in a circuit with n branches is always zero.
n

∑P k = Vk × I k = 0
k =1 (10)
9. Substitution Theorem: The substitution theorem asserts that replacing one
branch in a network with another branch, as long as the new branch has the
same terminal voltages and currents as the original branch, will not disrupt
the overall currents and voltages in the network. This theorem is applicable to
both linear and nonlinear circuits.
10. Miller’s Theorem: This theorem explains that in a linear circuit, if there is a
branch with impedance Z between two nodes with nodal voltages, that branch
can be substituted by two branches connecting the nodes to the ground with
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 99
two impedances. Utilizing this theorem is not only beneficial for simplifying
circuits, but also for creating new electronic circuit designs involving impedance
changes (Figure 3.14).

Figure 3.14. Miller’s theorem.

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These are all basic network theorems used widely in the electrical or electronic circuit
analysis. We hope that you might have got some basic ideas about all these theorems.
100 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3.3. SINGLE-PHASE AC
CIRCUIT
Alternating Current (AC) is an electric power type that oscillates in both magnitude
and direction at consistent intervals. AC circuits can provide power in either a Single
Phase or Three Phase system. In a single-phase system, circuit, or device, there is only
one alternating voltage source present. In electrical engineering, single-phase voltage
source power involves distributing electricity through a system where all supply voltages
change simultaneously.

3.3.1.1. Single-Phase Power Supply

Single-phase voltage power is a two-wire AC power system comprising a single phase
wire and a single neutral wire. This type of power, also known as residential voltage,
is commonly used in homes and for small machines due to its lower electricity demand.
Single-phase power connections utilize both the neutral and phase supply cables for
average power transmission. In contrast, three-phase power is used for heavy loads
and can operate large machinery in factories (Figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15. Sine wave.

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phase-ac-circuit.

In a single-phase power connection, the split-phase voltage begins at 230 Volts

Amperes with a frequency of approximately 50 Hertz. Due to the fluctuation of the high
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 101
voltage source across the single-phase connection, there is a lack of consistent power
delivery to the load.

3.3.1.2. AC Circuit
Switching circuits are powered by a Switch Source, which can be either current or voltage.
Alternating Voltage or Current occurs when the value of voltage or current changes
and reverses direction periodically. Nowadays, most home and industrial systems and
appliances run on alternating line current. Devices that use direct current are charged by
converting alternating line current. This method was developed in the 1980s by Nikola
Tesla as a solution to the limitations of Thomas Edison’s DC generators (Figure 3.16).

Figure 3.16. Circuit with load.

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phase-ac-circuit.

3.3.1.3. Various Terms Commonly Used in the AC Circuit

• Apparent power is the product of root mean square (rms) values of current and
voltage. It is measured in volt-amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).
• Reactive power is the product of apparent power and sine of the angle between
voltage and current. This is also called wattless power and is expressed in
reactive volt-amperes or kilo-volt amperes reactive (kVA R).
• True power is the product of the apparent power and the power factor. It is
expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).
• Power factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power. It is a diensionless
quantity. It is never be greater than 1 and is expressed either as fraction or
as a percentage.
Q–Factor of Coil is the reciprocal of power factor. It is also known as the figure of
merit of a coil or quality factor.

3.3.1.4. Phasor and Phasor Diagram in a Single-Phase AC Circuit

Vectors possess both magnitude and direction. The value of a sinusoidal variable can
be depicted by a rotating line known as a Phasor. The Phasor is a straight line that
rotates counterclockwise at a constant angular speed. The diagram below illustrates the
waveform and mathematical representation of alternating quantities, which are sinusoidal
in nature. Phasors are commonly used to represent these quantities (Figure 3.17).
102 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 3.17. Phasor diagram in a single-phase AC circuit.

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phase-ac-circuit.

3.3.1.5. EMF Generation in a Single-Phase AC Circuit

In Single-phase EMF generation an alternating voltage can be generated
• By rotating the coil in the magnetic field
• By rotating the magnetic field inside the immovable coil
The amount of electricity generated depends on
• Number of turns on the coil
• Field strength
• Speed

3.3.1.6. Use of a Single-Phase AC Circuit

Single-phase power provides electricity for living rooms and household appliances, as
these devices typically consume lower levels of energy. Examples of such appliances
are fans, heaters, televisions, refrigerators, and lamps.
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 103

3.4. RESONANCE CIRCUIT

The phenomenon of resonance in electric circuits is essential for altering circuit behavior
and transmitting electrical signals effectively. Resonance is critical in a wide range
of applications, from radio frequency tuning to improving power transfer in electrical
systems. It occurs at a constant frequency when impedance and reactance cancel
each other out. In AC circuits, resonance happens when inductive reactance (XL) and
capacitive reactance (XC) offset each other, resulting in zero net reactance. This leads
to increased current flow and voltage amplitude, making the circuit more responsive
to the applied AC frequency.

3.4.1. Key Components in Resonance

• Inductive Reactance (XL): Inductive Reactance is the opposition that an inductor
presents to an alternating current. It is directly proportional to the frequency
of the AC signal. It is represented by (XL) and measured in ohms (Ω). It is
mostly low for lower frequencies and high for higher frequencies. However, it
is negligible for steady DC current. The inductive reactance formula is given
as follows: XL = 2πfL .As the frequency increases the inductive reactance also
increases.
• Capacitive Reactance (XC): A capacitor is a device used to store electrical
energy. The capacitance of a capacitor determines the amount of charging a
capacitor can achieve. The measure of the opposition to alternating current by
the capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance. It is the resistance of a circuit
element to changes in current or voltage. Its standard unit of measurement
ohms (Ω). It is represented by the symbol Xc. It is inversely proportional to the
frequency of the AC signal. As the frequency increases the capacitive reactance
decreases. The capacitive reactance formula is given as follows: XC = 1/2πfC
• Resonant Frequency (f0): The frequency at which the inductive and capacitive
reactances are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase resulting in cancelation.
It can be calculated using the formula:
f0=1/2π√(LC)
Where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance.
• Resonant frequency in electronics is expressed when a circuit exhibits a maximum
oscillatory response at a specific frequency. This is observed for a circuit that
consists of an inductor and capacitor.
104 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3.4.2. Effect of Resonance

Resonance, a phenomenon in which an object’s frequency excites vibrations near the
same frequency, is not only responsible for a singer breaking a glass with their voice but
can also cause damage to high buildings, bridges, and electrical circuits. Earthquakes
can also be triggered by resonance if their frequency matches that of a building, leading
to potential structural damage. Before constructing any building or bridge, it is crucial
to consider the effects of resonance to prevent potential disasters. In electrical circuits,
resonance can increase current and voltage, resulting in a purely resistive impedance and
maximum flow of electricity. If excessive voltage or current at the resonant frequency
is applied, components can overheat and damage the circuit, leading to overcurrent in
inductive and capacitive systems.

3.4.3. Characteristics of Resonance

• Stability: Maintaining the desired resonant frequency and response characteristics
under varying loads and environmental conditions requires stability.
• Current Change: The current flowing through the circuit changes depending
on the type of resonance.
• Frequency Selectivity: Resonance circuits are highly selective at resonant
frequency the circuit exhibits maximum impedance (in a series resonance
circuit) or minimum impedance (in a parallel resonance circuit), resulting in a
sharp peak in the circuit’s response. The sharp peak allows resonance circuits
to filter out unwanted frequencies.
• Voltage Change: Individual components experience voltages higher than the
source voltage at resonance.
• Phase Shift: In series resonance circuit voltage and current are in phase while
in a parallel resonance circuit they are 180° out of phase.

3.4.4. Types of Resonance

There are many types of resonance:
• Series Resonance
• Parallel Resonance
• Series Resonance: The inductor (L), capacitor (C), and resistor (R) are connected
in series in a series resonance circuit. At the resonant frequency (f₀), the
inductive and capacitive reactance cancel each other out, resulting in a minimum
impedance. This makes the circuit highly responsive to the applied frequency
(Figures 3.18 and 3.19).
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 105
XC=1/jωC=1/j2πfL
Therefore;
V=I[R+j(Ωl–1/ωC]
Hence, the above equation is in the form
of V = IZ, where Z is called the impedance
of the circuit i.e.,
Z=R+j(ωL–1/ωC)
Electrical Quantities and Parameters at
Series Resonance
Figure 3.18. Series resonance circuit.
• Resonance Frequency: The supply
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resonance-in-electric-circuits/.
frequency at which the inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance
In this circuit, the voltage across the become equal to each other is
inductor and capacitor is equal, i.e., called the resonance frequency.
Resonant frequency is expressed
VL=VC when a circuit exhibits a maximum
At resonance frequency; oscillatory response at a specific
frequency. This is observed for a
XL=XC circuit that consists of an inductor
and capacitor. It is denoted by fr.
Where; XL is the inductive reactance
and XC is the capacitive reactance. Voltage At series resonance;
can be obtain by applying KVL to the series XL=XC
RLC circuit.
ωL=1/ωC
V=VR+VL+VC
Here, ω = ωr, angular resonance
If I is the current flowing through the frequency.
circuit, then;
ωr=1/√LC
VR=IR
The linear resonance frequency will be;
VL=IXL
fr=1/2π√(LC)
VC=IXC
• Impedance: Impedance is the total
Therefore, the voltage equation can be opposition that the circuit presents
written as; to the flow of alternating current. It
V=IR+IXL+IXC is a combination of resistance and
reactance due to the presence of
Also, the reactance XL and Xc are given resistive, capacitive, and inductive
by; elements within the circuit. The
impedance of a series RLC circuit
XL=jωL=j2πfL is given by;
106 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Z=R+j(XL-Xc)
At series resonance;
XL=XC
Therefore;
Z=R
• Current: Electric current is the movement of electric charge through the elements
of a circuit in a continuous path. In a series circuit, all components, such as
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, are connected in a line, allowing the same
current to flow through each component. At series resonance, the inductive
reactance (XL) is equal to the capacitive reactance (XC).
Then;
I=V/R
The current flowing from the source in the circuit is solely dependent on the resistance
of the circuit, which acts as a bottleneck for the maximum current flow in the series
RLC circuit. The diagram illustrates the connection between the current, impedance,
and resonance frequency of the series resonance circuit (Figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19. Series resonance.

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• Quality Factor: The quality factor of a series RLC circuit is defined as a ratio
of energy stored in each cycle to the energy dissipated in each cycle, i.e.,
Q=1/R*√L/C
• Parallel Resonance: In a parallel resonance circuit, the inductor (L) and capacitor
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 107
(C) are connected alongside each other, with a resistor (R) usually connected
in series with the inductor. When operating at the resonant frequency (f₀), the
impedance of the inductor and capacitor balance each other, causing a significant
spike in current flowing through the circuit (Figure 3.20).
The resonance occurs when the instantaneous values of currents IL and IC are equal
and opposite to each other.
Applying KCL to this parallel RLC circuit we get;
I=IR+IL+IC
According to Ohm’s law;
IR=V/R; IL=V/jXL; IC=V/(–jXC)
Therefore, the total circuit current is given by;
I=V/R+V/jXL–V/(jXC)
Hence, I=VY
Where;
Y=1/R+j(1/XC–1/XL)
Condition of Parallel Resonance
XL=XC
• Electrical Quantities at Parallel Resonance
– Resonance Frequency: The resonance frequency of a parallel resonance
circuit is the value of the supply frequency where the inductive reactance
XL becomes equal to the capacitive reactance XC i.e.,
XL=XC
2πfL=1/2πfC
f2=1/4π2LC
fr=1/2π√LC
Also;
ωr=1/√LC
The resonant frequency of a parallel RLC circuit depends on the value of capacitance
and inductance.
• Impedance: At resonance, the circuit’s admittance reaches its lowest value,
causing a disruption in the flow of electricity.
108 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 3.20. Parallel resonance.

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The impedance of the circuit is maximum at resonance and the circuit draws
minimum current.
Z=R
• Admittance: Admittance measures the ability of current to flow through a device
or circuit, and is the inverse of impedance, much like how conductance is the
opposite of resistance. The SI unit for admittance is the siemens, denoted by
the symbol S.
Admittance is given by:
Y=1/R+j(1/XC–1/XL)
At resonance: XL=XC
Putting it in the admittance equation we get
Y=1/R
At resonance the admittance Y being equal to the resistance reciprocal.
• Voltage: Voltage refers to the potential difference across each branch of the
circuit. In Parallel circuit the voltage remains the same across each branch.
At parallel resonance;
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 109
XC=XL Table 3.1. Differentiate Between Series and
Parallel Resonance
Therefore;
I=VR Series Resonance Parallel Resonance
Series Resonance circuit Parallel Resonance
V=IR is an acceptor circuit. circuit is an rejecter
circuit.
At parallel resonance, the voltage across At resonance the At resonance the
each element will be equal to the voltage impedance is a impedance is maximum
across the resistance, representing the maximum. nearly equal to infinity.
maximum voltage that appears across each Current at resonance is Current at resonance is
maximum = V/R. minimum = V/(L/CR).
element.
Power factor is unity. Power factor is unity.
• Current: Current is the movement Series circuit magnifies Parallel circuit magnifies
of electric charge through each voltage. current
separate branch of the circuit. The series resonance is The parallel resonance
In a parallel circuit, the total widely used in tuning, is used in current
oscillator circuits, amplifiers, induction
current is divided among the voltage amplifiers, high heating, filters, radio-
different branches according to frequency filters, etc. frequency amplifiers,
their respective resistances or etc.
impedances.
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The circuit current I at parallel resonant difference-between-series-resonance-and-
condition is given by; parallel-resonance/
I=IR
• Quality Factor: At parallel 3.4.5. Application of Resonance
resonance; It has some vast practical applications in the
fr=1/2π√LC electrical engineering field. Below are five
applications of resonance in RLC circuits:
Q=R√C/L
• Used for Voltage multiplier
• Bandwidth: The difference in upper • Used to filter a signal by blocking
frequency and lower frequency some frequencies and passing
denotes the bandwidth of the others.
parallel resonance circuit. The
power dissipation at the upper and • Used for Pulse discharge circuits
lower frequencies is half of the full • Used in different types of oscillator
power dissipated at the resonance circuit.
frequency fr. • These are used in the tuning
The bandwidth of the parallel resonance circuits of analog radios.
circuit is expressed by the following formula.
Advantages of Resonance
BW=fupper-flower
• Selective tuning: Filtering out
BW=fr/Q unwanted signals and focusing
on the desired frequency band in
communication systems.
110 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Amplification: Resonance circuits Disadvantages of Resonance

provide strong amplification to
signals resulting in increased signal • Bulkiness: The inductive and
power. It is used in the applications capacitive components can be bulky
communication systems. and heavy limiting the downsize of
resonant circuits.
• Impedance Matching: Resonance
circuits are also used for impedance • Narrow Bandwidth: Resonance
matching purposes ensuring circuits sometimes have a narrow
maximum power transfer between bandwidth which means that they
the source and load. It is used in are effective for a limited range
antennas and transmission lines. of frequencies. This limitation
can restrict their capability in
• Energy Efficiency: Resonance
applications requiring broader
circuits can store and transfer
frequency coverage.
energy efficiently between the
inductive and capacitive elements. • Complex Design Requirements:
The applications of energy efficiency Designing resonance circuits with
are wireless power transfer systems specific performance characteristics
and energy storage. can be complex and require
detailed analysis. Achieving
desired resonance properties such
as bandwidth and Q factor often
necessitates careful consideration
of circuit and component values.
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 111

CASE STUDY
FAILURE ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
Failure analysis of alternating current (AC) systems is a critical aspect of ensuring
the reliability and safety of electrical power systems. This case study focuses on a
comprehensive failure analysis conducted on a 230 kV substation’s AC auxiliary system
that experienced a significant outage, affecting a large urban area. The substation in
question was a crucial node in the power grid, supplying electricity to both residential
and industrial sectors. The failure occurred during peak load conditions, resulting in a
blackout and subsequent investigation to determine the root cause and prevent future
occurrences.
The incident began with a sudden loss of power in the substation’s auxiliary systems,
which are essential for operating control systems, protection relays, and communication
equipment. Initial observations indicated that the primary AC supply to the auxiliary
systems had been interrupted. Backup systems, including batteries and diesel generators,
failed to engage as designed, exacerbating the situation. An immediate response team
was deployed to restore power and begin the diagnostic process.
The first step in the failure analysis involved a thorough inspection of the substation’s
infrastructure. Technicians examined physical components such as switchgear,
transformers, and circuit breakers for any signs of damage or malfunction. Visual
inspections revealed no apparent mechanical failures or damage due to external factors
like weather or vandalism. Attention then shifted to the electrical and control systems.
Detailed testing and diagnostics were conducted on the AC auxiliary supply circuits,
including insulation resistance tests, continuity checks, and thermographic inspections
to identify overheating components.
During these tests, it was discovered that a critical component, an Automatic Transfer
Switch (ATS), had failed to operate correctly. The ATS is designed to switch the auxiliary
power supply from the main source to a backup generator in the event of a primary supply
failure. Detailed examination of the ATS revealed a malfunction in its control circuitry,
preventing it from detecting the loss of primary power and initiating the switch to the
backup generator. Further analysis identified that the control circuitry failure was due
to a defective relay, which had not been replaced during routine maintenance cycles.
The failure of the ATS prompted a review of the maintenance and testing protocols
for critical components within the substation. Maintenance records indicated that the
relay in question had been flagged for replacement during a previous inspection but
was not replaced due to inventory shortages. This oversight highlighted gaps in the
maintenance scheduling and inventory management processes. Additionally, it was found
that the testing procedures for the ATS did not adequately simulate real-world failure
conditions, leading to a false sense of security regarding its operational readiness.
112 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Beyond the immediate cause, the investigation also examined why the backup
systems, such as the batteries and diesel generator, did not function as expected. The
battery backup system was found to have degraded over time, with several cells showing
reduced capacity due to aging and insufficient maintenance. The diesel generator, while
mechanically sound, had not been tested under load conditions for an extended period,
leading to issues with fuel delivery and startup during the actual event. This revealed
a critical lapse in comprehensive testing and readiness verification of backup systems.
The failure analysis concluded with several key recommendations. First, a more
rigorous and realistic testing protocol for the ATS and other critical components was
established. This included periodic simulated failure scenarios to ensure that all systems
would respond correctly under actual fault conditions. Second, an enhanced maintenance
schedule was implemented, with stricter adherence to component replacement timelines
and better inventory management to prevent shortages. Third, the backup systems were
overhauled, including the replacement of aged batteries and a more frequent testing
regime for the diesel generator to ensure its reliability.
In summary, this case study highlights the importance of thorough and realistic
testing, strict adherence to maintenance schedules, and comprehensive readiness
checks for backup systems in preventing failures in AC auxiliary systems. The incident
underscored the interconnected nature of substation components and the cascading
effects that a single point of failure can have on the overall power system. The lessons
learned from this failure analysis have been instrumental in improving the reliability
and resilience of the substation’s AC auxiliary systems, ensuring better preparedness
for future contingencies.
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 113

CLASS ACTIVITY
AC GENERATOR
1. Your teacher will explain and demonstrate a hand-operated, alternating current (AC)
generator. During the demonstration, make the observations necessary to gain the information
needed to answer these questions:

• When the AC generator is used to light a bulb, describe the brightness of the bulb
when the generator is cranked slowly, and then rapidly. Write your observations in
your log.
• When the AC generator is connected to a galvanometer, describe the action of the
galvanometer needle when the generator is cranked slowly, and then rapidly.
2. It is easier to understand the creation of a current if you think of a set of invisible threads
to signify the magnetic field of the permanent magnets. The very thin threads fill the space
and connect the north pole of one magnet with the south pole of the other magnet. If the
wire of the generator is imagined to be a very thin, sharp knife, the question you must ask
is whether the knife (the wire) can “cut” the threads (the magnetic field lines). If the wire
moves in such a way that it can cut the field lines, then a current is generated. If the wire
moves in such a way that it does not cut the field lines, then no current is generated.

• Look at the diagrams of the magnetic fields shown. In which case, I, II, or III will a
current be generated?
114 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUMMARY
• Alternating currents are also accompanied usually by alternating voltages.
Besides, alternating current is also easily transformed from a higher voltage
level to a lower voltage level.
• Alternating current can be produced or generated by using devices that are
known as alternators. However, alternating current can also be produced by
different methods where many circuits are used. One of the most common or
simple ways of generating AC is by using a basic single coil AC generator, which
consists of two-pole magnets and a single loop of wire having a rectangular
shape.
• The average value is usually defined as the average of the instantaneous
values of alternating current over a complete cycle. The positive half cycle of
asymmetrical waves such as a sinusoidal voltage or current waveform will be
equal to the negative half cycle.
• RMS value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous
values. It can also be described as the amount of AC power that generates the
same heating effect as an equivalent DC power.
• The phasor diagram is used to determine the phase relationships between two
or more sine waves propagating with the same frequency.
• If an AC circuit consists of resistance only, the value of the impedance is the
same as the resistance, and Ohm’s law for an AC circuit, I = E/Z, is exactly
the same as for a DC circuit.
• A resonant circuit is formed when a capacitor and inductor (coil) are in parallel or
in series. The two circuit elements will block or pass a single specific frequency
out of a divers mix. For this reason, resonant circuits make possible radio and
TV transmission and reception and perform many other useful tasks.
• Resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the total circuit current is “in-
phase” with the supply voltage as the two reactive components cancel each
other out. At resonance the admittance of the circuit is at its minimum and is
equal to the conductance of the circuit.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How do you calculate the power dissipated in a fully resistive circuit?
2. Explain how to calculate the total current in a series AC circuit.
3. Describe how the power factor in a series RL circuit is calculated.
4. State the Superposition Theorem and its significance in AC circuit analysis.
5. What are the theorems in circuit analysis?
6. Discuss the phasor and phasor diagram in a single-phase AC circuit.
 AC NETWORK ANALYSIS 115
7. Describe how Thevenin’s Theorem simplifies the analysis of AC circuits
with multiple loads.
8. What is resonance in AC circuits?

REFERENCES
1. Bhargava, N. N., & Kulshreshtha, D. C. (1983). Basic Electronics & Linear Circuits
(p. 90). Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Hughes, T. P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930
(p. 96). The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2873-2.
3. Kuehni, H. P., & Lorraine, R. G. (1938). A new A-C network analyzer. Transactions
of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 57, 67.
4. Robinson, A. J., & Snyder-Mackler, L. (2007). Clinical Electrophysiology: Electrotherapy
and Electrophysiologic Testing (3rd ed., p. 10). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN
978-0-7817-4484-3.
5. Suzuki, J. (2009). Mathematics in Historical Context. Mathematical Association of
America. ISBN 978-0-88385-570-6. Available from Google Books.
6. Zipernowsky, K., Déri, M., & Bláthy, O. T. (1886). Induction coil (U.S. Patent No.
352105). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on
October 9, 2022.
 CHAPTER
AC Power –
4 Generation and
Distribution

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand three-phase system
• Explain power in AC circuits
• Perform three-phase power measurement
• Discuss balanced and unbalanced load
• Describe electrical power system
• Focus on residential wiring
• Identify circuit protective devices and safety precautions

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Conductors Currents
Electrical power High Leg Delta Connection
Insulation Magnetic field
Open Delta Connection Scott-T Connection
Substation Three-phase transformer
Toroidal Transformers Transformer
Vibration Voltage
Windings
INTRODUCTION
The alternating current is so easy to generate and circulate, it is the most common
form of electrical force. It is easy to move the substitute voltage up or down to match
the required voltage level. To prevent power losses in the conductor, electrical power is
transmitted at high voltages and low flows. To meet the needs of the buyer, it is then
ventured down at the conveyance and shopper level. Larger electrical and electronic
hardware components require AC power at 220–240 volts, or 110–120 volts for office
and homegrown uses, and 415 volts for mechanical use.
Almost all electrical power is produced, transferred, and distributed in AC form.
A distribution system often starts at a substation, from which a transmission network
delivers the power. When consumers are situated close to the generating station, for
example, the distribution system may initiate there. The use of primary and secondary
distribution is also possible in larger or industrial areas.

118 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

4.1. THREE-PHASE
SYSTEM
The term “three phase system” refers to a system in which the fault current is passed
to the earth through one neutral wire and three wires through which the current flows.
Stated differently, a three phase system is one that employs three wires for distribution,
transmission, and generation. If the neutral and one of the three phases are removed
from the system, the three-phase system can also be used as a single-phase system. In
a three-phase system, the phase difference between the line currents is 120°, and their
sum equals zero. There are four wires in the three-phase system, i. e. the one neutral
conductor, the three conductors carrying the current. Half of the live wire’s cross-section
area is occupied by the neutral conductor. The neutral wire’s current equals the total
of the three wires’ line currents, which means it’s √3 times the current’s zero phase
sequence components.
Compared to a single-phase system, a three-phase system requires fewer conductors,
which is one of its many benefits. Additionally, it provides the load with a constant
supply. The three-phase system uses less energy and is more efficient. The generator
produces a three-phase voltage with equal magnitude and frequency when the three-phase
system is induced. It offers a continuous power supply, i.e., the power is still supplied
by the other two phases of the system in the event that one of them is disrupted.
One phase’s current magnitude is equal to the total of the system’s two other phases’
current magnitudes. For the system to function properly, there must be a 120° phase
difference between the three phases. If not, the system gets harmed.

4.1.1. Three-Phase Winding Connections

A three-phase transformer can be made by connecting the three windings of the
transformer primary and secondary in a delta or wye configuration. Three-phase transformer
connections come in four different varieties:
• Delta/delta
• Delta/wye
• Wye/delta
• Wye/wye
It is customary to list the connections for the H and X windings sequentially. The
same three-phase primary line voltage can be converted into the same three-phase
secondary line voltage using any type of connection.
Occasionally, though, the phase voltages of the various connections will differ from
one another. One could, for instance, use a delta/delta transformer connection with
three single-phase transformers set between 12,500 and 480 V, a wye/delta transformer

AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 119

120 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

connection with three single-phase transformers set between 7,225 and 480 V, a delta/
wye connection with three single-phase transformers set between 12,500 and 277 V,
or a wye/wye connection with three single-phase transformers set between 7,225 and
277 V. Everyone has benefits and drawbacks.
This section’s transformer connection diagrams, which show the angular displacement
between the primary and secondary windings, are for standard connections. The amount
that one voltage is out of phase with another is measured by angular displacement. Three
single-phase transformers connected in a different way than the standard connections
depicted here will produce secondary line voltages from the transformers that may be
the same value but will be out of phase with the secondary voltages from the standard
connection. The secondary voltages cannot be paralleled when they are out of phase.

4.1.1.1. Delta/Delta Connection

When only one secondary voltage is needed or when three-phase equipment makes up
the majority of the load, like in factories with large three-phase 480 V or 240 V motor
loads and relatively small 120 V lighting and receptacle loads, the delta/delta connection,
as illustrated in Figure 4.1, is utilized. The necessary primary and secondary voltage
is directly correlated with the number of turns needed for the primary and secondary
windings. Therefore, there is no benefit to transforming voltages with large differences
using this transformer connection.

Figure 4.1. A standard 0° angular displacement delta/delta connection.

Source: By Ahmed Sheikh, https://eepower.com/technical-articles/pros-and-cons-three-phase-

transformer-connections/#.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 121
Advantages: connection type depicted in Figure 4.2 is
utilized. Another common use for the delta/
• The conductors of each single- wye connection is as a step-up transformer
phase transformer do not need to connection.
be as large as the line conductors
supplying the three-phase load
because the phase current is only
57.8% of the line current.
• The transformer effectively isolates
electrical noise between the
primary and secondary phases, and
harmonic currents typically cancel
each other out.
• The secondary voltage will fluctuate
less with surges in load currents.
• In the event that one of the three
single-phase transformers fails,
three-phase voltage can still be
supplied in the open delta, albeit
at a reduced capacity of 58%.

Disadvantages:
• Since the secondary can only
Figure 4.2. A standard 30° angular displacement
provide a single voltage, additional
delta/wye connection.
transformers and possibly
receptacles are needed to supply Source: By Ahmed Sheikh, https://eepower.com/
the lighting. technical-articles/pros-and-cons-three-phase-
• For high primary voltages, additional transformer-connections/#.
insulation is needed between the
conductors of the primary winding Advantages
in order to ensure that they are
protected for the entire primary • Because of the wye connection,
voltage. the secondary line voltage of a
single-phase transformer will be
• There isn’t going to be a common
1.73% higher when the primary
ground on any secondary point.
and secondary windings of each
Voltages to the ground can therefore
transformer have the same number
increase to extremely high values.
of turns applied to them. When
using this transformer as a step-up
4.1.1.2. Delta/Wye Connection
transformer, this is advantageous.
When more than one voltage is needed • As a step-up transformer, the
on the secondary, such as in the case of transformer requires less insulation
three-phase, 208 V motor loads and 120 V since the secondary winding
lighting and outlet loads, the transformer conductors won’t need to be
122 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

shielded for the entire secondary

line voltage.
• In a three-phase system with a 208
V line voltage, multiple voltages on
the secondary could eliminate the
need for additional transformers to
supply 120 V loads.
• The system’s voltage potential is
limited to ground by a common
point on the secondary, preventing
it from rising above the secondary-
phase voltage.

Disadvantages
• When utilizing this connection to
step down high voltages, additional
insulation may be needed for the
primary windings since they must
be insulated for the entire three-
phase line voltage. Figure 4.3. A standard 30° angular displacement
wye/delta connection.
• Harmonic currents cannot be
canceled out by the secondary wye Source: By Ahmed Sheikh, https://eepower.com/
connection. technical-articles/pros-and-cons-three-phase-
transformer-connections/#.
• Since the secondary winding
conductors will carry the entire
three-phase line current, they need Advantages
to be larger than the conductors of
a delta system with an equivalent • Because of the wye connection,
capacity. the secondary line voltage of each
single-phase transformer will be
4.1.1.3. Wye/Delta Connection lower by a factor of 1.73 (57.8%)
when the same number of turns
When only one secondary voltage is needed are applied to the primary and
or when three-phase equipment makes secondary windings. When using
up the majority of the load, such as in this transformer as a step-down
factories with sizable three-phase, 480 V transformer, this is advantageous.
or 240 V motor loads and relatively small
• Secondary harmonic currents cancel
120 V lighting and outlet loads, the wye/
out in this transformer connection,
delta transformer connection, as illustrated
and the transformer effectively
in Figure 4.3, is utilized. As a step-down
isolates the primary and secondary
transformer connection, the wye/delta
noise.
connection is also frequently used.
• Stepping down from a high voltage
may result in less insulation since
the primary windings do not require
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 123
insulation for the entire three-phase
line voltage.
• In the event that one of the three
single-phase transformers fails,
three-phase voltage can still be
supplied in the open delta, albeit
at a reduced capacity of 58%.

Disadvantages
• Since the secondary can only
provide a single voltage, additional
transformers and possibly
receptacles are needed to supply
the lighting.
• Similar to the delta/delta, there
won’t be a common ground at any
point on the secondary. Voltages to
the ground can therefore increase
to extremely high values. Figure 4.4. A standard 0° angular displacement
wye/wye connection.
• The primary windings’ conductors,
which must carry the entire three- Source: By Ahmed Sheikh, https://eepower.com/
phase line current, are larger than technical-articles/pros-and-cons-three-phase-
those of a primary that is delta- transformer-connections/#.
connected and has the same
capacity.
4.1.1.5. Other Types of Three-phase
• In order to prevent voltage Transformers
fluctuations caused by unbalanced
loads, the common point of the These four permutations are not the only
wye primary windings should be kinds of three-phase transformers available.
connected to a system neutral. The basic star and delta windings are
modified to create the other types. The
4.1.1.4. Wye/Wye Connection following are the other kinds.

Seldom is the wye/wye transformer • Open Delta Connection: In order to

connection, as illustrated in Figure 4.4, create an open delta connection, or
utilized. Connected ground is frequently V-V, two matching windings must
the point where the primary and secondary be removed from the primary and
windings meet. Consequently, the secondary secondary sides of a delta-delta
receives the noise from the primary and circuit. When there is no load on
vice versa. In addition, harmonics from the the secondary terminals of this
loads and the magnetizing currents in the connection, three equal three-
transformer core are inherent to the system. phase voltages are available. When
Communications may also be interfered with the three-phase load is too small
by the connection. Phase voltages that are to install a complete three-phase
unstable are not unusual. transformer, this is typically done.
124 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The three-phase load that can be carried for a given open delta transformer
bank without going over the transformers’ ratings is only 58% of the initial
load. It could become a delta-delta connection if the load is increased and the
open delta closes (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Open delta connection.

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• Scott-T Connection: Another name for this is a T-T connection. To achieve this,
two transformers are used, one of which has center taps on the primary and
secondary windings. The other transformer, referred to as the teaser transformer,
has a 0.87 tap, while the main transformer has center taps. Because the teaser
transformer only runs at 87% of its rated voltage, the transformer’s full rating
is not being used. Figure 4.6 shows how the winding is represented. A three-
phase system is connected to a two-phase system using this kind of connection.
The power supply on an electric furnace with a two-phase system is a typical
use case for this conversion.

Figure 4.6. Scott-T connection.

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 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 125
• High Leg Delta Connection: To perform a high leg delta, center tap the secondary
side of the delta and connect the center tap to the ground. A three-phase, delta-
connected supply and a single-phase supply are produced by this configuration.
This is primarily utilized in residential and commercial distribution systems where
customers can receive 120 V line to neutral for lights and appliances or 240V
line-to-line for large equipment without the need for an additional transformer.
Red leg connections, wild leg connections, and orange leg connections are some
other names for high leg delta connection transformers. High leg delta connections are
typically utilized in North America, primarily in the United States. Referred to as a 208
V supply, the orange leg high leg delta connection is identified by an orange outer
finish (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7. High leg delta connection.

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• Toroidal Transformers: Conventional transformers are inefficient with energy

and noisy. Toroidal transformers defy convention, run extremely quietly, and
generate very little heat. A toroidal transformer’s core has a donut-shaped
design, with insulation separating the primary and secondary windings to reduce
noise-causing magnetic leakage.
A toroidal transformer’s power is adjusted based on the magnetic fields that flow
through its secondary coil. The secondary coil’s winding count determines the voltage
level; a winding-to-winding ratio of two to one doubles the voltage. Electrons can move
freely in any direction because of the positive magnetic field produced by the primary
coil.
The magnetic field peaks and then drops to zero voltage with an alternating current
(AC) current signal from a toroidal transformer, completing the first half cycle. The
electrons flow through the coil in the opposite direction as a negative magnetic field
once the first cycle is finished. To finish a cycle, the voltage is brought back to zero by
the switch pointing in the direction of the magnetic field.
126 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Because of the magnitude of the • Low electromagnetic interference

magnetic field they produce, toroidal (EMI) emissions
transformers have far lower noise levels
than other transformers. It is possible to 4.1.2. Factors Affecting Choice
have extremely tight windings that are
incapable of vibrating because of the donut- of Connection
shaped core. Because there is no vibration, The factors affecting the choice of connection
noise is completely eliminated, and a toroidal are listed below.
transformer is extremely secure (Figure 4.8).
• Availability of neutral connection
for grounding and load connection.
• Availability of a path for zero-
sequence current and third
harmonic current.
• Voltage stress and insulation to the
ground.
• Parallel operation with another
transformer.
• Economic consideration.
• Operation of the transformer under
fault condition.

4.1.3. Pros and Cons of

Transformer Connections
A thorough knowledge of the different
three-phase transformer connections is
Figure 4.8. Toroidal transformer coir.
essential for professionals in the power
systems industry. Being able to choose the
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electric-transformer/three-phase-transformer/ delta, delta/wye, wye/delta, or wye/wye
toroidal-transformer-core.jpg. – is crucial for efficient power distribution
to meet specific electrical requirements.
Advantages of Toroidal Transformers
Understanding the pros and cons of these
• Higher efficiency connections is important for ensuring that
• Low operating temperature transformers are set up to work effectively,
taking into account factors like conductor
• Produces a hum size, insulation needs, and harmonic currents.
• Toroidal transformers are smaller This knowledge is the key foundation for
because of their compact design. the reliable operation of electrical systems,
• Light-weight playing a vital role in effective power
distribution and management across various
• Low stray magnetic field
industrial and commercial environments.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 127

4.2. POWER IN AC
CIRCUITS
Instantaneous power in an electric circuit is the rate at which energy flows through a
specific point in the circuit. Energy storage components like inductors and capacitors
in alternating current circuits can cause periodic reversals in the direction of energy
flow. The watt is its SI unit. Instantaneous active power is the portion of instantaneous
power that, when averaged over an entire cycle of the AC waveform, results in a net
transfer of energy in one direction. Active power, also known as real power, is the
time average of this portion of instantaneous power. Instantaneous reactive power is
the portion of instantaneous power that, because of stored energy, oscillates between
the source and load in each cycle rather than resulting in a net transfer of energy;
its amplitude is the absolute value of reactive power (Thomas Roland, Rosa Albert, &
Gregory J. Toussaint, 2016).

4.2.1. Active, Reactive, Apparent, and Complex Power in

Sinusoidal Steady-State
Both the current and the voltage in a basic circuit with alternating current (AC) that
consists of a source and a linear time-invariant load are sinusoidal at the same frequency
(Das, 2015). The two quantities simultaneously reverse their polarity if the load is solely
resistive. Because of this, the instantaneous power, which is determined by multiplying
the voltage by the current, is always positive, ensuring that the energy flow is always
in the direction of the resistor. Only active power is transferred in this instance.
The voltage and current are 90° out of phase if the load is only reactive. The product
of voltage and current is positive for two quarters of every cycle, but it is negative for
the remaining two quarters, meaning that, on average, the load absorbs exactly the
same amount of energy as it releases. Every half cycle has no net energy flow. In this
instance, only reactive power moves: electrical power moves along the wires and returns
by moving in reverse along the same wires, but there is no net energy transfer to the
load. Even though the perfect load device doesn’t use any energy at all, the current
needed for this reactive power flow releases energy in the line resistance. Normal loads
will receive both active and reactive power because practical loads have both resistance
and inductance, also known as capacitance.
The product of the RMS voltage and current values yields apparent power. When
building and running power systems, apparent power is taken into consideration because
reactive power requires current that must come from the power source even though it
is not used at the load. It is necessary to size generators, transformers, and conductors
128 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

to carry the entire current, not just the current that performs useful work. Under certain
operating conditions, an electrical grid’s voltage levels can drop due to insufficient
reactive power, which can cause the network to collapse (a blackout). Another effect
is that unless two loads have the same phase difference between their voltage and
current (the same power factor), adding their apparent powers will not yield the total
power with accuracy.
Reactive power is traditionally handled as though capacitors produced it and inductors
consumed it. When an inductor and a capacitor are connected in parallel, the currents
that flow through them usually cancel out rather than increase. This is the basic method
by which the power factor in electric power transmission is regulated; reactive power
“generated” (or “consumed”) by the load is partially compensated for by adding capacitors
(or inductors) to a circuit. There are two types of circuits that supply reactive power:
pure capacitive circuits, where the current waveform leads the voltage waveform by
90°, and pure inductive circuits, where the current waveform lags the voltage waveform
by the same amount. Capacitive and inductive circuit elements consequently have a
tendency to cancel each other out (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9. The power triangle. The complex power is the vector sum of active and reactive power.
The apparent power is the magnitude of the complex power.

Source: By Eli Osherovich, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.

php?curid=15308452.

Active power, P
Reactive power, Q
Complex power, S
Apparent power, |S|
Phase of voltage relative to current, φ
When describing energy flow in a system, engineers use the following terms (giving
each one a unique unit to distinguish it from the others):
• Active power, P, or real power: watt (W);
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 129
• Reactive power, Q: volt-ampere apparent power to active power. Because
reactive (var); energy stored in the load returns to the
• Complex power, S: volt-ampere source, the system with the lower power
(VA); factor will have higher circulating currents
for two systems transmitting the same
• Apparent power, |S|: the magnitude
amount of active power. The transmission
of complex power S: volt-ampere
efficiency is decreased overall and higher
(VA);
losses are caused by these higher currents.
• Phase of voltage relative to current, For the same amount of active power, a
φ: the angle (in degrees) at which circuit with a lower power factor will have
voltage and current differ; φ = higher apparent power and higher losses.
arg(V) – arg(I). Three vectors: When the voltage and current are in phase,
current leading voltage (quadrant the power factor is 1.0. When the current
IV), current lagging voltage is 90° ahead of or behind the voltage, it is
(quadrant I). zero. A home with solar panels on the roof
These are all denoted in the adjacent feeding power into the power grid during
diagram (called a power triangle). the day is an example of a load feeding
energy into the source when the voltage
The diagram displays P as the active and current are 180° out of phase and the
power, Q as the reactive power (positive in power factor is zero. When expressing the
this case), S as the complex power, and the sign of the phase angle of the current with
apparent power is indicated by the length of respect to the voltage, power factors are
S. Since reactive power is non-productive, it typically expressed as leading or lagging.
is shown as the vector diagram’s imaginary Current is regarded as either leading or
axis. Active power is the true axis because lagging voltage since voltage is defined
it is effective. The watt is the unit of power as the base to which current angle is
(symbol: W). Since apparent power is the compared. The cosine of the phase angle
product of RMS voltage and RMS current, (φ) between the sinusoidal waveforms of
it is frequently expressed in volt-amperes voltage and current when the waveforms
(VA). Volt-ampere reactive, or var, is the unit are purely sinusoidal is the power factor.
of measurement for reactive power. Reactive Power factor is frequently shortened to cos
power is sometimes referred to as wattless f on equipment nameplates and data sheets
power since it imparts no net energy to the for this reason.
load. It does, however, play a crucial role
in electrical grids, and the 2003 Northeast As an illustration, the voltage and
blackout has been linked in large part to current have a phase angle of 45.06° and
its absence. The key to comprehending an active power of 700 W. It is cos(45.6°)
power engineering is knowing how these = 0.700 for the power factor. Thus, 700 W
three quantities relate to one another. The / cos (45.6°) = 1000 VA is the apparent
mathematical relationship between them power. Using an example, the idea of power
can be expressed as S = P + j Q (where j dissipation in an AC circuit is clarified and
is the imaginary unit) or as vectors. demonstrated.
For example, when the power factor
4.2.2. Power Factor is 0.68, it indicates that only 68% (in
magnitude) of the total current supplied is
The power factor in a circuit is the ratio of
actually working at the load; the remaining
130 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

current is not working. In power sector within reasonable bounds. Reactive power
substations, power factor is crucial. A supplied from transmission lines is reduced
minimum power factor is required for the and provided locally through a process
sub sectors to be connected to the national called reactive compensation, which lowers
grid. If not, there are numerous losses. The apparent power flow to a load. For instance,
necessary typically vary by at least 0.90 – a shunt capacitor is placed close to the load
0.96. More power factor with less loss is in order to compensate for an inductive load.
preferable. This enables the capacitor to supply all of
the reactive power required by the load,
negating the need for transmission lines
4.2.3. Reactive Power to be used. By lowering the quantity of
The power applied to a load in a direct energy needed to be produced by the utility
current circuit is proportional to the product to accomplish the same amount of work,
of the current passing through it and the this practice saves energy. It also makes
potential drop across it. Reactive power is it possible to design transmission towers
the power that results from an inductor more optimally and create transmission lines
or capacitor. The reason for this is that with smaller or fewer bundled conductors
components like capacitors and inductors for greater efficiency.
are AC-only. Energy travels from the
source to the load in a single direction. 4.2.3.1. Capacitive vs. Inductive Loads
Both the voltage and the current in AC
power fluctuate roughly sinusoidally. The An offset between the waveforms of the
voltage and current waveforms do not current and voltage is caused by stored
exactly align in circuits with inductance energy in the magnetic or electric field of a
or capacitance. There are two parts to load device, such as a motor or capacitor. An
the power flow: reactive power, which is apparatus that stores energy as an electric
the part that cannot be used at the load field is called a capacitor. An opposing
because of the phase angle delay between voltage develops across the capacitor as
the voltage and current, and the component a result of charge accumulation as current
that flows from the source to the load. It flows through it. This voltage rises to a
can be compared to current that arrives maximum that the structure of the capacitor
at the incorrect moment (either too late or specifies. The voltage across a capacitor in
too early). Reactive power is measured in an AC network varies continuously. The
volt-amperes reactive, or var, to differentiate current leads the voltage in phase because
it from active power. Although these units the capacitor resists this shift. Reactive
are left as var to indicate that they do not power is said to be sourced by capacitors,
represent any actual work output, they can which results in a leading power factor.
be simplified to watts.
Among the most prevalent load types in
Reactive power flow is the result of today’s electric power system are induction
energy stored in the network’s capacitive machines. These devices store energy in the
or inductive components. Over the network, form of a magnetic field using inductors,
reactive power flow has a significant which are big coils of wire. The inductor
impact on voltage levels. It takes careful strongly resists this change in current
control over voltage levels and reactive and magnetic field when a voltage is first
power flow to operate a power system applied across the coil, which delays the
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 131
current’s maximum value. As a result, the compensators, and voltage control circuits
current is out of phase with the voltage. will be employed as sources of reactive
It is said that inductors cause a lagging power.
power factor because they “sink” reactive
power. Reactive power can be sourced or
sunk by induction generators, giving system 4.2.4. Unbalanced Sinusoidal
operators some degree of control over the Polyphase Systems
flow of reactive power and consequently Any system’s active and reactive powers
voltage. These devices can be used to are clearly defined, but one of the most
neutralize each other’s effects because contentious issues in power engineering is
they have opposite effects on the phase how to define apparent power for unbalanced
angle between voltage and current. This is polyphase systems. Appearance power was
typically accomplished by using capacitor first only a matter of merit. Steinmetz’s
banks to offset the induction motor-induced Theoretical Elements of Engineering (1915)
lagging power factor. and Stanley’s Phenomena of Retardation
in the Induction Coil (1888) are credited
4.2.3.2. Reactive Power Control with providing key definitions of the idea.
Nevertheless, it became evident that the
In most cases, reactive power flow requires definitions of apparent power and power
transmission-connected generators. For factor could not be applied to unbalanced
instance, the Grid Code Requirements on the polyphase systems with the advent of three
transmission system in the United Kingdom phase power distribution. To address the
mandate that generators supply their rated problem, the AIEE and the National Electric
power at the designated terminals between Light Association convened a Special Joint
the limits of 0.85 power factor lagging and Committee in 1920. They took into account
0.90 power factor leading. In order to keep two meanings.
the reactive power balance equation intact
and maintain a safe and economical voltage
profile, the system operator will switch
between actions. (4.2)
Generator MVRs + System gain + Shunt that is, the arithmetic sum of the phase
capacitors = MVAR Demand + Reactive loss apparent powers; and
+ Shunt reactors (4.1)
In the power balance equation above,
reactive power is generated by the
(4.3)
transmission network’s capacitive nature and
is primarily sourced from the “system gain.” that is, the magnitude of total three-
Early in the morning, before demand spikes, phase complex power.
decisive switching actions can maximize
system gain and contribute to system The 1920 committee was unable to reach
security throughout the day. There will be a a consensus, and the subject remained the
need to use pre-fault reactive generators in center of conversation. Another committee
order to balance the equation. Additionally, was established in 1930, but they were
shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, static VAR unable to find an answer. The conversations
they had are captured in the longest and
132 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

most contentious transcripts the AIEE has ever released [Emanuel, Alexander (1993)].
The discussion on this topic was not further resolved until the late 1990s.
In 1993, Alexander Emanuel proposed a new definition for an unbalanced linear load
supplied with asymmetrical sinusoidal voltages, based on the theory of symmetrical
components.

(4.4)
that is, the product of the squared sums of line voltages and line currents multiplied
by their root. The positive sequence power is indicated by P+:

(4.5)
V+ is the product of the squared sums of the line voltages and the squared sums
of the line currents. The positive sequence power is indicated by I+.

4.2.5. Multiple Frequency Systems

Any waveform can have its RMS value determined, and from there apparent power can
be computed. At first glance, it would seem that calculating numerous product terms and
averaging them all would be required for active power. Nevertheless, a more thorough
examination of one of these product terms yields an extremely intriguing outcome.

(4.6)
Nonetheless, as long as ω is nonzero, the time average of a function of the form
cos(ωt + k) is zero. Thus, the only terms in the product where the frequency of voltage
and current match have an average that is not zero. Stated differently, the calculation
of active (average) power can be achieved by treating each frequency independently
and summing the results. Furthermore, this demonstrates that harmonic currents are
undesirable if the mains supply voltage is taken to be a single frequency, which it usually
is. They won’t affect the active power transferred, but they will raise the apparent power
and RMS current (because non-zero terms will be added). Therefore, the power factor
will decrease due to harmonic currents. The device’s input can have a filter installed to
lessen harmonic currents. Usually, this will be a network of capacitors and inducers or
just a capacitor (which depends on parasitic resistance and inductance in the supply).
In general, the harmonic currents would be further reduced and the power factor would
be kept closer to unity with an active power factor correction circuit at the input.
4.3. THREE-PHASE POWER
AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Wattmeters are used to measure power in AC circuits. The potential coil (PC) and the
current coil (CC) are the two coils that make up a wattmeter. Connected across the
load, the high-resistance potential coil conducts current in proportion to the potential
difference across the load. The load is connected in series with the low- resistance
current coil.
There are several methods available for conducting three phase power measurements:
• One wattmeter method
• Two wattmeter method
• Three wattmeter method.

4.3.1. Three Wattmeter Method

This method is used to measure the power in a three-phase, three-wire circuit. Figure
4.10 depicts the connection. Each wattmeter measures power in its own phase because
the neutral wire is shared by the three phases; the total power is determined by adding
the readings from all three wattmeters.
Total power of load circuit, P3-φ = W1 + W2 + W3 (4.7)

AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 133

134 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 4.10. In the case of delta connected circuits, power measurement by three wattmeter
method is very difficult because phase coils of load are required to be broken for inserting the
current coils of wattmeter.

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html#google_vignette.

4.3.2. One Wattmeter Method

Since the power in each phase of a balanced 3-wire, 3-phase load circuit is equal, the
circuit’s total power can be calculated by multiplying the power measured in any given
phase. As a result, one wattmeter can be used to measure power in circuits with three
phases and three wires. However, this approach has a drawback. A measurement error
of this magnitude is produced by even a small imbalance in the loading.

4.3.3. Two Wattmeter Method

This method is typically used to measure the power in circuits with three-phase,
three-wire loads. Two wattmeters’ current coils are inserted into any two lines, and
the potential coil is connected to the line without the current coil by means of its own
current coil. It can be demonstrated that the total instantaneous power absorbed by
the load is equal to the sum of the power measured by the two wattmeters, W1 and
W2. However, in actual use, the inertia of the moving system causes wattmeters to
read average power (Figure 4.11).
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 135

Figure 4.11. The two wattmeter method of power measurement in three-phase circuits is suitable
for every type of three-phase circuit weather circuit is balanced or unbalanced and star connected
or delta connected.

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html#google_vignette.

4.3.4. Variation in Wattmeter Reading (on Lagging PF)

The power factor of the load affects both wattmeter readings when using the two
wattmeter method. The following describes how various power factors affect wattmeter
readings:
When φ = 0° i.e., cos φ = 1
The readings from both wattmeters will be equal and positive.
Therefore; P3-φ = W1 + W2
136 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

When φ = 60° i.e., cos φ = 0.5

In this instance, one wattmeter displays a positive reading and the other a zero
deflection.
Therefore; P3-φ = W1.
When 90° > φ > 60° i.e., 0 < cos φ < 0.5
Here, a positive reading will come from one wattmeter and a negative reading
(down-scale reading) from another wattmeter.
To get a positive reading on W2, the potential coil or current coil connection must
be reversed. Following the reversal of the connection, all readings should be interpreted
negatively.
Therefore; P3-φ = W1 – W2
When φ = 90° i.e., cos φ = 0
Both the wattmeters will give equal and opposite reading.
Therefore; P3–φ = W1 + W2 = 0

4.3.5. Effect of Leading PF on Wattmeter Readings

Leading power factor causes the readings on two wattmeters to be swapped. The
wattmeter with the higher reading is now the W2. Regarding the lagging power factor,
there are no changes to the other discussions.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 137

4.4. BALANCED AND

UNBALANCED LOAD
Three live wires and one path return make up the three-phase system. A lot of power
is transmitted using the three-phase system. There are primarily two categories for the
three phase system. There exist two types of three-phase systems: one balanced and
the other unbalanced.
A system that has equal load distribution throughout its three phases is said to be
in balance. Each of the three phases has the same voltage magnitude and is spaced
out by a 120° angle.

4.4.1. Analysis of Balanced Three Phase Circuit

Solving balanced three-phase circuits based on each phase is always preferable. The line
voltage is taken into account when the three-phase supply voltage is provided without
regard to the line or phase value.
Below are the steps to solve the balanced three-phase circuits.

Step 1 – First of all draw the circuit diagram.

Step 2 – Determine XLP = XL/phase = 2πfL.
Step 3 – Determine XCP = XC/phase = 1/2πfC.
Step 4 – Determine XP = X/ phase = XL – XC
Step 5 – Determine ZP = Z/phase = √R2P + X2P
Step 6 – Determine cosϕ = RP/ZP; the power factor is lagging when XLP > XCP and
it is leading when XCP > XLP.
Step 7 – Determine the V phase.
For star connection VP = VL/√3 and for delta connection VP = VL
Step 8 – Determine IP = VP/ZP.
Step 9 – Now, determine the line current IL.
For star connection IL = IP and for delta connection IL = √3 IP
138 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Step 10 – Determine the Active, Reactive Consequently, the three-phase windings

and Apparent power. of an AC generator are connected in order
to minimize the number of line conductors.
There are two methods available for
4.4.2. Analysis of Unbalanced connecting the windings in a three-phase
Three Phase Circuit system.
The load is connected either as a star or • Connection of Three Phase Loads
delta connection, and the analysis of the in Three Phase System: Due to the
three-phase unbalanced system is a little star and delta connections used in
challenging. the three-phase supply. In a similar
• Interconnection of Three Phase manner, the three-phase loads are
System: An AC generator operating also connected using a delta or star
in three phases has three windings. connection. Figure 4.13 depicts the
There are two terminals on each three-phase load connected in the
winding (start and finish). Each star.
phase supplies as an independent
load through a pair of wires if a
distinct load is connected across
each phase winding, as indicated
in the Figure 4.12. As a result, to
connect the load to a generator,
six wires are needed. This will
increase the system’s complexity
and expense.

Figure 4.13. The three-phase load connected in

the star.

Source: https://circuitglobe.com/circuit-analysis-
of-3-phase-system-balanced-condition.html.

The following Figure 4.14 illustrates the

delta connection for three-phase loads.
As mentioned above, the three-phase
loads can be balanced or unbalanced. A
three-phase load is considered balanced if
Figure 4.12. Three windings of a three-phase its magnitude and phase angle are equal
AC generator. for all three loads (Z1, Z2, and Z3). All of
Source: https://circuitglobe.com/circuit-analysis- the phase currents and all of the phase
of-3-phase-system-balanced-condition.html. voltages under such connections have the
same magnitude.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 139

Figure 4.14. The delta connection of three-phase loads.

Source: https://circuitglobe.com/circuit-analysis-of-3-phase-system-balanced-condition.html.
140 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

4.5. ELECTRICAL
POWER SYSTEM
A system of electrical components used to supply, transfer, and consume electricity is
called an electric power system. The electrical grid, which supplies power to homes
and businesses over a large area, is an example of a power system. The three main
components of the electrical grid are the distribution system, which distributes power
to surrounding residences and businesses, the transmission system, which moves power
from the generating centers to the load centers, and the generators that provide the
power.
Homes, businesses, hospitals, and industries all have smaller power systems. This
entire system is represented by a single line diagram. Most of these systems are
dependent on three-phase AC power, which is the industry standard for large-scale
power distribution and transmission in the contemporary world. Automobiles, electric
rail systems, ocean liners, submarines, and aircraft are examples of specialized power
systems that don’t always require three-phase AC power.

4.5.1. Structure of Power System

The following sub-systems can be separated out of the complex enterprise known as
the power system. The power system’s subsystems are described in detail below.

4.5.1.1. Generating Substation

The fuel used in the generating station (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc. is transformed
into electrical power. The electrical power is step-upped for long-distance transmission
and generated between 11 and 25 kV. There are three primary categories for the
generating substation’s power plant: i.e., nuclear power plants, thermal power plants,
and hydropower plants.
The two primary parts of the generating station are the transformer and the
generator. The mechanical energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator.
The combustion of coal, gas, and nuclear fuel, as well as gas turbines and occasionally
internal combustion engines, provide the mechanical energy. From one level to another,
the transformer transfers power with exceptionally high efficiency. With the exception
of transformer losses, the power transfer from the secondary is roughly equal to that
from the primary. Long-distance power transmission is made possible by the step-up
transformer, which lowers line losses.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 141
4.5.1.2. Transmission Substation transmission system. The substations
contain the reactor and capacitor needed to
The overhead lines that move generated keep the transmission line voltage constant.
electrical energy from the generating to the
distribution substations are carried by the The sub-transmission system functions
transmission substation. It only provides similarly to a distribution system. Here’s
the vast majority of its power to very large how it’s different from a distribution system.
consumers or bulk power substations.
• The voltage level of a sub-
These two tasks are primarily carried transmission system is higher than
out by the transmission lines. that of a distribution system.
• It supplies only bigger loads.
• From generating stations to bulk
receiving stations, it moves the • In contrast to a distribution system
energy. that supplies certain loads, it
only supplies a small number of
• It links the two or more power plants
substations.
together. Through the transmission
lines, the nearby substations are
also connected. 4.5.1.4. Distribution Substation
Operating at a voltage greater than 66 A distribution system is the part of an
kv, the transmission voltage is standardized electrical power system that connects all
line-to-line at 69 kv, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, of the consumers in a given area to the
230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV. Extra bulk power sources. Transmission lines
high voltage (EHV) is the term typically link the generating substations to the bulk
used to describe transmission lines above power plants. They supply power to a few
230 KV. substations, which are typically located in
handy locations close to the load centers.
Substations known as receiving
substations, primary substations, or high Power is distributed by the substations
voltage substations are where the high to residential, commercial, and small-scale
voltage line terminates. Stepping down users. Large power blocks are needed by
the voltage to a suitable value for the the consumers, and these are typically
subsequent portion of the flow toward the provided by transmission systems or sub-
load occurs in a high voltage substation. It transmission systems.
is possible to serve the very large industrial
consumers straight to the transmission
system. 4.5.2. Generation of Electrical
Power
4.5.1.3. Sub-Transmission Substation There are several basic techniques for
converting non-electric energy sources into
The sub-transmission system is the section electrical energy. Photovoltaic systems or
of the transmission system that links the revolving electric generators are the two
distribution substations to the high voltage ways utility-scale generation is accomplished.
substations via the step-down transformer. Batteries supply a tiny percentage of the
There are 90 to 138 KV sub-transmission electricity that utilities distribute. The
voltage levels available. A few sizable triboelectric effect, piezoelectric effect,
industries are directly served by the sub-
142 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

thermoelectric effect, and betavoltaics are directly converted to DC electricity

additional methods of producing electricity by photovoltaic panels. If necessary,
that are employed in specialized applications. power inverters can then transform
that into AC electricity. Even
• Generators: Typically, wind turbines though sunlight is abundant and
are used in conjunction with other free, producing electricity through
power-generating methods to solar power still typically costs
generate electricity. Kinetic energy more than producing power through
is converted into electrical power large-scale mechanical generation
by electric generators. This method, because of the cost of the panels.
which is based on Faraday’s law, is The cost of low-efficiency silicon
the most widely used to generate solar cells has been declining, and
electricity. By rotating a magnet multijunction cells with conversion
inside of closed loops of conducting efficiencies of nearly 30% are now
material, such as copper wire, it offered for sale. In experimental
can be observed experimentally systems, efficiency levels of over
electromagnetic induction, which 40% have been shown.
uses mechanical energy to force a
generator to rotate, is the method Up until recently, photovoltaics
used in almost all commercial were mostly utilized as a backup source
electrical generation. of electricity for individual residences
and businesses, or in remote locations
• Electrochemistry: The direct without access to a commercial power
conversion of chemical energy into grid. Recent developments in photovoltaic
electrical energy, as in a battery, technology and manufacturing efficiency,
is known as electrochemistry. along with environmental concerns-driven
Electrochemical power generation subsidies, have significantly accelerated the
plays a significant role in mobile deployment of solar panels. The growth
and portable applications. in installed capacity is approximately 20%
Batteries provide the majority of annually, with the United States, China,
electrochemical power nowadays. India, Japan, Germany, and Japan leading
While secondary cells, such as the way.
rechargeable batteries, are used
for storage systems instead of
primary generation systems, 4.5.3. Transmission of Electrical
primary cells, like the typical zinc- Power
carbon batteries, function as direct
power sources. Fuel cells are open The process of moving massive amounts
electrochemical devices that can be of electricity generated at power plants—
used to generate electricity from like large-scale solar facilities—over great
synthetic or natural fuels. Osmotic distances in preparation for eventual
power may occur in locations where consumer use is known as electrical
fresh and saltwater combine. power transmission. The North American
transmission grid, a vast network of
• Photovoltaic Effect: The conversion
electric power lines and related facilities
of light into electrical energy, as
in the United States, Canada, and Mexico,
in solar cells, is known as the
receives electricity from power plants in
photovoltaic effect. Solar radiation is
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 143
North America. Transmission typically to and from customers along the
happens at high voltage (69 kV or above) grid are known as conductors. Every
due to the characteristics of electricity and electrical circuit typically consists
the significant amount of power involved. of a tower with multiple conductors
Typically, power is delivered to a substation strung together. Although twisted
close to a population center. High-voltage metal strands make up the majority
electricity is transformed into lower voltages of conductor construction, more
at the substation so that it can be used by recent conductors may include
consumers. Low-voltage electric distribution ceramic fibers within an aluminum
lines are then used to deliver the finished matrix for increased strength and
product to end users. reduced weight.
In the event that there were no suitable • Substations: Substations transform
transmission facilities already in place for the extremely high voltages used
newly built solar energy power plants, new in electric transmission into lower
transmission lines and related infrastructure voltages for end users. Substations
would be needed. Various environmental come in a variety of shapes and
impacts would result from the construction, sizes, sometimes spanning several
operation, and decommissioning of high- acres; they are usually gravel-
voltage transmission lines and related surfaced and devoid of vegetation.
facilities. The nature and extent of the effects They are typically accessible via
resulting from the construction, operation, a permanent access road and are
and decommissioning of transmission lines fenced. Substations often have a
are contingent upon the size and type of range of buildings, wires, gates,
the line, its length, and several other site- lights, and other elements that give
specific variables. them an industrial look.
• Rights of Way (ROWs): Land set
High-voltage electric transmission lines aside for the transmission line
and their related infrastructure are primarily and related facilities, required to
made up of: ease maintenance and reduce the
• Transmission Towers: The part of risk of fires and other accidents,
the power transmission system that is included in the right of way for
is most visible is the transmission a transmission corridor. It offers
tower. Their purpose is to maintain a safety gap between the nearby
the high-voltage conductors, or buildings and vegetation and the
power lines, isolated from both high-voltage lines. For reasons
the environment and one another. of safety and/or accessibility,
There are many different types of some vegetation clearance might
tower designs that use a monopole be required. Typically, native
or an open lattice work, but they vegetation or plants chosen
are usually metal structures that for their advantageous growth
are very tall (a 500 kv tower could patterns—slow growth and low
be 150 feet tall with crossarms as mature heights—make up a ROW.
wide as 100 feet). Access roads, on the other hand,
can occasionally make up a portion
• Conductors (Power Lines): The of the ROW and offer more practical
power lines that transport electricity
144 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

access for vehicles used for maintenance and inspection. The width of a ROW
varies from 50 feet to roughly 175 feet or more for 500 KV lines, depending on
the voltage rating of the line.
• Access Roads: It is typically necessary to have paved or gravel access routes
to transmission line structures for both line construction and maintenance.
Building an access road may need clearing vegetation and/or rerouting land.
During a transmission line project’s construction and decommissioning phases,
more temporary roads might also be required.
4.6. RESIDENTIAL WIRING
Every electrical appliance in your house or building runs on AC power. The electricity
that powers your home’s main circuit comes from sources outside the building. The
power voltages in your neighborhood are converted by transformers into the 120 V
electricity needed for your home. Watts are the result of multiplying voltage by current,
as previously discussed in a post. This is crucial because a single circuit breaker has a
power limit and is meant to trip when the power becomes too great.
Three wires make up a continuous electrical circuit: a hot wire, a neutral wire, and
a ground wire. The hot wire will allow electricity to enter a receptacle in your house or
into the device you want to charge. The circuit is then completed when the electricity
returns through the neutral wire. The purpose of the ground wire is to eliminate any
excess power by sending a signal back to the main power source through the breaker.

4.6.1. Color Coding Wires

AC wires are color-coded for safety in the United States. The colors designate each
wire’s purpose in a 110 V home electrical circuit. The hot wire, carrying electricity, will
always be the black wire. It is never acceptable to use the black wire for grounding
or neutrality. Another wire that is regarded as hot is a red wire. Always take caution
when moving forward.
The white wire serves as the neutral wire. The current in your electrical circuit is
returned by this wire. The grounding wires are the bare green or green wires with
yellow tape on them. Only other green grounding wires should be connected to by
green grounding wires at all times. When a grounding wire comes into contact with any
conductive part of the frame, it shields users and appliances from shock (Figure 4.15).

Figure 4.15. Types of electrical wires.

Source: https://erieit.edu/learn-basics-of-home-electrical-wiring/.

AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 145

146 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

4.7. CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE

DEVICES AND SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS
Protection devices shield electrical systems and equipment from a range of hazards,
which is crucial for preserving security and dependability. Devices come in a variety of
forms, including RBCC, switch breaker, and fuse and each one is designed to address
specific operational requirements and threats.
Although these protective devices offer numerous benefits, such as equipment
protection and safety, they are not without limitations. When a fuse blows, it has to
be replaced immediately, which causes downtime. However, circuit breakers could
eventually break mechanically.
Despite certain drawbacks, protection devices are crucial for maintaining the longevity
and integrity of electrical systems.
• Protection devices are crucial parts of electrical systems because they reduce
the risk of overcurrent, short circuits, and ground faults, among other hazards.
• They provide voltage fluctuation protection, allowing equipment to continue
operating safely.
• Protection mechanisms include things like voltage regulators, GFCIs, fuse
boxes, circuit breakers, and surge protectors. Among their duties are equipment
protection, user safety, and system dependability.
• They prevent electrocution, minimize downtime, and safeguard equipment.
• For a variety of applications, they are generally necessary to ensure the
dependability, integrity, and safety of electrical systems.

4.7.1. Nature of Protection Devices

Here are the some of the protection devices of the circuit.
• Fuse
• Circuit Breaker
• PolySwitch
• RCCB
• Metal Oxide Varistor
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 147
• Inrush Current Limiter fields, including computers and aerospace,
• Gas Discharge Tube to name a few, and replacing it is not an
easy feat.
• Lighting Arrester

4.7.1.1. Fuse
Fuse serves a specific purpose among all
other electrical circuit protection devices.
Through its metal strip, which liquefies the
current when the flow is high, it guards
against overcurrent. These days, different
categories—like response time, breaking
capacity, current ratings, and specific
voltage—are helpful in different applications. Figure 4.17. Resettable fuses - PolySwitch
As such, it is among the essential items that devices.
serve as helpful defense mechanisms.
Source: By Shaddack - Own work, Public
Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=402736

4.7.1.3. RCCB
The purpose of the residual current circuit
breaker (RCCB), a safety device, is to detect
problems with your power supplies and, in
ten to fifteen milliseconds, turn them off
to prevent electric shocks. These devices
can also be reset, just like the testable
apparatus. However, another name for it
is a residual current device (RCD).

Figure 4.16. A miniature time-delay 250 V fuse

that will interrupt a 0.3 A current at after 100 s,
or a 15 A current in 0.1 s. 32 mm (1 1/4”) long.

Source: By DeltaFalcon - Own work, CC BY-SA

3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
php?curid=8094316

4.7.1.2. PolySwitch
The resettable and passive electronic
component are used to guard against Figure 4.18. An example of a rail-mounted RCBO.
overcurrent errors in electronic circuits. This
Source: By Dmitry G - Own work, CC BY-SA
device is also referred to as a multi- and
3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
poly-fuse. It can be used in many different php?curid=28907017
148 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

4.7.1.4. Inrush Current Limiter 4.7.1.6. Gas Discharge Tube

To be more precise, this kind of electrical A collection of electrodes in gas enclosed
component trips circuit breakers and blows in a temperature-resistant cover and
fuses by stopping the flow of inrush current, sequestered is called a gas discharge tube or
preventing frequent damage to the device. gas-filled tube. Although the cover is usually
In particular, these thermistors are typically made of glass, military tubes frequently
larger than width-type thermistors and are service glass that has wrinkles, and power
specifically designed for power applications. tubes frequently hire ceramics.

4.7.1.5. Metal Oxide Varistor

A voltage-dependent resistor, also known
as a varistor, is an electrical component
whose resistance varies depending on the
operating voltage. The variable resistor is
the source of the term “varistor.” The MOV
(metal oxide varistor) is the pinnacle of
voltage-dependent resistors for recurrent
applications.

Figure 4.20. A compact fluorescent bulb is a

household application of a gas-filled tube.

Source: By CC BY 3.0, https://commons.

wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8689967

4.7.1.7. Lighting Arrester

This particular protective device is very
useful in controlling the flow of current and
stopping unwanted flow in the circuit. All of
these protection mechanisms are therefore
the circuit’s best defense.
Figure 4.19. Metal-oxide varistor manufactured
by Siemens & Halske AG.
4.7.1.8. Circuit Breaker
Source: By Michael Schmid, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. The main purpose of the circuit breaker is
php?curid=386147 to specifically stop the flow of current when
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 149
a fault arises. One of its main advantages operational efficiency by averting
is that it can operate autonomously, major disasters.
requiring no outside assistance to continue
with operations. There are numerous 4.7.3. Use of Protective
classifications for circuit breakers as well,
each with a specific function. It should be Equipment
noted that semiconductors are used in its When working in areas with potential
practice for security. electrical hazards, employees must be
provided with and use electrical protective
equipment suitable for the tasks they
are performing and the parts of their
bodies they need to protect. Protective
equipment needs to be kept safe and
dependable and undergoes regular testing
or inspections in accordance with 29 CFR
1910.137, Electrical Protective Devices. If
the insulating properties of protective gear
are compromised while being used, the
insulating material needs to be covered with
leather or other suitable materials. Anywhere
there is a risk of burns from contact with
Figure 4.21. Four one-pole miniature circuit
breakers. exposed energized parts or head injuries
from electrical shock, nonconductive head
Source: By Bidgee - Own work, CC BY-SA protection must be worn. When there is a
3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. chance of eye or facial injuries from electric
php?curid=7632868 arcs, flashes, or flying objects brought on
by electrical hazards, protective eyewear
must be worn.
4.7.2. Importance of Protection
Devices
• Protection devices act as a system’s 4.7.4. General Protective
safety guard, preventing equipment Equipment and Tools
damage and ensuring user safety When working close to exposed energized
and system functionality. conductors or circuit parts, employees must
• They are effective in identifying use insulated tools and handling equipment
a wide range of hazards, such as if they could come into contact with the
sudden electrical fluctuations, short conductors or parts. Wherever tools and
circuits, inadequate grounding, and equipment are vulnerable to damage, the
overvoltage. insulating material needs to be safeguarded.
• By seeing these risks early on, When the fuse terminals are energized, fuses
they help to prevent accidents and must be installed or removed using fuse
equipment failures. handling equipment that is insulated for the
circuit voltage. When used close to exposed,
• Protective devices reduce the energized parts, all ropes and handlines
risk of injury and extend the life must be nonconductive. While working
of equipment. It also increases close to exposed, energized parts that could
150 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

be touched or where hazardous electric alerting techniques must be used. Where

heating or arcing could occur, workers must appropriate, safety symbols, accident
be protected from shock, burns, or other prevention tags, or safety signs must be
electrical-related injuries with protective used to alert staff members to potential
shields, protective barriers, or insulating electrical risks. When it’s necessary to
material. Normal enclosed live parts need restrict or prevent employee access to
to be guarded to keep unqualified people work areas where they could be exposed to
away from the live parts when they are uninsulated energized conductors or circuit
exposed for maintenance or repair. components, barricades should be used in
conjunction with safety signs. It is forbidden
to use conductive barricades in areas where
4.7.5. Alerting Techniques they could result in an electrical contact
To alert and safeguard workers against hazard. In situations where barriers and
the risk of electrical shock, burns, or signs are insufficient to warn or protect
malfunctioning parts of electric equipment, workers, an attendant should be stationed.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 151

CASE STUDY
SURGE PROTECTION FAILURE

Problem
A technology company is experiencing frequent damage to their electronic equipment.
The equipment is being damaged by voltage surges on the power grid, resulting in
costly repairs and lost productivity.

Solution:
The electrical engineer identified that the surge protection devices in place were not
sufficient to protect the equipment.
The engineer designed and implemented a new surge protection system that included
a combination of surge arresters, surge suppressors, and voltage regulators to effectively
protect the equipment from voltage surges.
The engineer also provided training to the maintenance team on how to properly
maintain the new surge protection system.

CLASS ACTIVITY
ALTERNATIVE AND RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Objectives
The student will understand alternative and renewable electric power generation energy
sources.

Materials
Internet for research
152 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Background
Alternative energy comes from conventional resources but produces fewer emissions than
conventional energy. Sources of alternative energy include: natural gas cogeneration, fuel
cells, use of waste energy, electricity and natural gas used for transportation. Energy
used from these resources fall into three categories: electricity generation, heat production
and transportation fuels. Non-hydroelectric renewable energy refers to electricity supplied
from the following renewable sources of power: solar, geothermal, biomass, landfill gas
and wind. Installation of these renewable energy resources is growing in the United
States. Air emissions associated with generating electricity from solar, geothermal and
wind technologies are negligible because no fuels are combusted in these processes.

Procedure
1. Have students research various fuel sources of alternative energy: natural gas
for cogeneration, fuel cells, burning garbage and landfill gas.
2. Have students review information on renewable energy fuel sources such as
geothermal, solar and wind in section four.
3. Have students work individually or in groups to develop a creative delivery
method of teaching the class about their chosen alternative or renewable fuel
source. Delivery methods may be:
– Edible replica of the fuel source (uncooked spaghetti wind turbine, gelatin
and cookie layer landfill, peanut butter sandwich fuel cell, wafer cookie
solar PV array, etc.). Replicas must list ingredients and what component
they represent.
– Write a Haiku for each alternative and renewable fuel source.
– Chose a song and rewrite the lyrics to reflect information about an alternative
or renewable fuel source.
– Develop a board game with informational cards and decision-making
questions.
4. Have students write a brief report about their chosen alternative or renewable
fuel source to accompany their project.

To Know and Do More

Have students research the latest technologies that can advance the use of alternative
or renewable fuel sources. Are there recent innovative developments?
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 153
SUMMARY
• The system which has three phases, i.e., the current will pass through the
three wires, and there will be one neutral wire for passing the fault current to
the earth is known as the three phase system.
• The three windings of the transformer primary and the transformer secondary
can be connected in a delta or wye to create a three-phase transformer. There
are four types of three-phase transformer connections, namely, delta/delta, delta/
wye, wye/delta, and wye/wye.
• In an electric circuit, instantaneous power is the time rate of flow of energy
past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage
elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of
the direction of energy flow. Its SI unit is the watt.
• The ratio of active power to apparent power in a circuit is called the power
factor. For two systems transmitting the same amount of active power, the
system with the lower power factor will have higher circulating currents due
to energy that returns to the source from energy storage in the load.
• In a direct current circuit, the power flowing to the load is proportional to the
product of the current through the load and the potential drop across the load.
The power that happens because of a capacitor or inductor is called reactive
power.
• In ac circuits, power is measured with the help of wattmeter. A wattmeter is
an instrument, which consists of two coils called the potential coil (PC) and
the current coil (CC). The potential coil having high resistance is connected
across the load and carries the current proportional to the potential difference
across the load. The current coil having low resistance is connected in series
with the load.
• The three phase system is divided mainly into two types. One is a balanced
three-phase system and another one is an unbalanced three-phase system. The
balance system is one in which the load are equally distributed in all the three
phases of the system. The magnitude of voltage remains same in all the three
phases and it is separated by an angle of 120°. In the unbalance system the
magnitude of voltage in all the three phases becomes different.
• An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to
supply, transfer, and use electric power. An example of a power system is the
electrical grid that provides power to homes and industries within an extended
area.
• Electrical power transmission is the process by which large amounts of electricity
produced at power plants, such as industrial-scale solar facilities, is transported
over long distances for eventual use by consumers.
• A continuous electrical circuit consists of three wires; a hot wire, a neutral
wire, and a ground wire. The electricity will flow through the hot wire into the
device you wish to power, or to a receptacle in your home.
154 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Protection devices are essential for maintaining security and reliability by

protecting electrical systems and equipment from a variety of hazards. There
are many different kinds of devices like fuse, switch breaker, RBCC, etc. and
each one is made to handle particular threats and operational needs.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the three-phase system?
2. What is the three-phase winding star connection?
3. What are the problems associated with the Y-Y connection of a three-phase trans-
former?
4. What are the advantages of the delta-delta connection of a three-phase transformer?
5. What is the tertiary winding in the three-phase transformer?
6. What is Scott connection of the transformer?
7. What are the advantages of a three-phase transformer over a three-phase transformer
bank?
8. How many types of Three-Phase Transformer Connections are there?
9. What is the total power in an AC circuit?
10. What is the unit of 3-phase power?
11. How is electrical power generated?

REFERENCES
1. Amanulla, B., Chakrabarti, S., & Singh, S. N. (2012). Reconfiguration of power
distribution systems considering reliability and power loss. IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, 27(2), 918–926. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2179950.
2. Bernardon, D. P., Garcia, V. J., Ferreira, A. S. Q., & Canha, L. N. (2010). Multicriteria
distribution network reconfiguration considering subtransmission analysis.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 25(4), 2684–2691. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPWRD.2010.2041013.
3. Das, J. C. (2015). Power System Harmonics and Passive Filter Design (p. 2). Wiley,
IEEE Press. ISBN 978-1-118-86162-2.
4. Emanuel, A. (1993). On the definition of power factor and apparent power in
unbalanced polyphase circuits with sinusoidal voltage and currents. IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, 8(3), 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1109/61.252612.
5. Fink, D. G., & Beatty, H. W. (Ed.). (1978). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
(11th ed., p. 18–17). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-020974-X.
6. Franchi, C. M. (2019). Electrical Machine Drives. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/
b22314.
7. Garud, R., Kumaraswamy, A., & Langlois, R. (2009). Managing in the Modular Age:
Architectures, Networks, and Organizations (p. 249). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
9780631233169.
 AC POWER – GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 155
8. Hughes, T. P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930
(pp. 120–121). JHU Press. ISBN 9780801846144.
9. Sallam, A. A., & Malik, O. P. (2011). Electric Distribution Systems (p. 21). IEEE
Computer Society Press. ISBN 9780470276822.
10. Short, T. A. (2014). Electric Power Distribution Handbook (pp. 1–33). CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4665-9865-2.
11. Thomas, R. E., Rosa, A. J., & Toussaint, G. J. (2016). The Analysis and Design of
Linear Circuits (8th ed., pp. 812–813). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-23538-5.
12. Tomoiagă, B., Chindriş, M., Sumper, A., Sudria-Andreu, A., & Villafafila-Robles, R.
(2013). Pareto optimal reconfiguration of power distribution systems using a genetic
algorithm based on NSGA-II. Energies, 6(3), 1439–1455. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en6031439.
13. Yu, Q., Wang, X., Cheng, Y., & Tian, L. (2019). Analysis and Mathematical Models of
Canned Electrical Machine Drives. Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-13-2745-2.
 CHAPTER
Electronic
5 Instrumentation
and Measurement

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Examine the concepts of measurement in electronics
• Determine the static and dynamic characteristics of
electrical measuring instruments
• Evaluate the units of electrical measurement
• Access the measurement of voltage, current, resistance
and power

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Digital multimeters Electrical energy
Electronic circuit Electronic filters
Hysteresis Photovoltaic (PV) cell
Clamp Meter Current transformer (CT)
Angular Frequency Digital multimeter (DMM)
Dynamic response Electromotive force
Instrumental Errors Measurement errors
INTRODUCTION
To measure anything is to compare it to a set or standard value. Some of the physical
quantities we utilize on a daily basis, such as length, mass, time, etc., may be measured.
These values are measured using various scales and measuring equipment to create
different instruments or for different scientific applications and research projects.
The term “electrical measurement” would then refer to the simple act of measuring
electrical attributes or quantities. Electrical measuring tools are used to measure electrical
parameters, which include terms like current, electricity, voltage, frequency, energy, and
power. Every electrical instrument is chosen depending on its intended use and the
type of quantity to be measured at the specific location. Different applications require
different standards of measurement. A smaller scale measurement device can be used
to measure things like household appliances and tiny electrical circuits that consume
little electricity. However, locations with large electrical consumption, such as power
plants and factories, require measuring devices that can measure parameters up to
extremely high values.

158 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

5.1. CONCEPTS OF
MEASUREMENT IN
ELECTRONICS
Assigning numbers to physical quantities and events is the process of measurement. The
sciences, engineering, building, and other technical domains, as well as practically every
day activity, all depend on measurement. The components, circumstances, restrictions,
and theoretical underpinnings of measurement have therefore been thoroughly examined.
As an alternative to using instruments, which can range in complexity from basic
rules for measuring length to extremely complex systems designed to detect and measure
quantities entirely beyond the capabilities of the senses, like radio waves from a distant
star or the magnetic moment of a subatomic particle, measurements can be made using
only human senses, in which case they are frequently referred to as estimates.
The defining of the quantity to be measured is the first step in the measurement
process, which also always includes a comparison with a known quantity of the same
kind. The amount or item to be measured is “transduced” into an analogous measuring
signal if it cannot be directly compared. Since there is always some contact between
the item and the observer or observing device during a measurement, accuracy is
limited because of this energy exchange, which is minor in common applications but
can become significant in specific types of measurement.

5.1.1. Measurement Theory

The study of measurement theory focuses on how numbers are assigned to objects
and phenomena. It also addresses the types of items that may be measured, the
relationships between various measurements, and the issue of measurement inaccuracy.
Three fundamental issues need to be addressed by any general theory of measurement:
uniqueness, which refers to the extent to which the selected representation is the
only one that could be possible for the object or phenomenon under consideration,
representation, which justifies the assignment of numbers, and error.
A number of axiom systems—basic principles and presumptions—have been developed
to serve as the foundation for measurement theory. The following are some of the most
significant categories of axioms: conjointness, axioms of difference, axioms of order,
axioms of extension, and axioms of geometry. The order that numbers impose on objects

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 159

160 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

is guaranteed by axioms of order to match essential work on error theory. The British
the order determined by real observation utilitarian moralist Jeremy Bentham made
or measurement. The representation of an attempt to develop a theory for the
qualities like mass, length, and time duration measurement of value in the 18th century,
is dealt with by axioms of extension. These which was also the first attempt to apply
attributes can be concatenated, or joined, measurement theory to the social sciences.
for many objects that display the same The foundation of modern axiomatic theories
feature. Interval measurement is governed of measurement can be traced back to the
by axioms of difference. The principles of contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz
conjointness suggest that attributes like and Otto Hölder, two German scientists. The
loudness, intelligence, or hunger, which application of measurement theory to fields
cannot be directly measured, can be inferred like psychology and economics has been
by observing how their constituent elements greatly influenced by the work of Oskar
interact with one another. The principles Morgenstern and John von Neumann.
of geometry dictate the representation of
attributes with multiple dimensions using There has been little success in
pairs, triples, or even n-tuples of numbers. establishing standard measurement
sequences or methodologies for social
One of the main issues in measurement theories because most of them are speculative
theory is the error problem. It was in character. The lack of generally accepted
formerly thought that measuring errors theoretical frameworks and quantifiable
may be completely eradicated with further measures, sampling errors, issues with the
advancements in science and technology. measurer’s intrusion on the object being
The majority of scientists no longer hold this measured, and the subjective nature of the
idea, and nearly all physical measurements data obtained from human subjects are a
reported today include some indication of few of the issues with social measurement.
the likely degree of error or the limitation The social science of economics has most
of precision. Errors of observation, including likely been successful in implementing
sampling errors, personal, systematic, measurement theories because a large
random, and instrumental errors, as well number of economic variables, such as
as direct and indirect errors (where one quantity and price, are simply and reliably
inaccurate measurement is used to compute measured. Demography has also effectively
other measurements) are some of the used measurement techniques, especially
different types of errors that need to be with regard to mortality tables.
considered.
The history of measurement theory 5.1.2. Types of Measurement
begins in the fourth century BC, when Errors
Euclid’s Elements contained a theory
of magnitudes created by the Greek Measurement errors are discrepancies that
mathematicians Eudoxus of Cnidus and occur during the measurement process. They
Thaeatetus. The English mathematician refer to the differences between the actual
Thomas Simpson conducted the first values of quantities being measured and
systematic study on observational error in the values obtained from the measurement.
1757, but Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre- These errors can originate from different
Simon Laplace, two French astronomers sources and have a substantial impact
from the 18th century, produced the on the accuracy and reliability of the
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 161
measurement results. Measurement errors value and is commonly represented as a
can be classified into two main types: percentage. Interpreting the precision and
systematic errors and random errors. accuracy of the measurements requires an
understanding of both kinds of faults.
Systematic errors are inaccuracies
that occur consistently and repeatedly Furthermore, human factors such as
in measurements due to flaws in the inaccurate data recording, misinterpreted
measurement system. These errors can instrument readings, or subjective judgments
result from faulty instruments, calibration can also affect measurement mistakes. It’s
issues, or predictable environmental factors. critical to create standardized protocols,
Identifying and correcting systematic provide thorough training for measurement
errors can be achieved through proper process staff, and, when practical, use
maintenance and calibration of the automated data recording technologies in
measurement instruments. For instance, if order to reduce these errors.
a scale always reads 0.5 kilograms more
due to a calibration error, this discrepancy In scientific research and industrial
is a form of systematic error. It is essential applications, accurate identification and
to address systematic errors as they can control of measurement errors are essential
introduce biases in results and impact the to maintain the reliability and validity of data.
overall accuracy of measurements. Techniques such as proper experimental
design, consistent calibration of equipment,
On the other hand, random errors conducting multiple measurements, and
are erratic and result from a variety of employing statistical analysis are utilized
uncontrollable sources, such as fluctuating to address and minimize these errors.
measurement processes, environmental By effectively recognizing and correcting
factors, and observer variability. These for measurement errors, researchers and
mistakes are typically characterized by professionals can enhance the accuracy of
their randomness and lack of a clear their data, resulting in more precise findings
pattern. For example, small discrepancies and informed decision-making. The three
in readings caused by minute adjustments main types of measurement errors can be
to the observer’s angle or vibrations in the classified as follows:
surrounding environment can be regarded
as random mistakes when measuring an 1. Gross Errors: Gross errors are
object’s length numerous times. Random caused by inexperienced observers
mistakes are difficult to totally eliminate, making mistakes while taking
but their effects can be reduced by making measurements. These errors can
several measurements and analyzing the vary between different observers
results using statistical techniques. and can also result from using the
wrong instrument. To reduce gross
The contrast between absolute errors, we can take two steps.
and relative mistakes is another crucial – Choose the best suitable
component of measuring errors. The instrument, based on the range
difference between the true value and of values to be measured.
the measured value, stated in the same
– Note down the readings
units as the measurement, is known as the
carefully
absolute error. Conversely, relative error is
the ratio of the absolute error to the real 2. Systematic Errors: Systematic
162 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

error occurs when an instrument • Standard Deviation

consistently produces a uniform Now, let us discuss about these
deviation during operation, usually statistical parameters.
due to the characteristics of the
materials used in the instrument. • Mean: Let x 1 ,x 2 ,x 3 ,....,x N are
The systematic errors can be the N readings of a particular
classified into the following three measurement. The mean or average
types. value of these readings can be
i. Instrumental Errors: This type calculated by using the following
of errors occur due to short- formula.
comings of instruments and m=(x1+x2+x3+....+xN)/N (1)
loading effects.
Where; m is the mean or average value.
ii. Environmental Errors: This
type of errors occur due to the If the number of readings of a particular
changes in environment such measurement are more, then the mean or
as change in temperature, average value will be approximately equal
pressure & etc. to true value

iii. Observational Errors: This • Median: When there are a

type of errors occur due to ob- large number of readings for a
server while taking the meter specific measurement, it becomes
readings. Parallax errors be- challenging to determine the mean
long to this type of errors. value. In this case, calculating
the median value can provide an
3. Random Errors: Random errors are estimate of the mean value. To find
caused by unknown sources during the median value, first arrange the
the measurement process and readings in ascending order. Use
cannot be eliminated or minimized. the following formula to calculate
However, to obtain more accurate the median if there is an odd
measurements without random number of readings.
errors, two steps can be taken. M=x((N+1)/2) (2)
i. Step1 − Take more number of
readings by different observ- We can calculate the median value by using
ers. the following formula, when the number of
readings is an even number.
ii. Step2 − Do statistical analysis
on the readings obtained in
Step1.
(3)
Following are the parameters that are
used in statistical analysis. • Deviation from Mean: The
difference between the reading of
• Mean a particular measurement and the
• Median mean value is known as deviation
• Variance from mean. In short, it is called
deviation. Mathematically, it can
• Deviation
be represented as
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 163
di=xi−m The mean square of deviation is also
called variance. Mathematically, it can be
Where; represented as
di is the deviation of ith reading from mean.

xi is the value of ith reading. (6)

m is the mean or average value. The above formula is valid if the number of
readings, N is greater than or equal to 20. We
• Standard Deviation: The root
can use the following formula for variance
mean square of deviation is called
when the number of readings, N is less than
standard deviation. Mathematically,
20.
it can be represented as

d12 + d 2 2 + d3 2 +  + d N 2
V=
(4) N −1 (7)
The above formula is valid if the number Where; V is the variance
of readings, N is greater than or equal to
20. We can use the following formula for d1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first,
standard deviation, when the number of second, third, …, Nth readings from mean,
readings, N is less than 20. respectively.
So, with the help of statistical
parameters, we can analyze the readings
(5) of a particular measurement. In this way,
we will get more accurate measurement
Where; values.
σ is the standard deviation
d1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first, 5.1.3. Electrical Measuring
second, third, …, Nth readings from mean, Instruments
respectively. Electrical measuring instruments are
tools used to quantify the strength of an
Note − If the value of standard deviation
electric current for various purposes. These
is small, then there will be more accuracy
instruments typically measure current,
in the reading values of measurement.
voltage, resistance, and power, with the
• Variance: The square of standard results being expressed in units such as
deviation is called variance. amps, volts, ohms, and watts, respectively.
Mathematically, it can be These portable devices enable quick
represented as; and precise measurements to be taken,
allowing for the collection of data that can
V = σ2
be compared to existing information. By
Where; V is the variance; and σ is the studying these characteristics and traits,
standard deviation one can better understand the electrical
object under examination.
164 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

In simple language, using tools to measure moves a needle within a magnitude

power, intensity, resistance, and voltage scale.
helps ensure that machines and installations • Digital: these are the most common
are working correctly. These tools also help because they make the same
identify how much electric energy a service measurement as analog versions
is consuming. but in a faster, more accurate, and
more reliable way.
5.1.3.1. Electrical Capacities the Measuring • Registers: these can be either
Instruments Measure analog or digital and are responsible
for recording the values being
Depending on what needs to be determined measured in a graph where the
about an electrical circuit, different value of the magnitude is shown
magnitudes can be measured: over a period of time.
• Voltage is the power differential
between two electrical current- 5.1.4. Main Electrical Measuring
conducting sites in an element. The Instruments
volt is used as its measurement
unit. Basic electrical measuring instruments are:
• The amount of current flowing • Ammeter: An ammeter is a device
through an electrical circuit is that measures current and needs
known as its intensity. The amp to be connected to the circuit in
is used as its measurement unit. series. Since the ammeter receives
• The value of a conductor in relation all of the circuit’s current, it must
to the electron flow is called have very little resistance.
resistance. Ohms are used as its • Voltmeter: A voltmeter is a device
measurement unit. that measures potential differences.
• Capacitance is an electrical circuit It needs to be connected in parallel
element’s ability to store charge. to the circuit element that needs the
The amp is also its measurement potential difference. A voltmeter
unit. needs to have a very high resistance
in order to prevent a significant
• The combination of voltage (volts)
current from passing through it.
and current (amps) produces
electrical power. The watt is the • Ohmmeter: An ohmmeter is a
name of its measurement unit. resistance measurement tool.
The circuit being tested does not
5.1.3.2. Classification of Electrical Measuring supply the energy required for
Instruments the ohmmeter circuit to function,
in contrast to the voltmeter or
Measuring instruments are classified ammeter. This energy is provided to
according to their function: the ohmmeter by a separate voltage
source, such as a battery.
• Analog: based on electromagnetic
systems; when a current or voltage • Multimeter: Many shunts and
passes through a conductor, a series multipliers are used with a
magnetic field is generated that moving-coil meter in instruments to
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 165
produce a range of measurements Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from
on a single scale graduated to read television repair technicians to physicists.
voltage and current. Measurements They are indispensable for anyone designing
of resistance are also possible if a or repairing electronic equipment.
battery is included.
• Wattmeter: A wattmeter is an
These devices go by the names instrument for the measurement
multimeters, universal instruments, or of power in an electrical circuit.
multirange instruments. A common example
would be an “Avometer.” With the use of The instrument has two coils:
distinct terminals or a selector switch, one – a current coil, which is
can choose a certain range. It is possible connected in series with the
to do only one measurement at once. When load, like an ammeter
a rectifier is included into the instrument, – a voltage coil, which is
these devices can frequently be used connected in parallel with the
in both a.c. and d.c. circuits. The Fluke load, like a voltmeter.
Digital Multimeter is a top performer in the
• Megger: A megger is an essential
industry, known for its precision, durability,
instrument for measuring high
reliability, and safety features. These digital
resistance and insulation resistance.
multimeters are widely used for measuring
It includes a hand-driven dc
DC and AC currents, voltages, resistance,
generator and a direct reading
continuity, temperature, and other variables.
true ohmmeter, also known as a
• Oscilloscope: The oscilloscope is megohmmeter. Unlike an ordinary
basically a graph-displaying device ohmmeter, a megger is specifically
– it draws a graph of an electrical designed to measure the resistance
signal. In most applications, the of multimillions of ohms, such as
graph shows how signals change conductor insulation. This portable
over time. From the graph, it is instrument is commonly used to
possible to: measure high resistance levels,
typically one megaohm and above,
– determine the time and
in electrical cables and equipment.
voltage values of a signal
It helps check the insulation
– calculate the frequency of an resistance of electric circuits in
oscillating signal relation to the earth and other
– see the ‘moving parts’ of a components.
circuit represented by the • Continuity Tester: A continuity
signal tester is the measurement of the
– tell if a malfunctioning resistance of a cable to discover if
component is distorting the the cable is continuous, i.e., that
signal it has no breaks or high-resistance
– find out how much of a signal joints.
is d.c. or a.c. • Tachometer: A tachometer is a
– tell how much of the signal is device that measures the rotational
noise and whether the noise speed of an engine shaft, commonly
is changing with time expressed in revolutions per
minute. These days, a tachometer
166 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

is required to measure the speed useful information to have when

at which several objects rotate. troubleshooting or working on a
Knowing the length of time and the failed asset. The first tool you’ll
speed of a moving object is useful reach for is a non-contact voltage
since it allows one to compute the detector.
distance and schedule maintenance • Clamp Meter: A clamp meter is a
to stop wear and tear. versatile electrical testing tool that
• Stroboscope: A stroboscope is a combines a voltmeter with a clamp-
tool used to observe a rotating type current meter. From its origins
object at fixed intervals, achieved as a single-purpose test tool for
through a rotating or vibrating electricians, modern clamp meters
shutter or a specially designed have evolved to offer a wide range
lamp that flashes regularly. When of measurement functions, increased
the time between views matches accuracy, and special features. These
the object’s revolution time and the devices have transitioned from analog
view is brief, the object will appear to digital technology, offering the
motionless. functionality of a digital multimeter
• Fluxmeter: A fluxmeter outperforms (DMM) along with the added benefit
a ballistic galvanometer in certain of a built-in current transformer.
magnetic measurements due to • Power Quality Analyzer: Power
its unique design. It is essentially quality analyzers are user-friendly
a modified version of a ballistic devices that can accurately detect a
galvanometer with adjustments wide range of power quality issues,
such as reducing suspension torque including high-speed transients,
and increasing electromagnetic voltage regulation violations, high-
damping. In addition to being more frequency harmonics, signaling,
portable, a fluxmeter does not and more. These analyzers have
require a rapid change in flux over advanced features that allow them
a short period of time like a ballistic to automatically identify the type of
galvanometer. The deflection of a current transformer (CT) connected
fluxmeter is consistent for a given and its range to ensure proper
flux change regardless of the connection.
duration of the change. • Irradiance Meter: The solar irradiance
• LCR meter: The LCR (or RLC) meter is a key component in
meter, or bridge, is an electronic estimating solar irradiation which is
instrument specifically designed for necessary and essential to designing
the measurement of impedances sustainable energy systems such as
having arbitrary phase angles (LCR photovoltaic (PV) systems.
stands for inductance, capacitance, • Battery Analyzer: The battery
resistance) analyzer is an ideal test tool for
• Non-contact Voltage Tester: A maintenance, troubleshooting and
non-contact voltage tester or performance testing of individual
detector is an electrical tester stationary batteries and battery
that helps to detect the presence banks used in critical battery
of voltage. Voltage presence is backup applications.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 167

5.2. STATIC AND

DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ELECTRICAL MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
It is crucial to comprehend the performance characteristics of a measurement system
when selecting the appropriate instrument. Key characteristics include accuracy, precision,
resolution, sensitivity, and others, which help users choose the best instrument for their
specific measuring needs.
There are two basic performance characteristics of measuring instrument:
• Static characteristics: value of the measured variable change slowly.
• Dynamic characteristics: value of the measured variable change very fast.

5.2.1. Static Characteristics of Electrical Measuring Instruments

Certain applications require the measurement of quantities that remain constant or
change gradually over time. In these cases, it is possible to establish a set of standards
to evaluate the accuracy of the measurement without disrupting dynamic descriptions
that rely on differential equations. These standards are known as static characteristics,
and the primary ones include:
• Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as how closely an instrument reading aligns
with the true value of the quantity being measured. It is crucial for electrical
measuring instruments to be accurate as it ensures conformity to truth. Accuracy
can be measured in terms of inaccuracy or limits of errors, and can be expressed
in various ways.
– Point Accuracy: This accuracy measurement pertains to just one specific
point on the instrument’s scale. It does not provide any details on the
accuracy at different points on the scale, nor does it offer insight into the
overall accuracy of the instrument.
168 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

– Accuracy as Percentage to a zero reading once the input

of Scale Range: When an quantity is reset to zero, even with
instrument has uniform scale, consistent external conditions.
it’s accuracy may be expressed
in terms of scale range.
– Accuracy as Percentage of
True Value: The best way to
conceive the idea of accuracy
is to specify it in terms of the
true value of the quantity
being measured within +0.5%
or –0.5% of true value.
• Precision: Precision is a measure
of the degree of agreement within
a group of measurements; that is,
given a fixed value of quantity, it
is a measure of the reproducibility
of the measurements. The word
“precise” refers to something that
is precisely defined. Consider the
following scenario to illustrate
the distinction between the terms
accuracy and precision: we have
an ammeter with a high degree
of precision due to its distinct,
easily readable scale and knife-edge
pointer that is arranged in mirrors
to eliminate parallax. It is another
crucial static feature of electrical
measurement tools.
We can measure readings with this
ammeter to 1/100 of an ampere with
precision. The readings are consistent Figure 5.1. Accuracy and precision.
and clearly defined each time we take a
measurement. However, the ammeter is not Source: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/
resource/view.php?id=3311.
accurate due to a faulty zero adjustment,
therefore the readings do not align with • Resolution: If the input to an
the truth (Figure 5.1). instrument slowly increases from
• Stability: A measuring system’s a starting point that is not zero, it
capability to consistently meet will be noticed that the output of
performance standards over an the instrument remains constant
extended period is known as long- until a certain minimum increase
term stability. Zero stability refers in the input occurs. This minimum
to the instrument’s ability to return increase is known as the resolution
of the instrument, which is the
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 169
smallest incremental change in the Zero drift is commonly measured
input that the measuring system in units such as volts per °C for a
can detect. This is considered voltmeter affected by temperature
one of the most important static fluctuations, known as the zero
characteristics of electrical drift coefficient.
measuring instruments. Resolving • Repeatability: It is a feature of
power, or discrimination power, electrical measuring tools with
refers to the system’s capability to high precision. When the same
detect small changes in the input. input is applied repeatedly over
The resolution of an instrument is a brief period of time, with the
greatly influenced by how finely its same measurement settings, same
output scale is divided. When the instrument and observer, same
input to an instrument is gradually location, and same conditions of
increased from zero, there will be a usage maintained throughout,
minimum input value below which it characterizes the proximity of
no changes in the output can be output values. Drift and internal
seen. This minimum input value noise have an impact on it.
is known as the threshold of the
The percentage of the true value is used
instrument.
to express it. Transducers for measuring
• Threshold: When slowly increasing are used continuously in process control
the instrument input from zero, operations; consistency in product quality
there will be a minimum value dictates that the repeatability of the
where no output change can be transducer’s performance is more significant
noticed. This value is known as than its accuracy.
the threshold of the instrument.
When specifying the threshold, • Reproducibility: Consistency in
the first noticeable output change measuring the same input value is
is typically described as any achieved through close monitoring
measurable change that can be at various times, conditions,
detected. and with different instruments.
• Drift: Drift is a gradual change in Output signals are examined for
the output signal of a transducer or reliability over extended periods
measuring system that is not caused and in different settings to ensure
by any alterations in the input. It perfect reproducibility, allowing for
usually results from shifts in the interchangeability of instruments
internal operating conditions of and transducers.
the system’s components. Drift can • Dead Zone: The dead zone is the
manifest as zero drift or sensitivity maximum input quantity change
drift. Zero drift refers to a deviation where there is no output from the
in the instrument output over time instrument. This can be due to static
from its initial reading, while all friction, backlash, or hysteresis.
other measurement factors remain Dead zone is also referred to as
constant. This could stem from dead band or dead space. Primary
variations in component values due transducers utilizing elastic
to environmental changes or aging. mechanical elements will exhibit
170 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

hysteresis, creep, and elastic after- intended input is not a straight

effects to a certain degree. line. However, linear response is
• Backlash: The maximum distance or the most ideal in many situations.
angle through which any part of the It establishes the proportionality
mechanical system may be moved between the output signal and the input
in one direction without applying quantity. When the measuring system’s
appreciable force or motion to the sensitivity remains consistent across the
next part in a mechanical sequence. whole range of values, the calibration
• Hysteresis: Whether a system is characteristic is linear and resembles a
mechanical, electrical, or any other straight line that passes through the origin.
type, hysteresis is a phenomena A linear scale may be used if the instrument
that shows various output effects is an indicating or recording device. When
while loading and unloading. there is a zero error, the characteristic takes
The term “hysteresis” refers to on the form of the equation y=mx+c, where
the variation in an instrument’s m stands for slope, c for intercept, and y
readings depending on whether for output and x for input.
the input signal’s fixed value is A measurement system’s calibration
approaching or veering away from curve’s linearity is determined by how
changing input values. That is, closely it resembles a straight line. An
when the measurement is made instrument may nonetheless be extremely
of the identical value using the accurate even if its calibration curve for
symmetry approach, the upscale the intended input is not a straight line
and downscale deflections do (Figure 5.2).
not coincide. Hysteresis is the
term used to describe the lack of In many applications, however, linear
synchrony between the loading and response is most desirable.
unloading curves.
Linearity is defined as;
• Linearity: It establishes the
proportionality between the output Linearity=Maximum deviation of o/p
signal and the input quantity. The from idealized straight line/Actual readings
calibration characteristic is linear
and is represented by a straight
line that passes through the origin
if the sensitivity remains constant
for all values of the measurement
system, ranging from zero to the
full scale value. A linear scale may
be used if the instrument is an
indicating or recording device. A Figure 5.2. Linearity.
measurement system’s calibration
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 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 171
• Range or Span: The phrases span to these changing conditions is known as
and range are used to describe its dynamic response, with the dynamic
the lower and APA calibration characteristics of electrical measuring
points, respectively. The span is instruments outlined below:
just the difference between the
full scale and lower scale value. • Dynamic Error: It is the difference of
Typically, the range of indicating true value of the quantity changing
instruments is from zero to the with the time the value indicated
full scale value. Nevertheless, the by the instrument provided static
identical instruments are biased to error is zero. Total dynamic error is
read voltages only, say, between the phase difference between input
5 and 25 volts. A bias is used to and output of the measurement
prevent these instruments’ zero system.
from being indicated. The scale • Fidelity: Fidelity refers to the
span in this instance is 25–5, or 20 system’s capability to replicate
V, while the scale range is defined output exactly as the input, without
as 5 V to 25 V. any time lag or phase difference
• Bias: Bias describes a constant considered in the definition.
error which exits over the full range Ideally, a system should exhibit
of measurement of an instrument. 100% fidelity, meaning the output
The error is normally removable by mirrors the input without any
calibration. distortion. Fidelity requirements
vary depending on the application.
• Tolerance: This word, which
indicates the maximum error that • Bandwidth: It is the frequency
can be predicted in a given value, is range at which its dynamic
closely related to accuracy. Although sensitivity is acceptable. It is
it isn’t exactly a static feature of necessary for measuring systems’
measuring devices, it is brought dynamic sensitivity to be no more
up here since some instruments’ than 2% of their static sensitivity.
accuracy is occasionally expressed The aforementioned requirement is
as a tolerance figure. When used loosened for other physical systems, such
appropriately, tolerance refers to as electrical filters and electronic amplifiers,
the greatest deviation a produced with the result that their bandwidth
part can have from a certain value. specifications can reach frequencies where
Resistors and other electrical circuit the dynamic sensitivity is 70.7% of zero or
components have tolerances of the mid-frequency.
about 5%.
• Speed of Response: It speaks to its
capacity to react to abrupt shifts
5.2.2. Dynamic Characteristics in the input signal’s amplitude. For
of Electrical Measuring a step input function, it is often
Instruments expressed as the amount of time
it takes the system to approach
Dynamic measurement systems consist of steady state conditions. In order to
inputs that are constantly changing, leading describe the reaction of the various
to varying outputs. The system’s response systems encountered in practice,
172 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

terminology like time constant, measurement lag, settling time, and dead time
dynamic range are used. As a result, the speed of response is evaluated based
on knowledge of the system performance under transient situations. This is one
of the crucial dynamic features of electrical measurement tools.
• Time Constant: It is related to how a first order system behaves and is known
as the time it takes for the system to reach 0.632 of its final output signal
amplitude. A system with a smaller time constant will reach its final output
amplitude sooner than a system with a larger time constant, giving it a faster
response time.
• Measurement Lag: Instrument response delay is the time it takes for an
instrument to react to a change in the measurement. This delay is typically
minimal, but it can be more substantial when fast measurements are needed.
There are two types of measurement delays: retardation, where the instrument
reacts immediately after a change in the measurement, and time delay, where
the system reacts after a delay following the input application.
• Settling Time: Settling time refers to how long it takes for an instrument or
measurement system to reach its final steady state position after receiving
an input. For portable instruments, settling time is how long it takes for the
pointer to come to rest within a range of –0.3% to +0.3% of its final scale length.
Panel type instruments have a settling time of –1% to +1% of its final scale
length for the pointer to come to rest. A shorter settling time indicates a faster
response speed. Settling time can vary depending on system parameters and
operating conditions, making it an important dynamic characteristic of electrical
measuring instruments.
5.3. UNITS OF
ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENT
The most common units for voltage, current, and resistance are the Volt [V], Ampere
[A], and Ohm [Ω], respectively. These units are based on the International System of
Units (SI), with other electrical units being derived from SI base units. In some cases,
multiples or fractions of these standard units are used in electrical or electronic circuits
and systems to account for very large or very small measurements.
The following Table 5.1 gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of
measure used in electrical formulas and component values.
Table 5.1. Standard Electrical Units of Measure

Electrical Measuring Symbol Description

Parameter Unit
Voltage Volt V or E Unit of Electrical Potential
V = I × R
Current Ampere I or i Unit of Electrical Current
I = V ÷ R
Resistance Ohm R or Ω Unit of DC Resistance
R = V ÷ I
Conductance Siemen G or ℧ Reciprocal of Resistance
G = 1 ÷ R
Capacitance Farad C Unit of Capacitance
C = Q ÷ V
Charge Coulomb Q Unit of Electrical Charge
Q = C × V
Inductance Henry L or H Unit of Inductance
VL = -L(di/dt)
Power Watts W Unit of Power
P = V × I or I2 × R

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 173

174 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Impedance Ohm Z Unit of AC Resistance

Z2 = R2 + X2
Frequency Hertz Hz Unit of Frequency
ƒ = 1 ÷ T
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5.3.1. Multiples and Sub-Multiples

Electrical and electronic engineering involves a wide range of values between the
maximum and minimum standard units. For instance, resistance can be less than 0.01Ω or
greater than 1,000,000Ω. To simplify notation, we use multiples and submultiples of the
standard unit to avoid excessive zeros. Table 5.2 provides the names and abbreviations
for these units.
Table 5.2. The Names and Abbreviations of Electrical Units

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten

Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012

Giga G 1,000,000,000 109

Mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103

none none 1 100

centi c 1/100 10–2
milli m 1/1,000 10–3

micro µ 1/1,000,000 10–6

nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10–9
pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 10–12

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So, to display the units or multiples of units for either Resistance, Current or Voltage
we would use as an example:
• 1 kV = 1 kilo-volt – which is equal to 1,000 Volts.
• 1 mA = 1 milli-amp – which is equal to 1/1000 of an Ampere.
• 47 kΩ = 47 kilo-ohms – which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
• 100 uF = 100 micro-farads – which is equal to 100/1,000,000 of a Farad.
• 1 kW = 1 kilo-watt – which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 175
• 1 MHz = 1 mega-hertz – which is equal to 1 million Hertz.
One must multiply or divide by the difference between the two values in order to
convert from one prefix to another. Convert 1 MHz to kHz, for instance.
As 1 MHz equals 1,000,000 hertz and 1 kHz is equal to 1,000 hertz, as we know
from the explanation above, 1 MHz is a thousand times larger than 1 kHz. Then, since
1MHz is equal to 1000 kHz, we must multiply megahertz by 1,000 in order to convert
it to kilohertz.
Similarly, we would need to divide by 1,000 in order to convert kilohertz to megahertz.
Depending on whether you need to multiply, moving the decimal point left or right
would be a lot faster and easier way to do it.
As well as the “Standard” electrical units of measure shown above, other units
are also used in electrical engineering to denote other values and quantities such as:
• Wh – The Watt-Hour: The energy usage of a circuit during a specific timeframe,
typically measured in watt-hours (Wh), kilowatt-hours (kWh), or megawatt-hours
(MWh). For example, a light bulb may use 100 watts of power for one hour.
• dB – The Decibel: The decibel, denoted as dB, is a logarithmic unit that represents
gain in voltage, current, or power. It is one tenth of a Bel (B) and is often used
to express the input-output ratio in amplifier, audio circuits, or loudspeaker
systems.
For example, the dB ratio of an input voltage (VIN) to an output voltage (VOUT) is
expressed as 20log10 (Vout/Vin). The value in dB can be either positive (20dB) representing
gain or negative (–20dB) representing loss with unity, i.e., input = output expressed
as 0dB.
• θ – Phase Angle: the difference in degrees between the voltage waveform and
the current waveform with the same periodic time is known as the phase angle.
Depending on the circuit element, it can be either “leading” or “lagging” and
indicates the time difference or shift. A waveform’s phase angle is commonly
expressed in radians or degrees.
• ω – Angular Frequency: The Angular Frequency, symbol ω, is another quantity
that is mostly employed in a.c. circuits to describe the Phasor Relationship
between two or more waveforms. This rotating unit has an angular frequency
of 2πƒ and is measured in rads/s, or radians per second. One cycle is 360°, or
2π, in whole; so, 180°, or π rad, is the half of a rotation.
• τ – Time Constant: When a step response input is applied to an impedance
circuit or linear first-order system, the Time Constant is the amount of time it
takes for the output to reach 63.7% of its maximum or minimum output value.
It is a gauge for response speed.
176 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

5.4. MEASUREMENT
OF VOLTAGE, CURRENT,
RESISTANCE AND POWER
Understanding current and voltage is crucial for any electrical circuit. These two
characteristics are essential for creating electronic devices like smartphones, televisions,
and refrigerators. That’s why we’re going back to the basics of electrical engineering
to show you how to measure current and voltage.

5.4.1. The Basics – Parallel and Series Connection

In electrical engineering, there are two types of circuits: The parallel and series connections.
You can see these two types of circuits here (Figure 5.3):

Figure 5.3. Parallel (left) and series (right) connection.

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Naturally, your next question is going to be, “What’s the difference between series
and parallel circuits, and why it matters for measuring voltage and current?”
Two parts (two bulbs in our example) are linked to the power supply in succession in
a series circuit. The property of a series connection is that, regardless of the measurement
point, the same current flows through it all. Consider this to be similar to a water pipe:
The same volume of water must exit the pipe at both ends if it enters at one end.
Additionally, the water flow in the pipe is uniform throughout.
In the series circuit, the electrical voltage varies throughout, though. A voltage drop
occurs when a portion of the voltage is lost at the first lamp, and another portion is
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 177
lost at the second lamp. There is less voltage left over for the last component the more
components you connect in series.
In contrast, every component in a parallel circuit has the same voltage drop. The
components are positioned next to one another rather than immediately behind one
another, which is the reason behind this. However, this also implies that the circuit’s total
current is not constant. Once more, the water pipe analogy is useful in this situation.
When the water pipe splits into two smaller pipes, only a portion of the initial total
flow goes through each pipe. However, we have already covered the fundamentals, so
let’s dive into how current and voltage measurements are conducted.

5.4.2. The Current Measurement

Ammeters and voltmeters are devices used to measure current and voltage. Multimeters
or power analyzers are devices that have the ability to measure not just voltage but
also current, and typically other quantities as well.
The components are connected to the ammeter in series if you wish to measure the
current. Why in a sequence? Because only then—as previously mentioned—does the
same current pass through both the component and the ammeter. A different current
would be detected if the ammeter and the component were connected in parallel.

Figure 5.4. Ammeter in an electric circuit.

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Additionally, in order to ensure accurate measurements with minimal impact on the

circuit, an ammeter must have a very low internal resistance. This ensures that the
device does not interfere with the current flow in the circuit. If the internal resistance
were high, according to Ohm’s law, less current would pass through the circuit, affecting
the measurement accuracy. Therefore, using an ammeter in parallel is not recommended,
as it can lead to an overload of current flowing through the device. In such cases, the
internal overcurrent protection will be triggered, causing the fuse to blow and rendering
178 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

the ammeter inoperative until the fuse is

replaced (Figure 5.4).
Unfortunately, there are situations where
opening a circuit to install an ammeter
is not feasible. In these cases, indirect
current measurement is a more practical
option. Instead of directly measuring the
current, this approach involves observing
the associated effects of the current flow.
By analyzing these effects, the electric Figure 5.5. Voltmeter in an electric circuit.
current can be determined. One example of
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an indirect current measurement tool is the uploads/2022/06/Voltage-1024x541.jpg.
current clamp, which detects the magnetic
field created by the current to calculate the Indirect measurement of current
current flow in the conductor. is possible and also very common, but
there is no possibility for indirect voltage
measurement. However, it is possible to
5.4.3. The Voltage Measurement measure voltage without contact by means
The voltage measurement and the current of electrometers and similar measuring
measurement operate in exactly the devices. However, one uses these methods
opposite ways. The component where the rarely in the field of electrical engineering.
voltage drop is to be measured is connected
in parallel to a voltage meter (voltmeter).
Parallel because both branches of a parallel 5.4.4. Measurement of
circuit have the same voltage. Consider Resistance
what may occur if the meter was installed Electrical resistance is crucial to the
improperly, such as in series connection. operation of electronic devices’ circuitry.
In this instance, the meter itself would If the resistance in their circuitry deviates
experience a voltage drop, leading to an from the appropriate level, these devices
inaccurate measurement result. can stop working. Electricity, however, is
A voltmeter needs to have an extremely invisible. It takes a specialized measurement
high internal resistance in order to measure tool to determine whether a circuit has the
voltage accurately. It is ideal for this right amount of resistance.
resistance to be significantly higher than A device like an analog or digital
the resistance of the component you wish multimeter is used to measure resistance.
to measure the voltage drop across. This Both kinds of instruments have a wide range
is required because, in the absence of it, of applications because they are capable
the circuit’s current flow and, consequently, of measuring not just resistance but also
the voltage drop across the component, current, voltage, and other variables.
would alter. Thus, in this scenario, the
circuit current would be directly impacted Resistance measurement, however,
by the voltmeter (Figure 5.5). does not entail determining the resistance
value of the circuit. Rather, the circuit’s
applied voltage and current are measured in
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 179
order to calculate resistance. The circuit (or
resistance) under measurement exhibits a
voltage (or more accurately, a voltage drop)
when a current is supplied to it. Ohm’s
Law can be used to compute resistance by
monitoring the current and voltage.
Therefore, if the measured values
for current and voltage are known, it is
possible to determine the resistance value
of a circuit. Ohm’s Law is the measurement Figure 5.6. Resistance measurement circuit of
principle used by both analog and digital an analog meter.
multimeters to measure resistance. Source: https://www.hioki.com/themes/hioki/
images/global/learning/methods/resistance-
5.4.4.1. Resistance Measurement with an measurement-methods-img-05.png.
Analog Tester
When using an analog multimeter to 5.4.4.2. Resistance Measurement with a
measure resistance, turn off the circuit Digital Multimeter
being measured. Connect the black test Generally, resistance can be measured
lead to the COM input terminal and the using a digital multimeter in a similar
red test lead to the positive input terminal way to an analog multimeter. It is a
marked with a “+.” Put the instrument in Ω straightforward process where the only
mode and adjust the range button according noticeable distinction is the digital display
to the expected resistance of the circuit. instead of an analog needle. Despite this
Utilizing the 0 Ω adjustment knob, short difference, the fundamental procedure is
the black and red test pins and set the quite similar. However, digital multimeters
needle to 0 Ω. Next, connect the black and offer two measurement methods.
red test pins to both ends of the circuit • Two-terminal measurement; and
being measured, and then read the value
• Four-terminal measurement.
that the meter indicates.
Typically, the two-terminal measurement
Remember that when the instrument is in method is commonly used when testing
resistance mode, putting a voltage on the resistance with a digital multimeter. This
test leads could cause harm to the tester. technique involves applying a consistent
Additionally, the analog multimeter’s battery current and recording the resistance value
may be low if you are unable to do 0 Ω using the voltmeter on the device. Similar
correction. If this happens to you, make sure to analog multimeters, this method does
the battery voltage is correct (Figure 5.6). have a drawback of including the resistance
of the wiring in the final resistance value
Always conduct zero adjustment (Figure 5.7).
when measuring resistance. (Mechanical
and electrical zero adjustment) Situations
where voltage is being applied is hazardous,
therefore separation is critical.
180 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 5.7. Two-terminal measurement method.

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measurement-methods-img-06.png.

In order to reduce the impact of the extra resistance, the test leads are connected
before taking a measurement to calibrate the resistance value to zero. Despite this
method, the effects cannot be entirely eliminated. Thus, four-terminal measurement was
developed to tackle this issue by utilizing four test leads and separate circuits for the
voltmeter and ammeter (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8. Four-terminal measurement method.

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measurement-methods-img-07.png.

Different types of resistance, such as wire, relay, and connector resistance, along
with the internal resistance of batteries, exist. It is crucial to select the appropriate
instrument for the specific measurement required. Make sure to carefully choose an
instrument that fits your needs when making a purchase (Figure 5.9 and 5.10).
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 181
• Leakage current
• Dielectric absorption
• Friction noise
• External noise
• Temperature, humidity, and wind
Resistance meters offer the capability
to mitigate the impacts of temperature
and other variables. This is achieved by
comparing the readings from a temperature
sensor connected to the meter with the
reference temperature, and adjusting the
Figure 5.9. Clip type lead (clip-type lead for resistance values accordingly. If there is
4-terminal measurement). inconsistency in the measured resistance
values, it is important to identify the factors
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images/global/learning/methods/resistance- causing this issue and implement measures
measurement-methods-img-08.jpg. to resolve them.
Rt = Rt0 ×{ 1 + αt0 × (t – t0) }
Rt：Actually tested resistance [Ω]
Rt0：Compensated resistance [Ω]
t0：Reference temperature [°C]
t：Current ambient temperature [°C]
αt0：Temperature coefficient at t0

Figure 5.10. Resistance meters.

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images/global/learning/methods/resistance-
measurement-methods-img-09.jpg.

5.4.4.3. Sources of Error When Measuring

Resistance
Figure 5.11. Capturing the temperature-converted
Test leads’ wiring resistance is not the resistance value.
only factor that affects resistance value
measurement results. The following factors Source: https://www.hioki.com/themes/hioki/
also come into play (Figure 5.11): images/global/learning/methods/resistance-
measurement-methods-img-10.png.
• Electromotive force
• Thermal noise
182 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Utilize a temperature-compensated
resistance meter to automatically obtain
the temperature-adjusted resistance value.
For the most precise measurement of low
resistance, opt for a four-terminal resistance
meter.
Rather than measuring resistance
Figure 5.12. Power measurement: Dual-wattmeter
directly, analog and digital multimeters method (Aron configuration; consumer, e.g.,
compute resistance based on voltage and motor).
current using Ohm’s Law. The primary
method of use is the same for both kinds of Source: https://acszigalen.cloudimg.io/v7/
instruments. For increased precision, digital https%3A%2F%2Flive-resources-e2e-sales.
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terminal measuring.
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Numerous external factors can have an encoded=1&optipress=3.
impact on resistance values. It’s important
It is frequently possible to combine
to determine the source and take action if
these measurement capabilities into a
measurement results show instability.
single, electronic measuring device with
an easily readable display.
5.4.5. Measure Electrical Power See Figure 5.13 Power measurement.
Measuring electrical power involves
determining the power in a circuit, typically
expressed in watts. When it comes to
centrifugal pump operations, both electrical
and mechanical-electrical methods are
utilized to measure electrical power (Figure
5.12).
Measurement of electrical power for: Figure 5.13. Power measurement: simplified
measurement with accessible or artificial neutral.
• Direct current: voltage (V) and
current (I) measured using Source: https://acszigalen.cloudimg.io/v7/
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• Single-phase alternating current: 2F8f2379ddf12503a548ff833dc472d8ef%2F
effective power (P eff) measured pic-power-measurement-1--data.jpg?ci_url_
using a wattmeter encoded=1&optipress=3.
• Three-phase current: two power
You can always use this dual watt-meter
values (Peff1 and Peff2) measured using
method, even in cases when the power
two wattmeters (dual wattmeter
fluctuates or there is an inaccessible neutral
method), with total electrical power
conductor or phase imbalance. With a motor
calculated as;
with a star configuration, if the neutral
P eff = P eff1 + P eff2. See Fig. 5.12 Power conductor is accessible and the phases are
measurement balanced, the total electrical power may be
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 183
calculated using the formula Peff = 3 ∙ Peff1, • Disc-type torque meter, see Figure
which yields a single power value (Peff1). 5.15 Power measurement
In order to determine the power output of
a pump, one must have information on the
efficiency of the motor (ηM) as well as the
gearing.

To eliminate any uncertainties related to

motor and gear efficiency, especially in
frequency-controlled drives, a torque and
speed-measuring instrument is typically
installed in the drive train before the pump,
particularly during testing in a test bay.
Additionally, instruments for measuring the
power input of a pump during testing in a
test bay are also utilized. Figure 5.15. Power measurement: disc-type
torque meter.
Instruments for measuring the power
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These instruments are installed between

the motor and pump or between the gear
and pump as part of the coupling or as a
separate instrument. Rotational speed is
generally also supported and measured.
Different systems, the majority of which
are electronic, are available for transferring
the signals. The main challenge with
this technology is to reliably transfer the
measuring signal from the rotating to the
stationary system and to supply power
Figure 5.14. Power measurement: hub-type to the measuring elements. Initially, slip
torque meter. rings were used for this purpose. However,
they are very susceptible to malfunctions,
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precision systems. The latter transmit and
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encoded=1&optipress=3. of amplitude or frequency modulations,
depending on the system.
184 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

These instruments can be mounted as a standalone instrument or as part of the coupling

between the gear and the pump or between the motor and the pump. In most cases, rotational
speed is also supported and quantified.

To transport the signals, there are various systems available, most of them are
electrical. The primary problem with this technology is to give electricity to the measuring
parts and transfer the measurement signal from the rotating to the stationary system
with reliability. At first, this was done via slip rings. In precision systems, contact-free
gearbox devices have taken their place because they are less prone to malfunctions.
Depending on the system, the latter transmit and display the measuring signals as
amplitude or frequency modulations.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 185

ROLE MODEL
HANS CHRISTIAN ØRSTED:
A Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic
fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism.

Biography
A discovery by Hans Christian Ørsted forever changed the way scientists think about
electricity and magnetism.
While preparing to perform an experiment during a lecture at the University of
Copenhagen, he found that the magnetized needle of a compass was deflected whenever
the electric current through a voltaic pile (an early form of the battery) was started or
stopped. This surprising occurrence was solid evidence that electricity and magnetism
are related phenomena. The announcement of Ørsted’s discovery incited a tremendous
outbreak of research in the nascent field of electromagnetics in the early 1820s. Though
it is a matter of some debate, another scientist, Italian Gian Domenico Romagnosi,
reportedly made the same discovery as Ørsted, but more than a decade and a half
earlier. Romagnosi’s finding was described in an Italian newspaper in 1802 but was
never recognized by most of his contemporaries.
Ørsted was a native of Denmark, where he was born on August 14, 1777, in
Rudkørsted bing, a city located on the island of Langeland. Ørsted’s father worked as
a pharmacist, and after helping out in the family business in his youth, the younger
Ørsted would eventually decide to follow in his father’s footsteps. Both he and his
186 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

brother, Anders Sandørsted Ørsted, were directed in their early studies at home by
their father and private tutors. That education enabled the brothers to gain entry into
the University of Copenhagen in 1793. While Anders studied law, Hans concentrated his
efforts in pharmacy. Hans Ørsted proved an exceptional student, writing prize-winning
papers and passing the pharmacy examination with distinction. In 1799 he received a
doctorate degree. His outlook on science and life at this time was greatly influenced
by Immanuel Kant, and Ørsted’s dissertation was an examination of his philosophies.
Following graduation, Ørsted served as a lecturer and pharmacist for a short time
before grant and scholarship money enabled him to embark on the first of several
foreign journeys that he would take over the course of his life. While visiting Germany,
Ørsted became acquainted with Johann Wilhelm Ritter, whose views on electricity and
magnetism reportedly aroused the possibility in Ørsted’s mind that there was some sort
of connection between the two (the notion of a unifying force underlying all of nature
was widely held among adherents to the German Romantic movement). At that time,
without any experimental evidence, such a connection was pure speculation. Ørsted
was notably less influenced by the French scientists he met, whose approach to science
was more mathematical.
In 1806 Ørsted gained a professorship at the University of Copenhagen. For a few
years prior, he had been lecturing without an academic post to audiences paying a fee
to hear him speak. The increasing popularity of his lectures did not go unnoticed by
the university, resulting is the official offer of a faculty position. Ørsted became the first
faculty member at the university to teach physical science. In addition to his teaching
duties, Ørsted carried out research, chiefly in acoustics and electricity.
Ørsted left Copenhagen for about two years in 1812 to travel through Europe again.
As did the earlier trip, this journey allowed him to exchange ideas with other notable
scientists, helping broaden his views of the world. When Ørsted returned to Denmark
he married Inger Birgitte Ballum. The couple remained together for the rest of his life
and reared eight children.
1820 was a particularly important year for Ørsted’s career. In April he made the
discovery of the connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena for which he
is chiefly known. He wrote a short treatise on the discovery, but much of the important
subsequent work relating to his finding was carried out by others, such as François
Arago and André-Marie Ampère, the latter of whom made his greatest contribution to
science by rigorously applying mathematics to the study of electromagnetism. 1820 was
also the year that Ørsted became the first person to isolate piperine (a component of
pepper), thus making his mark in chemistry as well as physics. A few years later, in
1825, Ørsted again experienced a notable success in the field of chemistry when he
produced an impure form of metallic aluminum.
As a man of broad interests, Ørsted enjoyed philosophizing and writing, as well as
teaching and experimenting. He composed both poetry and prose. Ørsted was compiling
his philosophical musings into a book, The Soul in Nature, when he passed away on
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 187

March 9, 1851. During his lifetime, he also encouraged the literary efforts of others, most
significantly the Danish author Hans Christian Andersen, and was a strong proponent
for the popularization of scientific knowledge. He was the founder of an organization
expressly dedicated to the latter purpose. This Society for the Dissemination of Natural
Science has awarded a prize named in his honor (the Ørsted Medal) since the early
1900s for remarkable Danish contributions to physics, chemistry or the popularization
of science in general.
The unit of magnetic field strength in the CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system of
physical units was also named in honor of Ørsted in the 1930s. One oersted is equivalent
to the field strength one centimeter from a unit magnetic pole under vacuum conditions.

CLASS ACTIVITY
UNDERSTANDING ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

Objective: To help students grasp the fundamentals of electrical measurements, including

voltage, current, and resistance, using a multimeter and other basic tools.
Materials Needed: Digital multimeters, Batteries (AA or 9 V), Resistors, LED bulbs,
Breadboards, Connecting wires, Small DC motors.
Assessment: Evaluate students based on their participation, accuracy of measurements,
and understanding of the concepts. Provide a short quiz at the end of the session to
reinforce the concepts learned.
188 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUMMARY
• Measurement means to compare to a fixed/standard value. Measurement can
include measuring some of the physical quantities like length, mass, time, etc.,
which we use in our daily lives. Different measuring devices and scales are
used to measure these quantities to make various instruments or for various
scientific applications and research work.
• Measurement begins with a definition of the quantity that is to be measured,
and it always involves a comparison with some known quantity of the same kind.
If the object or quantity to be measured is not accessible for direct comparison,
it is converted or “transduced” into an analogous measurement signal.
• Measurement theory is the study of how numbers are assigned to objects and
phenomena, and its concerns include the kinds of things that can be measured,
how different measures relate to each other, and the problem of error in the
measurement process.
• The errors, which occur during measurement are known as measurement errors.
Measurement errors refer to the discrepancies between the actual values of
the quantities being measured and the values obtained from the measurement
process.
• Random errors, on the other hand, are unpredictable and arise from various
unpredictable factors, including environmental conditions, observer variability,
and inherent fluctuations in the measurement process.
• Electrical measuring instruments are all the devices used to measure the
magnitude of an electric current with different objectives. The values that are
usually measured with this equipment are current, voltage, resistance, and power.
Each is expressed in different units: amps, volts, ohms, and watts, respectively.
• The ability of a measuring system to maintain standard of performance over
prolonged periods of time. Zero stability defines the ability of an instrument
restore to zero reading after the input quantity has been brought to zero, while
other conditions remain the same.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the primary instruments used to measure electricity in circuits?
2. How do electrical measuring instruments behave under stable conditions?
3. How do electrical measuring instruments respond to changing conditions in
circuits?
4. What are the standard units used to measure electricity in circuits?
5. What are the fundamental types of connections in electrical circuits, and how
do they differ?
6. How is voltage measured in an electrical circuit, and what instrument is
commonly used for this purpose?
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND EASUREMENT 189
7. How can resistance be measured using a digital multimeter, and what role does
it play in circuits?

REFERENCES
1. Bell, D. A. (2006). Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements. Oxford University
Press.
2. Bosworth, W. C. (2003). Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation. Prentice Hall.
3. Carr, J. J. (1987). Elements of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement. Prentice
Hall.
4. Cooper, W. D., & Helfrick, A. D. (1992). Modern Electronic Instrumentation and
Measurement Techniques. Prentice Hall.
5. Deobeling, E. O. (2004). Measurement Systems, Applications and Design. Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited.
6. Doebelin, E. O. (2003). Measurement Systems: Application and Design. McGraw-Hill
Education.
7. Gooday, G. (2004). The Morals of Measurement: Accuracy, Irony, and Trust in Late
Victorian Electrical Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43098-4.
8. Kalsi, H. S. (2011). Electronic Instrumentation. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
9. Oliver, B. M. (2016). Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments. Cambridge
University Press.
10. Sawhney, A. K. (2006). A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation. Dhanpat Rai Publications.
11. Schuler, C. A. (2005). Instrumentation and Measurement in Electrical Engineering.
Prentice Hall.
12. Webster, J. G. (Ed.). (2014). The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors
Handbook. CRC Press.
 CHAPTER
Magnetism,
6 Magnetic Circuits,
and Electromechanical
Energy Conversion
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Discuss the basic concept of magnetism
• Focus on magnetic materials
• Explain the magnetic circuits and electromechanical
energy conversion

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Capacitors Current flow
Electric current Electrical energy
Electromagnetic Electrons
Energy conversion Magnetic flux
Antiferromagnetic materials Curie-Weiss law
Electric dipoles Electrostatics
Electromotive force (EMF) Ferromagnetism
Magnetic flux Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
INTRODUCTION
Magnetism represents a fundamental natural force that emerges from the interplay of
magnetic fields. These fields originate from the motion of electric charges, predominantly
electrons, within atoms. One of magnetism’s most distinctive characteristics is its capacity
to draw specific materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt towards it. Comprehending
magnetism is of paramount importance in several areas, including electromechanical energy
conversion and magnetic circuits. In the realm of electromechanical energy conversion, the
synergy between electricity and magnetism allows for the conversion of electrical energy
into mechanical energy, and subsequently, the reversal of this process. This fundamental
process is integral to devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, and
inductors, which are indispensable components in numerous contemporary technologies.
An essential component of electromechanical energy conversion systems is magnetic
circuitry. Although they deal with the flow of magnetic flux rather than electric current,
these circuits are comparable to electrical circuits. They are made up of air gaps that
allow magnetic flux to pass through them and magnetic materials like iron cores.
Magnetic circuits govern the distribution of magnetic flux in electromechanical systems,
much as resistors, capacitors, and inductors control the flow of electric current in
electrical circuits. Magnetic reluctance, which is comparable to electrical resistance in
electrical circuits, is one of the fundamental ideas in magnetic circuitry. Reluctance,
which measures a material’s resistance to the flow of magnetic flux, is dependent on
a number of variables, including the material’s permeability and geometric structure.
Similar to how greater resistance in electrical circuits reduces current flow, higher
reluctance results in lower flux.
Magnetic circuits are vital to the effective transfer of energy in electromechanical
devices such as electric motors and transformers. Transformers, for example, use
electromagnetic induction and magnetic circuits to move electrical energy from one
circuit to another. A transformer’s primary and secondary windings are coiled around a
single magnetic core, which permits energy to move from the primary winding to the
secondary winding via variations in magnetic flux.
In contrast, electric motors use the interaction of magnetic fields to transform
electrical energy into mechanical energy. A magnetic field is created inside the motor by
an electric current flowing through one or more coils. This magnetic field interacts with
other coils or permanent magnets. The motor rotates and produces useful work as a result
of this interaction’s mechanical force production. Many technological applications rely
on the interconnected fields of physics and engineering, including magnetism, magnetic
circuits, and electromechanical energy conversion. Gaining an understanding of these
ideas is crucial for developing effective electromechanical systems and streamlining
energy transfer procedures across a range of industries.

192 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

6.1. BASIC CONCEPT OF
MAGNETISM
As we all know, the electromagnetic industry uses a huge number of devices that
require magnets, thus they are essential to modern life. When people used natural
iron minerals, particularly magnetite, in ancient times, they were able to experience
magnetic phenomena. Magnetic phenomena were not understood from the perspective of
electromagnetics until recently, a field to which many physicists, including Oersted and
Faraday, made significant contributions. Ampère’s circuit law, in particular, introduced
the idea of a magnetic moment or magnetic dipoles, which are comparable to electric
dipoles. The physical equivalent of a circuit current in a wire and a bar magnet are
shown in macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena. wherein the rotational motion of a
microscopic electron and a magnetic moment or dipole are equivalent but not distinguished
at all. But quantum mechanics, which emerged in the 20th century, has provided the
real understanding of the origin of magnetism.
Large amounts of information about the magnetic characteristics of materials were
gathered prior to the development of quantum mechanics, and by observing how each
material responded to a magnetic field, a perfectly logical classification was established.
These investigations were conducted with Gouy and Faraday’s magnetic balances. A
balance is used to measure the force applied to materials in a magnetic field, illustrating
the principle of magnetic measurement. Generally speaking, materials can be divided
into two groups based on the directions of the force: diamagnetic and paramagnetic
substances.

6.1.1. Origins of Magnetism

Though few people are aware of how a magnet functions, almost everyone is aware of
the capabilities of magnetic materials. In order to comprehend this phenomenon, one
must first realize how closely magnetism and electricity are related. It is possible to
create a basic electromagnet by coiling copper wire and connecting it to a battery. The
coil generates a magnetic field, but it only lasts as long as current passes through it.
The workings of an ordinary bar magnet are attributed to the motions and interactions
of its electrons, which are tiny charged particles that orbit the nucleus of each atom.
Since an ordinary bar magnet does not have a visible connection to electricity, how
does it function? Since electricity is the flow of electrons, whether they are in an atom
or a wire, every atom can be thought of as a tiny permanent magnet on its own. The
orbital magnetic moment of the circulating electron is measured in Bohr magnetons (µB),
and it is accompanied by a spin magnetic moment because the electron spins on its

MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 193

194 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

own axis, just like the earth does (Figure 6.1). Because electrons are grouped in pairs
and the magnetic moment is canceled by its neighbor, most materials have resultant
magnetic moments.

Figure 6.1. The orbit of a spinning electron about the nucleus of an atom.

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png.

A unified magnetic field is produced in some magnetic materials when a significant

fraction of the electrons’ magnetic moments line up. Much like a compass needle, any
magnet will encounter resistance when attempting to align itself with an externally
applied field because the field generated in the material (or by an electromagnet) has a
direction of flow. These forces power electric motors, generate audio in speaker systems,
regulate the voice coil in CD players, and other devices.

6.1.2. Magnetic Domains

Tiny magnets are what make up electrons. They revolve around an axis and also have
north and south poles. There is a very small but very noticeable magnetic field created
as a result of this spinning. Each electron’s axis can be oriented in one of two ways.
Atoms are arranged in most materials so that the orientation of one electron’s
magnetic field cancels out the orientation of another. However, iron is not like other
ferromagnetic materials (ferrum is Latin for iron). Because of the way their atoms are
arranged, smaller groups of atoms band together to form regions known as domains,
where every electron has the same magnetic orientation. The way these domains react
to an external magnetic field is demonstrated in the interactive animation Figure 6.2.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 195
for a very long time—sometimes for millions
of years. Hysteresis is the term for this
inclination to hold onto magnetism.

6.1.3. Domain Structure

6.1.3.1. Why Domains Form

Instead of existing in a state where
magnetization is uniformly distributed
throughout the material, a piece of magnetic
Figure 6.2. Magnetic domains. material, like iron, naturally splits into
distinct domains in order to reduce its
Source: https://nationalmaglab.org/magnet-
academy/watch-play/interactive-tutorials/ internal energy. A substantial magnetic
magnetic-domains/. field that extends into the surrounding
space is produced by a large area of
The domains in the above image of ferromagnetic material that is continuously
Ferromagnetic Material are randomly magnetized (diagram a, right). Much of the
aligned; the image illustrates the process magnetostatic energy held in the field must
rather than the actual domain size or be used for this. The sample can split into
shape. Red Magnetic Field Lines, which are two domains, with the magnetization in
normally invisible, can be seen extending each domain pointing in opposite directions,
from the bar magnet’s poles. To get the to lower this energy (diagram b right).
magnet to interact with the field lines, move The magnetic field outside the material is
it closer to the ferromagnetic material using reduced as the magnetic field lines pass
the Magnet Position slider. You’ll notice through each domain in loops that face
that the domains gradually align with each opposite directions. Each of these domains
other and with the bar magnet’s field as has the ability to split further to further
you repeat the process. reduce the field energy. This will produce
smaller parallel domains with alternating
When you’re finished, the ferromagnetic directions of magnetization and less field
material has transformed into a dipole with outside the material (Figure 6.3).
opposing north and south poles, a permanent
magnet in and of itself. All ferromagnetic Large domains splitting into smaller
objects with all of their domains aligned ones, as described here, is not typically how
in the same direction are equivalent to the domain structure of actual magnetic
permanent magnets. Only four elements— materials forms. For instance, when a sample
iron, nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium—are is cooled below its Curie temperature,
ferromagnetic at room temperature and the equilibrium domain configuration just
have the ability to become permanently manifests itself. However, domains can
magnetized. split, and the energy tradeoffs involved in
domain formation are frequently revealed
Dysprosium, a fifth element, turns by describing how domains split.
ferromagnetic at low temperatures. When
exposed to an external magnetic field,
ferromagnets can retain their magnetism
196 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 6.3. Domain structure.

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png.

6.1.3.2. Size of Domains

As previously mentioned, an excessively large domain is unstable and will split up into
smaller domains. The size of the domains formed in a material, however, is determined
by how small a domain must be to remain stable and not split. The balance of various
energies within the material determines this size. A domain wall is formed between
two domains whenever a region of magnetization splits into two, allowing magnetic
dipoles (molecules) with magnetization pointing in different directions to be next to
each other. Neighboring dipoles tend to align so they point in the same direction due
to the exchange interaction that generates the magnetization. It takes energy to move
neighboring dipoles so they point in different directions. As a result, a domain wall
needs additional energy, which is correlated with the wall’s area and is known as the
domain wall energy.
As a result, the net energy reduction that occurs when a domain splits is equal to
the difference between the energy saved by the magnetic field and the energy needed
to build the domain wall. There exists a relationship between the field energy and the
cube of the domain size, and a relationship between the square of the domain size and
the domain wall energy. Therefore, the net energy saved by splitting reduces as the
domains get smaller. Until the energy required to build an additional domain wall is
exactly equal to the energy saved in the field, the domains continue to split into smaller
domains. Then the domains of this size are stable. In most materials the domains are
microscopic in size, around 10−4–10−6 m.

6.1.4. Magnetic Field and Its Properties

A field created by moving electric charges or a magnet is known as the magnetic
field. The area in which the force of magnetism acts around a magnetic material or
moving electric charge is known as the magnetic field. Magnetic field lines are used to
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 197
depict magnetic fields. It is a visual aid for The imaginary lines that separate the
determining the magnetic field’s strength two poles are known as magnetic field lines.
and direction. There are various techniques for creating
magnetic lines. One better way to test
A compass needle can be used to the existence of the magnetic field is to
draw lines through magnetic fields. Put use a compass. One of the fundamental
the compass needle on a piece of paper forces of nature, electromagnetic energy is
and place it close to the magnet. Verify characterized by magnetism and magnetic
the direction indicated by the compass areas. The magnetic field line is impacted by
needle and record it. Mark the directions the application of electromagnetic current
as you move the compass needle in various flow. Since iron nails contain electromagnetic
directions. The magnetic field lines can be energy, they can be turned into magnets
seen by joining the points. to measure magnetic fields.
Some important properties of magnetic The properties of magnetic field lines
field lines are listed below: are:
• The tangent drawn to the magnetic • The lines of magnetic fields are
field lines gives the direction of the curved lines and it has originated
magnetic field. from the North pole and ended on
• The closeness or density of the field the South pole.
lines is directly proportional to the • Stronger field lines need the lines
strength of the field. to be closed and vice-versa.
• Magnetic field lines appear to • The magnetic field lines never
emerge or start from the north intersect among each other.
pole and merge or terminate at the
south pole. • Near the South and North poles, the
lines of magnetic fields are crowded
• Inside the magnet, the direction of and apart widely.
the magnetic field lines is from the
south pole to the north pole.
6.1.5. Description of Magnetic
• Magnetic field lines never intersect
with each other. Field Lines
• Magnetic field lines form a closed- The imaginary lines surrounding a magnet
loop. are called magnetic field lines. The density of
a field’s lines indicates the field’s magnitude.
• Field lines have both direction and
A magnet’s magnetic field is strongest close
magnitude at any point on the field.
to its North and South poles and becomes
Therefore, magnetic field lines are
weaker as it travels away from them. You
represented by a vector.
can better understand this idea by carrying
• They denote the direction of the out a quick experiment. Place a bar magnet
magnetic field. in the middle of a white paper sheet that
• The magnetic field is stronger at has been fixed to a table. Iron filings should
the poles because the field lines be scattered all around the magnet. Tap the
are denser near the poles. table gently. It is evident that the iron filings
arrange themselves in a particular pattern,
which symbolizes the magnet’s field. Clear
198 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

observation of these patterns reveals that information about the strength and direction
iron filings are concentrated close to the of the magnetic field.
poles, while their concentration is lower in
the area farther from the poles. Ways to Measure Magnetic Lines:
Various ways are applied in general to
A bar magnet, a compass, and chart measure the magnetic lines among the two
paper can be used to draw magnetic field poles on the globe.
lines. Place the paper on a drawing board
first. Mark the location with a pencil after Some useful applied ways are illustrated
positioning the bar magnet in the center. below:
Maintain the compass close to any one of • A straight copper wire that carries
the magnet’s poles. Verify that nothing the electric flow may be attached
else magnetic is in the area. The compass with the iron nail and can work
arrow is visible to be pointing in certain as the instrument to measure the
directions. Place a in that path. Reposition magnetic flow.
the compass so that the base of the arrow
• Magnetic compasses are available
is at the by moving it from that location.
to measure the magnetic field
Place a fresh where the compass’s current
lines. In transportation systems
arrow is pointing.
such as the navy, aviation uses the
Repeat this process until the compass magnetic compass to measure the
reaches the magnet’s opposite pole. Connect magnetic lines and that helps get
the dots. Once more, return to the starting the right direction.
point and carry out the same procedures • With the flow of current, there are
from there. Upon drawing several lines, it efficient ways to develop. There
becomes evident that the lines are forming are different available ways for the
a closed loop, which appears to originate development of the magnetic field’s
from one magnet pole and terminate at measurement.
a different pole. This is how lines in a
• Origin of the Magnetic Field:
magnetic field are drawn. It is possible to
Magnetic fields exist everywhere
see how similar the patterns are if these
on Earth; their importance can
lines and the alignment of iron filings are
be determined by observing the
compared. Magnetic field lines will also
approaches of their strengths.
differ depending on the type of magnets.
According to various earlier
Analyzing the magnetic field lines and definitions, the Sun is the source of
their energy in the various poles indicates the magnetic field. Since the Earth
that space volume is essential. Magnetic was assessed from a portion of the
fields between the earth’s two poles are Sun, the magnetic energy contained
useful for exploring new areas. In the within it was also assessed. Two
magnetic field line, various magnet shapes different types of electron motion
are essential for the approval statements. in atoms—or electron motion in an
The earth’s magnetic properties are related orbit within the solar system—are
to the magnetic field that surrounds the source of magnetism.
magnetic materials. A magnetic area is • Ways to Draw Magnetic Field
depicted by a magnetic field line. To find Lines: The magnetic field lines apply
the lines, use a visual aid that provides the force of magnetism through the
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 199
application of electrons within the will be oriented so that its south pole
atoms. Therefore, the number of is drawn toward the geographical north
lines of energy per unit dimension and its north pole is drawn toward the
of space determines the strength geographical south.
of the magnetic field. Magnetic
bars can be used to draw lines in The existence of a few neutral points in
a variety of situations and justify the magnetic field lines serves as the second
areas. They can also be useful for piece of evidence. The earth’s magnetic field
transportation purposes because cancels out the magnetic field created by
they can incorporate a magnetic the magnet, which is used to draw field
compass that is drawn to magnet lines. These neutral points would not be
poles placed in the North Pole. visible without the earth’s magnetic field.
On a piece of paper that has been The third piece of evidence is that if a soft
stabilized beforehand, a straight iron is buried in a north-south direction, it
line can be drawn using the turns into a magnet.
compass arrow and no magnetic
material in the vicinity. 6.1.6.2. The Hypothesis for the source of
Earth’s Magnetic Field
6.1.6. How Is the Magnetic • The Earth’s core is in the form of
Field Produced? hot molten liquid and it contains
In addition to the magnet, other sources of ions. These ions are circulating in
magnetic field generation include electric the form of current loops inside the
currents and moving charges. It is common liquid and as a result, the magnetic
knowledge that matter is composed of field is produced.
minuscule units known as atoms. Protons • The Earth is rotating about its axis
and neutrons make up an atom’s nucleus, and matter on the earth is made of
and electrons orbit around it. The magnetic charged particles. These charged
field is created by protons and neutrons particles also rotate about earth’s
spinning and orbiting around each other or axis in the form of current loops and
the atom’s nucleus. The orbital and spinal are responsible for the production
directions determine the magnetic field’s of the magnetic field.
direction. The mathematical symbol for the • The Earth’s outer layer consists of
magnetic field is ‘B.’ Tesla is its unit (T). ionized gasses. When the earth is
rotating, movement of ions produces
6.1.6.1. Earth’s Magnetic Field electric current and a magnetic field
is produced due to this.
Sir William Gilbert provided the first
evidence of the earth’s magnetic field in 6.1.6.3. Characteristics of the Earth’s
1600. He discovered that the earth has a Magnetic Field
magnetic field and exhibits some magnetic
properties based on some experiments. A • Earth’s magnetic field is uniform.
magnet will automatically align itself in • The magnetic field strength at the
a north-south direction and come to rest surface of the earth is approximately
if it is free to rotate in a horizontal plane 10–4 Tesla
while hanging from a thread. The magnet
200 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• The magnetic field of the earth is extended up to a height of 5 times the radius
of the earth.

6.1.6.4. Applications of Magnets in Real Life

• Magnets are used in electric bells.
• They are used in the construction of generators and electrical motors.
• Magnets are used to find the geographical directions.
• Magnets play an important role in the separation of magnetic and non-magnetic
materials from the scrap.
• In the medical field also, magnets are widely used in treating pain of different
body parts.

6.1.7. Operating the Magnetic Field

All magnets, no matter how big or small, have a field around them. To learn more about
the magnetic field, place an iron nail at a specific distance from the magnet. The nail
then starts to attract the magnet at that point. If the iron nail is far away from the
magnet, it will not be able to affect it in any way. The B field is the name given to the
magnetic field that surrounds magnets.
Electric charges or moving magnets produce the magnetic field. Within the magnetic
field that envelops magnetic materials or moving charges, magnetism is at work. A
magnetic field is shown by a magnetic field line. an indicator that shows the magnetic
field’s strength and direction visually.
With a compass needle, the lines of the magnetic field can be drawn. It is advised
to position the compass needle on a piece of paper close to the magnet. Verify and mark
the compass needle’s direction. Mark the directions as you move the compass needle
in different directions. The magnetic field lines are visible when the points are joined.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 201

6.2. MAGNETIC
MATERIALS
There are two types of magnetic materials: magnetically soft and magnetically hard. Although
easily magnetized, magnetically soft materials typically only experience momentary induced
magnetism. For instance, rubbing a permanent magnet against a nail or screwdriver will
cause the object to momentarily become magnetized and produce a weak magnetic field
of its own. This is as a result of the external magnetic field momentarily aligning a large
number of their iron atoms in the same direction.

Strong external magnetic fields, like those produced by an electromagnet, have the
ability to magnetize magnetically hard materials just like they can magnetically soft
materials. The distinction is that, unless they are subjected to an opposing magnetic
field, elevated above their curie temperature, or allowed to corrode, magnetically hard
materials will always remain magnetized.
Permanent magnets are made from alloys that are magnetically hard and typically
contain different amounts of iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements like
neodymium, dysprosium, and samarium. Neodymium magnets, the strongest permanent
magnets, are composed of an iron, boron, and neodymium alloy. Unlike magnetically
soft materials, permanent magnets have atomic magnetic domains that are difficult to
align but once they are, they stay that way forever. This makes them challenging to
magnetize.

6.2.1. Types of Magnetic Materials

The types of magnetism have been observed and classified on the basis of the magnetic
behavior of materials in response to magnetic fields at different temperatures.
From this point of view, these types of materials are:
• Paramagnetic materials.
• Diamagnetic materials.
• Ferromagnetic materials.
• Ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.
• Antiferromagnetic materials.
202 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The electrons in orbit planes at a right

6.2.2. Paramagnetic Materials angle to the magnetic field will cause a
Materials classified as paramagnetic very slight change in momentum when
have atomic dipoles that are aligned in the molecule is exposed to a magnetic
the direction of an external field and are field. Faraday’s Law, which states that an
subject to individual action. Because their induced E-field will occur as the field is
magnetizations are comparatively small increased and that electrons, being charged
and only last as long as an applied field particles, will experience this as a force,
is present, diamagnetic and paramagnetic predicts this. As a result, the molecule
materials are classified as nonmagnetic. gains an induced magnetic moment and
Paramagnetic materials are those whose the individual magnetic moments no longer
magnetic susceptibility, or χ, is positive. entirely cancel. This phenomenon, known
The induced magnetization reinforces the as diamagnetism, is the property shared by
material’s magnetic field. A wide range all materials in which the induced moment
of chemical elements and compounds are is opposite to the applied field. A nearby
considered paramagnetic materials. Their magnet repels hydrogen, ammonia, bismuth,
relative magnetic permeability is marginally copper, graphite, and other diamagnetic
higher than one (i.e., a negligible positive materials (though the effect is very weak).
magnetic susceptibility) and are drawn to Consider it an example of Lenz’s law in
magnetic fields as a result. Since nonmagnetic action. Materials classified as diamagnetic
materials lack permanent magnetization in have only paired electrons in their atoms.
the absence of an external magnetic field,
they are typically referred to as para- or On the other hand, the electrons’
diamagnetic. magnetic moments are partially canceled
in other molecules, like oxygen, where
Envision a hydrogen atom where a there are unpaired electrons. Even when
negatively charged electron orbits a nucleus no external field is applied, an O2 molecule
containing a single, stationary, positively has a net or permanent magnetic moment.
charged proton. If we consider that orbiting The electron orbits are still changed by an
electron to be a kind of current loop, which external magnetic field in the same way
it is, one might assume that hydrogen that diamagnets are, but the permanent
would have a strong magnetic moment. moment typically has a stronger effect.
Actually, the magnetic properties of ordinary The molecule’s “poles” have a tendency
hydrogen gas are very weak. Because the to reinforce the field by aligning themselves
formula H2 (which has a lower chemical parallel to it. These molecules are known as
energy (for H by an astounding 218 kJ mol– paramagnetic because they have a permanent
1
) than two isolated atoms, it should be magnetic moment. While paramagnetic
remembered that each hydrogen atom is not materials such as copper sulfate, oxygen,
isolated but rather is bonded to one another tin, and aluminum are drawn to a magnet,
to form a molecule. It is not by accident the attraction is not nearly as strong as
that each electron in these molecules has an that of diamagnetism. The reason is that, at
angular momentum that is opposite to that room temperature (liquid oxygen at –183 °C
of its neighbor, giving the molecule little can be pulled around by a strong magnet),
magnetic moment overall. Many substances thermal vibration continuously knocks the
exhibit this behavior, which is why it’s said permanent moments out of alignment with
that they don’t have a permanent magnetic the field.
moment.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 203
permanent magnet (i.e., e. materials that,
6.2.3. Diamagnetic Materials when exposed to an external magnetic field,
Materials classified as diamagnetic are become magnetized and stay that way even
those that most people consider to be after the field is removed. Ferromagnetism
non-magnetic. A magnetic field applied to is the strongest type and is responsible
diamagnetic materials produces an induced for this common phenomenon. Materials
magnetic field in them that is directed in the classified as ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic,
opposite direction, producing a repulsive or antiferromagnetic have a well-defined
force. Changes in electron orbital motion zero-field susceptibility and are permanently
brought about by an external field give magnetized even in the absence of an external
rise to diamagnetism. Water, wood, most magnetic field. In ferromagnetic materials,
organic substances like petroleum and atomic magnetic moments resulting from
certain polymers, and various metals like unpaired electron spins as a function of
copper—especially the heavy ones with electron structure give rise to permanent
lots of core electrons like bismuth, gold, magnetic moments. Additionally, there is a
and mercury—are examples of diamagnetic tiny orbital magnetic moment contribution
materials. With susceptibilities on the order compared to the spin moment. As a result,
of –10–5, the effect is minuscule and opposes the magnetic moments of the electrons in
the applied field. Diamagnetic materials, the material align themselves parallel to one
like water, or water-based materials, have another even in the absence of an applied
a relative magnetic permeability that is field. The Curie temperature, also known as
less than or equal to 1, and therefore a the Curie point, is the specific temperature
magnetic susceptibility less than or equal at which each ferromagnetic material loses
to 0, since susceptibility is defined as χv = its ferromagnetic characteristics. This is
μv − 1. Because their magnetizations are because the energy-lowering caused by
comparatively small and only last as long ferromagnetic order is overpowered by the
as an applied field is present, diamagnetic thermal tendency toward disorder. Few
and paramagnetic materials are classified as materials possess ferromagnetic properties.
nonmagnetic. A material is diamagnetic if The most common ones are nickel, cobalt,
its magnetic susceptibility, or χ, is negative. iron, and most of their alloys; some rare
The induced magnetization weakens the earth metal compounds are also included.
material’s magnetic field. Magnetic fields Ferromagnetism plays a major role in
repel diamagnetic materials. For instance, contemporary industry and technology.
diamagnets like water have a magnetic Magnetically “soft” materials, such as
susceptibility of χv = –9.05×10−6. Bismuth annealed iron, can become magnetized but
has the strongest diamagnetic property, do not typically retain it, and magnetically
with a χv of −1.66×10−4. Since nonmagnetic “hard” materials, on the other hand, do. In
materials lack permanent magnetization in order to align their internal microcrystalline
the absence of an external magnetic field, structure and make them extremely difficult
they are typically referred to as para- or to demagnetize, “hard” ferromagnetic
diamagnetic. materials like ferrite and alnico are processed
differently in a strong magnetic field
during the manufacturing process to create
6.2.4. Ferromagnetic Materials permanent magnets. The ferromagnets,
Ferromagnetism is the fundamental process which include compounds of iron, nickel,
by which a substance transforms into a cobalt, and manganese as well as a few more
204 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

unusual ones, are the most significant class antiferromagnetism, are what make a material
of magnetic materials. When compared to a ferrimagnetic; however, in ferrimagnetic
diamagnetic or paramagnetic material, the materials, the opposing moments are
magnetization curve appears substantially unequal and spontaneous magnetization
different. It is worth mentioning that even persists. Ferrites are typically ferrimagnetic
though manganese is not ferromagnetic, ceramic compounds made from iron oxides,
the element’s name, mágnes lithos, which and they are widely used in household items
means “stone from Magnesia” in Greek, like refrigerator magnets. Fe3O4 (magnetite)
has a common ancestor with magnetism. is a well-known example. The right material
selection is essential in the main generator
It’s crucial to understand that purity, of nuclear power plants as well as power
heat treatment, and other variables have a plants in general when there are strong
significant influence on the magnetization magnetic fields present.
curves for ferromagnetic materials. Two
things about this curve, though, stand out In general, a main generator consists of
right away: first, it is actually curved, not a rotating part and a stationary part:
straight, as with non-ferromagnets, and
second, the vertical scale is now expressed • Stator: Stator is the stationary part
in Teslas. of an electric generator, which
surrounds the rotor. The stator
Figure MPB is a normal magnetization has a wire winding in which the
curve because it starts from an unmagnetized changing field induces an electric
sample and shows how the flux density current
increases as the field strength is increased. • Rotor: Rotor is the rotating part of
You can identify four distinct regions in an electric generator and generates
most such curves. These can be explained in a magnetic field.
terms of changes to the material’s magnetic
Ferrimagnetic materials are used
‘domains’:
in almost all modern electronic devices,
• Close to the origin a slow rise due including microphones, motors, deflection
to ‘reversible growth.’ yokes, interference suppressors, antenna
• A longer, fairly straight, stretch rods, proximity sensors, recording heads,
representing ‘irreversible growth.’ transformers, and inductors. The market is
very large. Ferrimagnets have permeability
• A slower rise representing ‘rotation.’ to rival most ferromagnets, but because of
• An almost flat region corresponding the material’s higher electrical resistivity,
to paramagnetic behavior and then their eddy current losses are far lower. These
μ0 – the core can’t handle any more are the properties that make ferrimagnets
flux growth and has saturated. so ubiquitous. Also, using low-cost methods
like extrusion or pressing to create various
6.2.5. Ferrimagnetic Materials shapes is feasible, if not simple.
While ferromagnets and ferrimagnets share What are ferrimagnetic materials made
similar macroscopic magnetic properties, of? Generally speaking, they are iron oxides
they differ in the source of their net mixed with one or more transition metals,
magnetic moments. Populations of atoms like manganese, nickel, or zinc e.g., MnFe2O4.
with opposing magnetic moments, as in Frequently, barium is found in permanent
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 205
ferrimagnets. The raw ingredient is ground two methods by which you can calculate
into a powder, which is then sintered or flux if you know the number of turns and
fired in a kiln to create a hard, brittle, either -
dark gray ceramic material with a cubic
crystalline structure. • The current, the length of the
magnetic path and the B-H
The interaction between the electrons characteristics of the material.
attached to the metal ions determines the • The voltage waveform on a winding
magnetic properties at the atomic level. and the cross sectional area of the
Neighboring atomic magnetic moments core – see Faraday’s Law.
become locked in anti-parallel with their
Although saturation is mostly a risk in
neighbors (which contrasts with the
high power circuits it is still a possibility
ferromagnets). There is an overall magnetic
in ‘small signal’ applications having many
moment, though, because the magnetic
turns on an ungapped core and a DC bias
moments in one direction are weaker than
(such as the collector current of a transistor).
the moments in the other.
If you find that saturation is likely then
6.2.5.1. Saturation you might:

A limit that arises in inductors with a • Run the inductor at a lower current
ferrimagnetic or ferromagnetic core is • Use a larger core
called saturation. At first, the flux rises • Alter the number of turns
proportionately to the increase in current.
• Use a core with a lower permeability
But eventually, additional current increases
result in progressively smaller increases in • Use a core with an air gap
flux. When the core can no longer contribute Some combination thereof – but you will
to flux growth, the only increase available need to re-calculate the design in any case.
is that given by μ0, which is possibly three
orders of magnitude smaller. While ferrites
typically saturate between 200 and 500 mT, 6.2.6. Antiferromagnetic
iron saturates at about 1.6 mT. Materials
Since saturation is followed by a drop Among the transition metal compounds
in inductance, it is typically imperative to are frequently found the antiferromagnetic
avoid reaching saturation. In many circuits, materials. Examples of antiferromagnetic
inductance (I = V * T / L) and coil current materials are oxides of nickel, chromium,
growth rate are inversely correlated. As a hematite, and iron-manganese alloys. The
result, any decrease in inductance accelerates magnetic moments of atoms or molecules,
the rise of the current, strengthening the which are typically connected to the spins of
field and pushing the core even closer to electrons, align in a predictable pattern with
saturation. neighboring spins (on different sublattices)
pointing in opposite directions in materials
Core manufacturers normally specify that display antiferromagnetism. This is an
the saturation flux density for the particular example of ordered magnetism, just like
material used. You can also measure ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism (Figure
saturation using a simple circuit. There are 6.4).
206 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

aligning magnetic field, the antiferromagnet

and ferromagnet’s surface atoms align,
allowing antiferromagnets to couple to
ferromagnets. This process is known as
exchange bias. This makes it possible to
pin a ferromagnetic film’s orientation, which
is one of the primary applications in “spin
valves,” the foundation of magnetic sensors
that include the read heads of contemporary
hard disk drives. The blocking temperature
Figure 6.4. Antiferromagnetic ordering. of a layer is the temperature, usually lower
than the Néel temperature, at or above
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commons/thumb/5/5d/Antiferromagnetic_ longer pin the magnetization direction of
ordering.svg/665px-Antiferromagnetic_ordering. a neighboring ferromagnetic layer. The net
svg.png. moment is zero if the sublattice moments
Generally speaking, antiferromagnetic of A and B are exactly equal but opposite.
order disappears at and above the Néel Antiferromagnetism is the name given to
temperature, which is named for Louis Néel, this kind of magnetic ordering (Figure 6.5).
the person who initially discovered this
kind of magnetic ordering. It may exist
at low enough temperatures. The material
is usually paramagnetic above the Néel
temperature. The first demonstration of
antiferromagnetic structures was achieved
by neutron diffraction of transition metal
oxides, including oxides of nickel, iron, and
manganese. Clifford Shull’s experiments
produced the initial evidence that
magnetic dipoles could be arranged in an
antiferromagnetic structure.
Transition metal compounds, particularly Figure 6.5. Antiferromagnetic order may exist
oxides, are frequently found to contain at sufficiently low temperatures.
antiferromagnetic materials. Hematite,
metals like chromium, alloys like iron Source: https://files.askiitians.com/cdn1/
images/201754–17551316–8857–8-ferri-magnetic-
manganese (FeMn), and oxides like nickel
substance.gif.
oxide (NiO) are a few examples. Additionally,
there are a lot of examples in metal clusters The clue to antiferromagnetism is the
with high nuclearity. Rarely, organic behavior of susceptibility above a critical
molecules can also display antiferromagnetic temperature, called the Néel temperature
coupling; this is demonstrated by radicals (TN). Above TN, the susceptibility obeys the
like 5-dehydro-m-xylylene. Curie-Weiss law for paramagnets but with
a negative intercept indicating negative
By growing a ferromagnetic film on top
exchange interactions (Figure 6.6; Table
of the antiferromagnet or annealing it in an
6.1).
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 207

Figure 6.6. Variation of susceptibility and inverse susceptibility with temperature in an AFM
material.

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Table 6.1. Magnetic Properties of Minerals

Mineral Composition Magnetic Order Tc(°C) σs (Am2/kg)

Oxides – – – –
Magnetite Fe3O4 ferrimagnetic 575–585 90–92
Ulvospinel Fe2TiO2 AFM –153
Hematite αFe2O3 canted AFM 675 0.4
Ilmenite FeTiO2 AFM –233 –
Maghemite γFe2O3 ferrimagnetic ~600 ~80
Jacobsite MnFe2O4 ferrimagnetic 300 77
Trevorite NiFe2O4 ferrimagnetic 585 51
Magnesioferrite MgFe2O4 ferrimagnetic 440 21
Sulfides – – – –
Pyrrhotite Fe7S8 ferrimagnetic 320 ~20
Greigite Fe3S4 ferrimagnetic ~333 ~25
Troilite FeS AFM 305
Oxyhydroxides – – – –
Goethite αFeOOH AFM, weak FM ~120 <1
Lepidocrocite γFeOOH AFM(?) –196 –
Feroxyhyte δFeOOH ferrimagnetic ~180 <10
Metals & Alloys – – – –
Iron Fe FM 770
Nickel Ni FM 358 55
Cobalt Co FM 1131 161
Awaruite Ni3Fe FM 620 120
Wairauite CoFe FM 986 235

FM = ferromagnetic order
208 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AFM = antiferromagnetic order

Tc = Curie or Néel Temperature
σs = saturation magnetization at room-temperature.

6.2.6.1. Measurement
The antiferromagnetic structure corresponds to a vanishing total magnetization in the
absence of an external field. The antiferromagnetic phase may exhibit ferrimagnetic
behavior in the presence of an external magnetic field if one of the sublattice
magnetizations’ absolute values differs from the other sublattice’s, leading to a nonzero
net magnetization. At absolute zero, the net magnetization should be zero, but as
hematite demonstrates, spin canting frequently results in the development of a tiny
net magnetization.
An antiferromagnetic material’s magnetic susceptibility usually reaches its maximum
at the Néel temperature. Conversely, the susceptibility will diverge as the ferromagnetic
and paramagnetic phases merge. A divergence in the staggered susceptibility is noted
in the antiferromagnetic case.
Antiferromagnetic structures could result from a variety of microscopic (exchange)
interactions between the magnetic moments or spins. An Ising model on a bipartite
lattice, e, can be considered in the most basic scenario. g. the basic cubic lattice, where
spins are coupled at their closest neighboring sites. There will either be ferromagnetic
or antiferromagnetic order depending on the sign of that interaction. Different and
possibly more complex magnetic structures can result from geometrical frustration or
competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions.
Similar to ferromagnetic materials, the relationship between magnetization and the
magnetizing field is non-linear. This is because ferromagnetic materials have a residual
magnetization as a result of the hysteresis loop.

6.2.6.2. Geometric Frustration

Anti-ferromagnetic interactions, in contrast to ferromagnetism, can result in several
optimal states (ground states, or states of minimal energy). The anti-ferromagnetic
ground state in one dimension is an alternating sequence of spins, such as up, down,
up, down, etc. However, there can be more than one ground state in two dimensions.
Think about a triangle that is equilateral and has three spins—one on each vertex. As
there are only two possible values for each spin (up or down), the system can exist in
23 = 8 states, six of which are ground states.
When all three spins are up or all down, those are the two states that are not ground
states. There will be two positive interactions and one negative interaction in each of
the remaining six states. The system’s inability to identify a single ground state serves
as an example of frustration. It has been observed that minerals with crystal stacking
structures like hexagonal or Kagome lattices exhibit this kind of magnetic behavior.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 209

6.3. MAGNETIC
CIRCUITS AND ELECTRO-
MECHANICAL ENERGY
CONVERSION
Modern technology relies heavily on magnetic circuits and electromechanical energy
conversion, which are essential parts of many systems and devices. Like electrical circuits
for the flow of electric current, magnetic circuits are the channels via which magnetic flux
flows. They are made up of magnetic components that direct and regulate the distribution of
magnetic flux, such as air gaps and iron cores.

Electrical energy can be converted into mechanical energy and vice versa in
electromechanical energy conversion, which is made possible by the interaction of
magnetic fields and electrical currents. This procedure is necessary for many commonplace
devices found in daily life, such as electric motors, generators, transformers, and inductors.
One example of how magnetic circuits are used in electromechanical energy conversion
is found in transformers. By using electromagnetic induction, these devices effectively
move electrical energy from one circuit to another. Two or more coils twisted around a
single magnetic core make up a transformer. A fluctuating magnetic flux is produced in
the core when an alternating current passes through the primary coil. Electrical energy
is transferred from the primary to the secondary circuit as a result of this fluctuating
flux creating an electromotive force (EMF) in the secondary coil.
Another essential use for electromechanical energy conversion is in electric motors,
which transform electrical energy into mechanical motion by means of magnetic circuits.
Permanent magnets or electromagnets are the two main components that generate a
magnetic field in an electric motor. The Lorentz force law states that this magnetic
field interacts with the motor’s current-carrying conductors, which are usually coils,
to produce mechanical force. The motor shaft turns as a result, producing mechanical
work from electrical energy.
In electromechanical devices, magnetic circuit design and optimization play a major
role in device performance and efficiency. The behavior of magnetic circuits and, in
turn, the effectiveness of energy conversion processes are influenced by various factors,
including geometric configurations, magnetic permeability, and the characteristics of
the core material.
210 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Magnetic circuits are also necessary for managing magnetic fields in a variety of applications
other than energy conversion. For example, magnetic circuits are used by inductors to
store and release energy in electrical systems, and magnetic sensors use magnetic circuits
to detect and measure magnetic fields for a variety of applications, such as proximity and
position sensing.

Many technological advances are based on the related concepts of electromechanical

energy conversion and magnetic circuits. Comprehending the fundamentals of magnetic
circuits and their function in energy conversion procedures is essential for developing
dependable and effective electromechanical systems in a variety of sectors.

6.3.1. Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles

The apparatus that transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy or mechanical
energy into electrical energy is known as an electromechanical energy conversion device.
A magnetic field or an electric field can be used as the medium for electromechanical
energy conversion; however, the majority of functional converters use a magnetic field
as the coupling medium between electrical and mechanical systems because it has a
much higher electric storing capacity than an electric field. Electromechanical energy
converters can be classified as either electrical measuring instruments or loudspeakers,
microphones, electromagnetic relays, and other gross motion devices.
The electromechanical energy conversion process makes extensive use of DC,
induction, and synchronous machines. The device is referred to as a motor when it
converts electrical energy into mechanical form, and as a generator when it converts
mechanical energy into electrical form.
In these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form or from
mechanical to electrical from results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:
• When a conductor is allowed to move in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced
in the conductor.
• When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then a mechanical
force is experienced by the conductor.
Current passes through the conductors in a magnetic field during the monitoring
action. There is a force applied to every conductor. The conductors are mounted on a rotor
that has unrestricted motion. A mechanical load can be driven by the electromagnetic
torque generated on the rotor, which is transmitted to the rotor shaft. Every conductor
experiences an induced voltage as a result of the conductors rotating in the magnetic
field. A prime mover powers the rotor during the generating action. Induced voltage
occurs in the conductors of the rotor. A current will flow through the winding created
by these conductors when an electrical load is connected to it, providing the load with
power. Furthermore, the reaction torque that is created by the interaction between the
conductors’ current and the magnetic field tends to oppose the torque that the prime
mover develops.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 211
6.3.2. Magnetic Leakage and Fringing
The magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit that deviates from its intended path is called
leakage flux. You can explain both the leakage flux and the fringing by using a solenoid
as an example. A solenoid generates magnetic flux when current flows through it
(Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7. Magnetic leakage and fringing.

Source: https://circuitglobe.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Leakage-flux-and-fringing-fig-
compressor.jpg.

The majority of the flux is concentrated in the solenoid’s core and travels along a
specific path that goes through the air gap and is used in the magnetic circuit. We refer
to this flux as useful flux φu. Since it is practically impossible for all of the flux in the
circuit to take a specific path and build up in the magnetic core, some of the flux will
instead build up around the coil or surround the coil’s core without doing any work in
the magnetic circuit. Leakage Flux is the type of flux that is not utilized for any work
and is represented by φl.
Therefore, the total flux Φ produced by the solenoid in the magnetic circuit is the
sum of the leakage flux and the useful flux and is given by the equation shown below:

ϕ
= ϕu + ϕl (1)
• Leakage Coefficient: The ratio of the total flux produced to the useful flux
set up in the air gap of the magnetic circuit is called a leakage coefficient or
leakage factor. It is denoted by (λ).
ϕ
λ=
ϕu (2)
212 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Fringing: When the useful flux Since the magnetic flux travels along the
builds up in the air gap, it tends to closed path ABCDA, the magnetic circuit
bulge outward at (b and b’), as seen is ABCDA (Figure 6.8).
in the above figure. As a result of
this bulging, the air gap’s effective In a magnetic circuit, the amount of
area grows and its flux density magnetic flux in the core depends upon the
falls. We call this effect Fringing. current (I) and the number of turns (N). The
Fringing and air gap length are product NI is known as the Magnetomotive
directly correlated, meaning that Force (MMF).
as the length grows, so will the MMF=NI=Ampere−Turns
fringing effect, and vice versa.
The opposition offered by the magnetic
circuit to the flow of magnetic flux is known
6.3.3. Magnetic Circuit – Series
as reluctance (S) of the magnetic circuit. The
and Parallel Magnetic Circuit reluctance of the magnetic circuit depends
upon the length of magnetic circuit, cross-
6.3.3.1. Magnetic Circuit sectional area of the circuit and nature of
the material that makes up the magnetic
A closed path that the magnetic flux
circuit.
follows is referred to as a magnetic circuit.
A magnetic circuit is made up of a core
made of highly conductive materials, such 6.3.3.2. Types of Magnetic Circuit
as soft steel, iron, etc. The reason for this
There are two types of magnetic circuits:
is that these materials provide very little
resistance to the magnetic flux flow. • Series Magnetic Circuit: A
magnetic circuit is referred to as
series when the same magnetic
flux, represented by ψ, flows
through every component of the
circuit. Examine a composite series
magnetic circuit, which consists
of two distinct magnetic materials
with varying relative permeabilities.
A composite series magnetic circuit
is a series magnetic circuit with
components of varying sizes and
Figure 6.8. Magnetic circuit. materials. Every component in
Source: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assets/ this magnetic circuit in series will
questions/media/54621/magnetic_circuit.png. provide resistance to the magnetic
flux ψ. The total reluctance of
Examine an N-turn coil wound around the magnetic circuit is equal to
an iron core (refer to the figure). Magnetic the sum of the reluctances of its
flux (ψ) is created in the core of the coil individual components because
when an electric current I flows through it. the components are connected in
series.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 213

Figure 6.9. Series magnetic circuit.

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Referring the Figure 6.9 of series magnetic circuit, we have;

l1 l2
Total Re luc tan=
ce, S T +
µ 0 µ r1a 1 µ 0 µ r 2 a 2
Total MMF magnetic flux × Total Re luc tan ce
=
 l1 l2 
⇒ Total MMF =
ψ + 
µ µ a
 0 r1 1 µ µ a
0 r2 2 

 B1   B2 
⇒ Total MMF
=   × l1 +   × l2
µ µ
 0 r2   µ0µr 2 
⇒ Total MMF = H1 × l1 + H 2 × l 2
(3)
Therefore, total MMF required to set up the magnetic flux in a series magnetic
circuit is the sum of MMF required by individual parts of the circuit.
• Parallel Magnetic Circuit: A magnetic circuit which has more one path for the
magnetic flux is called as parallel magnetic circuit (Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10. Parallel magnetic circuit.

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png.
214 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Consider a coil of N turns wound on limb interaction that happens between charged
AF carries an electric current of I amperes. particles in relative motion, whereas electric
The magnetic flux φ1 set up by the coil forces cause an attraction between particles
divides at B into two paths viz: with opposite charges and a repulsion
between particles with the same charge.
i. The magnetic φ2 passes along the Electromagnetic fields are used to explain
path BE. these two forces. Microscopic charged
ii. The magnetic flux φ3 passes along particles are described by the Lorentz
the path BCDE. force, while macroscopic charged objects
Therefore, the total flux is; are described in terms of Coulomb’s law
for electricity and Ampère’s force law for
φ1 = φ2 + φ3 (4) magnetism.
The path BE and BCDE are in parallel The electromagnetic force is the cause of
and hence form a parallel magnetic circuit. numerous chemical and physical phenomena
In a parallel magnetic circuit, the MMF that are encountered in everyday existence.
required for the whole parallel magnetic Atoms are held together by the electrostatic
circuit is equal to MMF required for any attraction between their electrons and
one of the parallel paths. atomic nuclei. Electric forces facilitate the
amalgamation of distinct atoms to form
Let;
molecules, encompassing the macromolecules
S1=Reluctance of magnetic path ABEF like proteins that serve as the foundation of
life. Chemical reactivity is also influenced
S2=Reluctance of magnetic path BE by magnetic interactions between the spin
S3=Reluctance of magnetic path BCDE and angular momentum magnetic moments
of electrons; spin chemistry studies these
Total MMF=MMF for path ABEF+ MMF relationships. Additionally, electromagnetic
or path BE or BCDE is essential to many aspects of contemporary
technology, including the generation,
⟹Total MMF=φ1S1+ ψ2S2+ φ3S3 transformation, and distribution of electrical
energy, the production and detection of light,
heat, and sound, fiber optic and wireless
6.3.4. Attractive Force of
communication, computation, sensors,
Electromagnets electrolysis, electroplating, and mechanical
Particles with electric charge can interact motors and actuators.
with one another through electromagnetic
fields, a phenomenon known as Since ancient times, scientists have
electromagnetic phenomena. Among the four studied electromagnetic. Numerous
basic forces of nature is the electromagnetic historical societies, such as the Greeks and
force. In the interactions between atoms the Mayans, developed intricate theories to
and molecules, it is the dominant force. account for phenomena such as lightning,
Electrostatics and magnetism are two static electricity, and the attraction between
separate but related phenomena that can iron ore fragments that are magnetized. But
be combined to form electromagnetism. scientists didn’t start creating a mathematical
Any two charged particles can experience foundation for comprehending the nature
electromagnetic forces. Magnetism is the of electromagnetic interactions until the
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 215
late 1700s. Prominent mathematicians and 6.3.5. Principles of
scientists like Coulomb, Gauss, and Faraday
Electromechanical Energy
created namesake laws in the 18th and
19th centuries that contributed to our Conversion
understanding of how electromagnetic Electric motors, generators, transformers,
fields interact and form. The discovery of and other devices that run on electricity
Maxwell’s equations, a system of four partial are powered by the fundamentals of
differential equations that offer a thorough electromechanical energy conversion.
explanation of classical electromagnetic Fundamentally, electromechanical energy
fields, marked the culmination of this conversion is the process of converting
process in the 1860s. The existence of electrical energy into mechanical energy or
self-sustaining electromagnetic waves was vice versa, made possible by the interaction
predicted by Maxwell’s equations, which of electric currents and magnetic fields.
also gave a solid mathematical foundation
for the relationships between electricity Th e el ect ro mag net ic in du cti on
and magnetism that scientists had been phenomenon, which Michael Faraday
examining for centuries. It was subsequently discovered in the 19th century, is fundamental
demonstrated that Maxwell’s theory—that to these ideas. According to Faraday’s
such waves comprise visible light—was law, an electric current is produced in a
accurate. It has been established that all conductor when an electromotive force
forms of electromagnetic radiation, including (EMF) is induced by a fluctuating magnetic
microwaves, radio waves, x-rays, ultraviolet, field. This idea underlies the operation of
visible, and infrared radiation, are the same transformers and generators, which produce
and only vary in their frequency range. voltage and current through the relative
motion of conductors and magnetic fields.
The modern era has seen scientists
continue to improve the electromagnetism The transformation of mechanical energy
theorem to account for the effects of into electrical energy is best illustrated by
contemporary physics, such as relativity generators. A generator rotates a coil of wire
and quantum mechanics. Einstein’s theory inside a magnetic field using mechanical
of special relativity was influenced by the energy, which is frequently obtained from
theoretical implications of electromagnetism, sources like turbines or engines. According
specifically the determination of the speed to Faraday’s law, an electromagnetic field
of light based on the permeability and (EMF) is produced by the coil’s changing
permittivity of the medium of propagation magnetic flux as it rotates. Mechanical
in 1905. In the meantime, Maxwell’s energy is transformed into electrical energy
equations have been altered by the study by this induced voltage, which flows through
of quantum electrodynamics (QED) to better the circuit linked to the generator.
reflect the quantized nature of matter. On the other hand, electric motors show
The electromagnetic field’s variations are how electrical energy can be transformed
described in terms of discrete excitations into mechanical energy. The Lorentz force
in QED, which are particles called photons, law states that an electric current flowing
or light quanta. through a coil (or coils) in an electric motor
interacts with a magnetic field to produce
a mechanical force. By rotating the motor’s
shaft, this force transforms electrical energy
216 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

into mechanical work. Electric motors power The design of magnetic circuits, the
conveyor belts, fans, pumps, and other characteristics of core materials, and the
devices in a wide range of applications, from optimization of electrical and mechanical
home appliances to industrial machinery. components are some of the variables
that affect the efficiency and performance
Another essential application of the of electromechanical energy conversion
principles of electromechanical energy systems. The electromechanical energy
conversion is found in transformers. conversion technologies that power our
Through mutual electromagnetic induction, modern world are becoming more efficient,
these devices exchange electrical energy compact, and versatile due to advancements
between circuits. A common magnetic core in materials science, electronics, and control
is encircled by two or more primary and systems. The fundamental technologies
secondary coils to form a transformer. A that power the industrial, commercial, and
voltage is produced in the secondary coil residential sectors operate on the principles
when an alternating current passes through of electromechanical energy conversion.
the primary coil, causing a change in the
magnetic flux in the core. This enables These concepts facilitate the effective
effective impedance matching in electronic transfer and use of mechanical and electrical
circuits, as well as power distribution and energy in transformers, generators, and
voltage transformation across electrical motors, among other devices. This has led
grids. to advancements in a variety of industries,
including manufacturing, automation,
renewable energy, and transportation.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 217

CASE STUDY
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION IN WIND
TURBINES

In the realm of renewable energy, wind turbines stand as iconic examples of

electromechanical energy conversion. These structures harness the kinetic energy of
wind and convert it into electrical power through a sophisticated process involving
electromagnetism.

Introduction
Wind turbines are pivotal in the global shift towards sustainable energy sources. They
exemplify how electromechanical systems can efficiently transform natural resources
into usable electricity, contributing to clean energy goals and reducing carbon footprints.

Technological Overview
1. Rotor and Blades: The rotor of a wind turbine consists of multiple blades
designed to capture wind energy. As wind flows over the blades, it causes
them to rotate.
2. Generator and Conversion Process: Connected to the rotor is an electrical
generator, typically a three-phase synchronous generator. This generator converts
the mechanical energy of the rotating blades into electrical energy through the
principles of electromagnetic induction.
3. Power Transmission: The electricity generated is then transmitted through
power lines to homes, businesses, or the electrical grid, where it can be used
immediately or stored for future use.

Key Components and Functionality

• Blade Rotation: The kinetic energy from the wind causes the blades to rotate.
This rotational motion is critical as it drives the generator.
• Electromagnetic Generator: Inside the generator, the rotating motion induces a
magnetic field within the stator coils, creating an alternating current (AC) output.
• Power Regulation: Control systems ensure the turbine operates efficiently by
adjusting blade pitch and rotor speed based on wind conditions, optimizing
energy capture.
218 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Environmental Impact and Benefits

• Wind turbines produce clean, renewable energy without emitting greenhouse
gases or other pollutants associated with fossil fuels.
• They contribute to energy independence and security by diversifying energy
sources and reducing reliance on finite resources.

Challenges and Future Directions

• Challenges include intermittency (variation in wind speed), site selection, and
visual impact, which require careful planning and technological advancements
in energy storage and grid integration.
• Future innovations focus on increasing turbine efficiency, reducing costs, and
expanding offshore wind farms to capitalize on stronger and more consistent
wind patterns.

Conclusion
Wind turbines exemplify the successful integration of electromechanical energy conversion
technologies into sustainable energy solutions. As the world transitions towards cleaner
energy sources, understanding and optimizing these systems will be crucial for meeting
global energy demands while mitigating environmental impacts.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Today, we dive into the fascinating world of magnetism. Students will work in pairs to
investigate magnetic fields using bar magnets, iron filings, and compass needles. Each pair
will hypothesize and test how magnetic fields interact, exploring concepts like magnetic
poles, field lines, and the influence of materials. Through hands-on experimentation and
guided discussion, students will grasp the principles of attraction, repulsion, and magnetic
induction. This activity not only enhances understanding of magnetic phenomena but also
encourages critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving skills among peers.
 MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC CIRCUITS, AND .... 219
SUMMARY
• Magnetism is a fundamental force of nature that manifests through the interaction
of magnetic fields. These fields arise from the movement of electric charges,
primarily electrons, within atoms.
• Almost everyone is familiar with what a magnetic material can do but very few
know how a magnet works. To understand this phenomenon one must first
grasp the inextricable connection that exists between magnetism and electricity.
• Electrons are teeny tiny magnets. They have a north and a south pole, too,
and spin around an axis. This spinning results in a very tiny but extremely
significant magnetic field.
• The magnetic field is a field produced by the magnet or electric charges in
motion. The magnetic field is the region around a magnetic material or moving
electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.
• Magnetic materials are categorized as magnetically hard, or magnetically soft
materials. Magnetically soft materials are easily magnetized but the induced
magnetism is usually temporary.
• Paramagnetic materials are those having permanent atomic dipoles, which are
acted on individually and aligned in the direction of an external field.
• Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which a material form permanent
magnet (i.e., materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field
and remain magnetized after the external field is removed).
• The antiferromagnetic materials are commonly found among the transition metal
compounds. Hematite, chromium, alloys of iron manganese and oxides of nickel
are the examples of antiferromagnetic material.
• Magnetic circuits and electromechanical energy conversion are integral
components in various devices and systems, playing a fundamental role in
modern technology.
• An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy or, mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
• Electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric
charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four
fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions of
atoms and molecules.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength. How are they related?
2. Explain the difference between diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic
materials. Provide examples of each.
220 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3. What is reluctance in the context of magnetic circuits? How is it analogous to

electrical resistance?
4. Derive the expression for the magnetic field BBB inside a long solenoid carrying
current III with nnn turns per unit length.
5. State Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction and explain its significance
in generating electrical energy.
6. How does a transformer work? Describe the principles behind step-up and step-
down transformers.
7. Compare and contrast the operation of a DC motor and a DC generator. What
principles do they share?
8. Define hysteresis loss and eddy current loss in magnetic materials. How are
these losses minimized in practical applications?
9. Explain the significance of the magnetic permeability of a material. How does
it affect the performance of magnetic devices?
10. Discuss one practical application of magnetic circuits and one application of
electromechanical energy conversion in everyday life.

REFERENCES
1. Du Trémolet de Lacheisserie, É., Gignoux, D., & Schlenker, M. (2005). Magnetism:
Fundamentals (pp. 3–6). Springer.
2. Furlani, E. P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials,
Analysis and Applications. Academic Press.
3. Jiles, D. (2015). Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials (3rd ed.). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
4. Kronmüller, H. (2007). Handbook of Magnetism and Advanced Magnetic Materials
(5 Volume Set). John Wiley & Sons.
5. Merzouki, R., Samantaray, A. K., & Pathak, P. M. (2012). Intelligent Mechatronic
Systems: Modeling, Control and Diagnosis (pp. 403–405). Springer Science & Business
Media.
6. Purcell, E. M. (2012). Electricity and Magnetism (3rd ed.). Cambridge University
Press.
7. Tipler, P. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light,
and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W.H. Freeman.
 CHAPTER

7 Transformer

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand the overview of transformer
• Discuss the types of transformers
• Explain the applications of transformers
• Define EMF equation of ideal transformer
• Explain the transformer testing

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Autotransformer Core
Distribution Transformer Electromagnetic Induction
Impedance Isolation Transformer
Load Magnetic Flux
Power Loss Primary Coil
Secondary Coil Step-down Transformer
Step-up Transformer Tap Changer
Transformer Oil Turns Ratio
INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a frequently utilized device in electrical systems that connects circuits
operating at varying voltages. They are commonly employed in situations where there
is a requirement to convert AC voltage from one level to another. Transformers can be
used to either lower or raise the voltage and current in AC circuits, depending on the
needs of the electrical equipment, device, or load. Power, instrumentation, and pulse
transformers are examples of the wide range of applications that use transformers.
Transformers can be divided into two main types: electronic transformers and power
transformers. Electronic transformers have low operating voltages and are used in
consumer electronics such as televisions, computers, CD/DVD players, and other devices.
Power transformers, on the other hand, have high power and voltage ratings and are
commonly used in power generation, transmission, distribution, and utility systems to
adjust voltage levels.

222 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

7.1. OVERVIEW OF
TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a basic device that is used to transfer electrical energy from one
alternating-current circuit to another, or to multiple circuits, through the process of
electromagnetic induction. It operates by increasing or decreasing voltage based on
the principle of electromagnetic induction. A transformer can either step up (Step-up
transformer) or step down (Step-down transformer) AC voltage. Typically used in the
transmission and distribution of alternating current power, transformers act as voltage
control devices. They serve a variety of purposes, such as increasing voltage from electric
generators for long-distance power transmission and decreasing voltage for low-voltage
devices like doorbells and toy electric trains. (Chow Tai, 2006).

7.1.1. Components of Electric Transformers

For an efficient process, the electric transformer consists of certain components, which
include the ones named and described below.
• Transformer Core: This part provides support for the primary and secondary
windings, as well as supports the electromagnetic flux by creating a low
reluctance path. The core is constructed from thin stacked sheets made of high-
grade oriented steel, with a thin insulating material separating them. To reduce
hysteresis and eddy currents in the system, the carbon content of the core steel
is kept below 0.1%. Alloying with silicon can help reduce eddy currents. In a
three-phase transformer, each limb holds the primary and secondary windings for
each phase. The yokes connect these limbs magnetically. There are two types
of constructions for the core: core and shell. The windings are surrounded by
the core in shell-type construction.
• Transformer Winding: Each transformer phase contains two sets of windings:
the primary winding and the secondary winding. The windings consist of
multiple turns of copper or aluminum conductors that are insulated from each
other and the transformer core. The arrangement and type of winding used are
determined by factors such as current rating, short circuit strength, temperature
rise, impedance, and voltage surges.
The winding that is rated for a higher voltage is known as an HV winding, while
the one rated for a lower voltage is called an LV winding (Figure 7.1).

TRANSFORMER 223
224 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 7.1. Transformer winding.

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The high voltage winding conductors are typically thinner than the low voltage
conductors in transformers, as they surround the low voltage winding from the outside.
The low voltage windings are closer to the core, while the high voltage windings are
sandwiched between the low voltage coils in shell type transformers. In core type
transformers, the windings are classified into four types and the choice of winding type
depends on the current carrying capacity and the number of turns needed (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2. Core and winding.

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• Insulation of a Transformer: Insulation is crucial for transformers to prevent

severe damage in the event of a failure. It is essential for the insulation material
to have high dielectric strength, thermal resistance, and mechanical properties.
Common materials used for insulation in transformers include cotton, synthetic
materials, and papers. Insulators must be strategically placed between windings,
between the core and windings, and between parts carrying current (Figure
7.3).
 TRANSFORMER 225
• Transformer Oil: Oil immersed
transformers have the added
benefit of using oil for insulation,
which helps to cool the transformer
and identify any potential issues
with faulty components.
• Terminal and Bushings: Terminals
found inside transformers serve
to connect incoming and outgoing
cables. These terminals are linked
to bushings, which are in turn
connected to the end of the windings.
Figure 7.3. Insulation of a transformer. Bushings act as insulators, creating
a barrier between the terminals
Source: https://www.iqsdirectory.com/articles/ and the tank. They also provide a
electric-transformer.html. safe passage for the conductor that
links the terminals to the windings.
• Transformer Tank: The tank has a
Bushings are commonly made from
dual function: shielding the core and
materials such as epoxy resins and
windings from external conditions,
porcelain.
and holding oil as well as supporting
additional transformer accessories. • Oil Conservators: The oil
To create these tanks, steel plates conservator sits positioned
are rolled into containers. In above the tank and bushings.
circumstances where weight must Some oil conservators contain a
be minimized, aluminum sheets rubber bladder to accommodate
may be substituted for steel sheets. oil expansion from temperature
Nonetheless, this can lead to higher changes. This allows for proper oil
costs, as aluminum sheets are pricier expansion and contraction within
than steel sheets (Figure 7.4). the transformer. A level indicator
on the conservator shows the oil
level inside. A pipe connects the
oil conservator to the main tank.
• Electric Transformer Breather:
Breathers are installed in oil-
immersed transformers to keep
the oil free from moisture. As
the temperature changes, the oil
expands and contracts, causing air
to flow in and out of the conservator
tank. The breather ensures that
this air is free from moisture by
removing it as it enters and exits
Figure 7.4. Transformer tank.
the tank. Positioned at the end
Source: https://www.iqsdirectory.com/articles/ of the pipe carrying the air, the
electric-transformer.html. breather contains silica gel which
226 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

absorbs the moisture, resulting in changers. Off load tap changers

moisture-free air for the conservator. are used when the transformer is
• Radiators and Fans: The heat not supplying any loads. On load
generated in transformers is a tap changers allow for adjustments
byproduct of the energy conversion without interrupting the current
process. Dry transformers are flow to the load (Figure 7.5).
typically cooled by natural air,
while oil-immersed transformers
utilize a variety of cooling methods.
These can include cooling fans
and radiators attached to the
transformer tank, which are chosen
based on factors such as power
rating, power loss, and required
cooling level for each specific
transformer. The process begins
with the heat generated in the core
and windings being transferred
to the transformer oil, which is
then dissipated at the radiator.
Larger transformers use forced
cooling, where cooling radiators
are installed in conjunction with
the main radiators. Figure 7.5. Tap changer.
• Explosion Vent: The explosion vent
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is designed to act as an emergency
electric-transformer.html.
release for oil and air gases trapped
inside a transformer. Positioned • Buchholz Relay: The Buchholz relay
above the conservator tank, it is a is utilized in oil-filled transformers
metal pipe with a diaphragm at one that are rated at over 500 kVA.
end. When faults in the oil lead to This relay consists of oil and gas
a rise in pressure inside the tank, and is designed to detect faults
the diaphragm ruptures at a low occurring when the components of
pressure threshold, allowing the the transformer are submerged in
built-up forces to escape into the oil. By detecting the gases released
surrounding atmosphere. during short circuits that generate
• Tap Changers: Tap changers are excessive heat and decompose the
used to adjust the secondary voltage oil into gas, the Buchholz relay
of electric transformers. They are triggers an alarm system. This alarm
designed to change the turns ratio system then activates a circuit that
of the transformer as needed. There opens the circuit breaker supplying
are two types of tap changers: on current to the primary winding,
load tap changers and off load tap thus disrupting the flow of current.
(Kothari & Nagrath, 2010).
 TRANSFORMER 227
7.1.2. Working Principle of Transformer
The working of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual inductance between
two coils which are magnetic coupled (Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.6. Working principle of transformer.

Mutual inductance states that when an then E2 > E1, thus the transformer will be
alternating voltage is applied to the primary a step-up transformer and if N2 < N1, then
winding of a transformer, it produces an E2 < E1, thus the transformer will be a step-
alternating flux ϕm, known as the mutual down transformer.
flux, in the core. This flux links both
windings magnetically, inducing EMFs E1 in When a load is connected to the
the primary winding and E2 in the secondary secondary winding, the EMF E 2 will
winding according to Faraday’s law. E1 is generate a load current I2. In this way, a
referred to as the primary EMF, while E2 is transformer facilitates the transmission of
the secondary EMF, given by: power from one electrical circuit to another
while altering the voltage level.

(1)
7.1.3. Advantage and
And Disadvantage of Electric
Transformer
(2) Here are the advantages and disadvantages
of electric transformers:
Therefore;

Advantages
(3) 1. Voltage Regulation:
– Step-Up and Step-Down
From the above expression it can be
Voltage: Transformers can
seen that the magnitude of EMFs E1 and
increase (step-up) or decrease
E2 depend upon the number of turns in
(step-down) voltage levels,
the primary and secondary windings of the
facilitating the efficient
transformer, respectively, i.e., if N2 > N1,
transmission of electricity over
228 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

long distances and reducing – Adaptable to Different Loads:

power loss. Transformers can be designed
– Stable Voltage Supply: They to handle varying power loads,
help maintain a stable voltage making them suitable for a
level, ensuring that electrical wide range of applications
devices and appliances from small electronics to large
operate within their optimal industrial equipment.
voltage range.
2. Energy Efficiency: Disadvantages
– High Efficiency: Modern 1. Initial Cost:
transformers can have
– High Capital Expenditure: The
efficiencies exceeding 98%,
initial cost of purchasing and
meaning very little energy is
installing transformers can be
lost in the form of heat during
significant, especially for large
the transformation process.
power systems.
– Reduced Power Losses: By
– Infrastructure Costs:
stepping up the voltage for
Associated infrastructure,
transmission and stepping
such as cooling systems and
it down for distribution,
housing, can add to the overall
transformers minimize power
cost.
losses in the electrical grid.
2. Size and Weight:
3. Isolation and Safety:
– Bulky and Heavy:
– Electrical Isolation:
Transformers, especially high-
Tr a n s f o r m e r s provide
power ones, are large and
electrical isolation between
heavy, requiring substantial
circuits, enhancing safety by
space and support structures
preventing direct contact with
for installation.
high voltage.
– Transportation Challenges:
– Protection: They can help
Moving and installing large
protect electrical devices from
transformers can be logistically
voltage spikes and surges.
challenging and expensive.
4. Cost-Effectiveness:
3. Energy Losses:
– Long Lifespan: Transformers
– Iron and Copper Losses:
are durable and have a long
Although efficient,
operational life, often spanning
transformers do experience
several decades with proper
energy losses due to
maintenance.
hysteresis (iron losses) and
– Low Maintenance: Once resistance (copper losses) in
installed, transformers the windings.
require minimal maintenance
– Heat Generation: Energy losses
compared to other electrical
result in heat generation, which
components.
may require cooling systems
5. Scalability: to prevent overheating.
 TRANSFORMER 229
4. Environmental Concerns: 5. Dependence on Grid:
– Oil Spills: Oil-filled – Grid Reliability: Transformers
transformers pose a risk are reliant on a stable grid
of oil spills, which can be infrastructure. Failures or
environmentally harmful disruptions in the grid can
and require specialized impact the performance and
containment and clean-up reliability of transformers.
measures. – Limited Flexibility: Once
– Noise Pollution: Transformers installed, transformers are not
can generate noise, easily adaptable to significant
particularly at high power changes in load demand or
levels, which may be a grid configuration without
concern in residential areas. additional infrastructure
changes.
230 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

7.2. TYPES OF
TRANSFORMERS
There are several transformer types used in the electrical power system for different
purposes, like in power generation, distribution and transmission, and utilization of
electrical power. The transformers are classified based on voltage levels, Core medium
used, winding arrangements, use and installation place, etc. Here we discuss different
types of transformers are the step up and step down Transformer, Distribution Transformer,
Potential Transformer, Power Transformer, 1-ϕ, and 3-ϕ transformer, Autotransformer,
etc. (Horning, Kelly, et al., 2004).

7.2.1. Types of Transformers Based on Voltage Levels

The most commonly used transformer types are for all applications and are categorized
as step-up or step-down transformers based on the voltage ratios between primary and
secondary windings.
• Step-Up Transformer: As indicated by its name, the secondary voltage is increased
in relation to the primary voltage by using more windings in the secondary than
in the primary, as illustrated in the diagram. A step-up transformer is commonly
used in power plants to connect the generator to the grid (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7. Step-up transformer.

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• Step-Down Transformer: The transformer reduces the voltage from a higher

level at the primary side to a lower level at the secondary side, making it a
step-down transformer. There are more winding turns on the primary side than
on the secondary side (Figure 7.8).
 TRANSFORMER 231

Figure 7.8. Step-down transformer.

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In distribution networks, the step-down transformer is commonly used to convert

the high grid voltage to low voltage that can be used for home appliances.

7.2.2. Types of Transformers Based on the Core Medium Used

Transformers are classified as air core or iron core based on the type of medium placed
between the primary and secondary winding.
• Air-Core Transformer: The primary and secondary windings are both wound
on a non-magnetic strip in an air-core transformer, where the flux linkage
between them occurs through the air. In comparison to an iron core transformer,
the mutual inductance is lower in an air-core transformer due to the higher
reluctance offered by the air medium. However, hysteresis and eddy current
losses are eliminated in an air-core transformer (Figure 7.9).

Figure 7.9. Air-core transformer.

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• Iron Core Transformer: The primary and secondary windings are wrapped
around multiple iron plates, creating an ideal path for the generated flux. The
iron’s conductive and magnetic properties result in lower reluctance to the
flux linkage. These transformers are commonly used for their high efficiency
compared to air-core transformers (Figure 7.10).
232 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 7.10. Iron core transformer.

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7.2.3. Types of Transformers primary and secondary coils and

can either increase or decrease the
Based on Winding Arrangement
input voltage.
Transformers based on winding arrangement
• Autotransformer: In standard
are discussed below.
transformers, the primary and
• Two Winding Transformer: A secondary windings are oriented
transformer, such as a two- in separate directions. However, in
winding transformer, is composed autotransformers, the primary and
of separate windings for each secondary windings are connected
phase, including the primary and in series both physically and
secondary windings. The primary magnetically. This configuration is
winding receives AC input, while illustrated in the Figure 7.11.
the secondary is connected to the
load. Although the two windings
are electrically isolated, they are
magnetically coupled.
The EMF generated in the
secondary winding is a result
of the changing magnetic flux
caused by the fluctuating current
in the primary winding, known
as mutual induction. Therefore,
the output voltage is a direct
result of this induction process.
Figure 7.11. Autotransformer.
The magnitude of this voltage is
primarily determined by the ratio Source: https://www.elprocus.com/various-
of the number of windings in the types-of-transformers-applications/.
 TRANSFORMER 233
A common coil with both primary and and 440 V–220 V for domestic use
secondary windings is used, with voltage (Figure 7.13).
adjusting based on the location of the – It works at low efficiency at
secondary tapping on the coil. 50–70%
– Small size
7.2.4. Transformers Based on – Easy installation
Usage – Low magnetic losses
These transformers are classified based – It is not always fully loaded
on their necessity as power transformer,
distribution transformer, measuring
transformer, and protection transformer.
• Power Transformer: Power
transformers are large in size
and designed for high voltage
applications (greater than 33 KV),
commonly used in power generation
Figure 7.13. Distribution transformer.
stations and transmission
substations. They have a high level Source: https://www.elprocus.com/various-types-
of insulation (Figure 7.12). of-transformers-applications/.

Distribution transformers are categorized

based on several factors, including their
mounting location, insulation type, number
of phases, voltage class, and Basic Impulse
Insulation Level (BIL).
• Measurement Transformer: These
devices are utilized for measuring
electrical quantities such as voltage,
current, power, and are categorized
into potential transformers, current
Figure 7.12. Power transformer. transformers, etc.
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types-of-transformers-applications/.

• Distribution Tr a n s f o r m e r :
Transformers are utilized to
distribute power from power
generation plants to faraway
destinations. They are primarily
used for distributing electrical
energy at low voltages of less Figure 7.14. Current transformer.
than 33 KV for industrial purposes
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types-of-transformers-applications/.
234 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Potential Transformer: The In this transformer, the primary winding

potential transformer, also referred is connected in series with the main supply
to as a voltage transformer, and various measuring instruments like
allows for the measurement of voltmeter, ammeter, protective relay coil,
high voltage lines by connecting and wattmeter. These transformers are
the primary winding to the line. designed with specific current ratio, phase
Instruments and meters are then relation, and accuracy in order to precisely
connected to the secondary winding measure the load on the secondary side.
for measurement purposes. The The term ratio is of great importance in
primary function of this transformer current transformers (CT).
is to reduce the high voltage to
a safe level. The primary winding Types of Current Transformers are three
is typically grounded for safety types like wound, toroidal, and bar type.
precautions. – Wound Current Transformer:
There are two main types of potential The primary winding of the
transformers: conventional wound and transformer can be physically
capacitor voltage. Conventional wound connected in series using a
transformers are more expensive than conductor, which carries the
capacitor voltage transformers because they current within the circuit. The
require insulation. magnitude of the secondary
current is primarily determined
• Current Transformer: The main by the transformer’s turns
purpose of the current transformer ratio.
(CT) is to measure and also for
safety purposes. When the current – Toroidal Current Transformer:
in the circuit is too high to be This transformer does not have
directly measured, the transformer a primary winding. Instead,
is used to convert the high current it uses a hole or window to
into the desired value necessary for thread the line that carries
the circuit (Figure 7.14 and 7.15). current in the circuit. Some
current transformers have a
split core that allows for easy
opening, closing, installation,
and connection without having
to separate the network.
– Bar-Type Current
Transformer: This transformer
utilizes the main network’s
actual cable or bus-bar for
the primary winding, which
is a single turn. It is fully
insulated from the system’s
Figure 7.15. Current transformer. high voltages and typically
bolted to the current-carrying
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device.
types-of-transformers-applications/.
 TRANSFORMER 235
• Protection Transformers: This • Single Phase Transformer: The
type of transformer is utilized for single phase transformer is a
safeguarding components. The key stationary device that operates
distinction between measuring based on Faraday’s law of
and protection transformers lies mutual induction. It functions by
in their accuracy, with protection transmitting AC power from one
transformers requiring greater circuit to another at a steady
precision compared to measuring frequency and voltage level. This
transformers. transformer consists of primary
• Instrument Transformer: An and secondary windings, with the
instrument transformer, also known primary winding receiving the AC
as an isolation or measurement supply and the load being connected
transformer, is an electrical device to the secondary winding (Figure
used to adjust voltage and current 7.17).
levels. Its primary function is to
safely isolate the secondary winding
when the primary winding receives
a high voltage and current supply.
This ensures that energy meters,
relays, and measuring instruments
connected to the secondary winding
are protected from damage (Figure
7.16).

Figure 7.17. Single phase transformer.

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types-of-transformers-applications/.

• Three Phase Transformer: When

three 1-phase transformers are
connected together with all 3
primary windings coupled as one
and all 3 secondary windings
connected as one, it creates a
Figure 7.16. Instrument transformers. 3-phase transformer. This type
of transformer is commonly used
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types-of-transformers-applications/.
for generating, transmitting,
and distributing electric power
in industries. Assembling the
7.2.5. Transformers Based on transformer is cost-effective and
it can be connected using Star or
Phase
Delta connections. (Parker, Ula,
Transformers based on phase are discussed &Webb, 2005) (Figure 7.18).
below.
236 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 7.18. Three phase transformer.

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 TRANSFORMER 237

7.3. APPLICATIONS OF
TRANSFORMERS
Here we have some applications of transformers given below:
• Changing Electric Voltage: By adjusting the coil’s number of turns, the voltage
can be altered. Transformers are primarily utilized to control electric voltage,
either increasing it (step-up) or decreasing it (step-down). There are various
types of transformers for each function, as previously mentioned.
Vp/Vs = Np/Ns (4)
Vp= (Np/Ns)*Vs (5)
Vs=Vp(Ns/Np) (6)
Even if the value of Vp remains constant as the input voltage, we can still adjust the
output voltage (Vs) by altering the number of turns in both the primary and secondary
coils.
• Power Supply: Electric transformers allow us to efficiently transmit electric
power over long distances, reducing energy waste. Step up transformers help
transmit power over long distances, while step down transformers reduce voltage
for safe household use.
• Current Conversion: Transformers are utilized to convert Alternating Current to
Direct Current, often in combination with rectifiers. These devices are commonly
used in electronic power supplies.
• Impedance Matching: To achieve optimal power transfer between different
circuits, impedance must be matched using transformers. This is commonly
applied in audio equipment and telecommunication systems. Transformers
facilitate not only power transfer, but also ensure maximum efficiency through
impedance matching.
• Isolation: Transformers ensure that there is isolation between input and output
devices, which makes them safe to use. They also protect sensitive equipment
from potentially harmful voltage fluctuations.
• Audio Transformers: Audio transformers are utilized in audio equipment to
combine and transfer audio signals between different stages, as well as to modify
them, often between amplifiers and mixers. They play a role in maintaining
signal fidelity and reducing external noise interference within the channel.
• Tesla Coil: Transformers are crucial components in Tesla coils, serving to
generate high voltage and high frequency alternating electric current. They
are primarily utilized for demonstrations and for generating powerful electric
discharges (Figure 7.19).
238 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 7.19. Transformer in tesla coil.

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• Medical Usage: Transformers are utilized in various applications beyond electric

devices such as motors. They are also utilized in the medical field for machines
like MRI and X-Ray, where they generate high voltage current to support imaging
and diagnostics.
• Railway Electrification: Railway electrification uses transformers to reduce high
voltage from overhead lines to a suitable level for trains. These transformers
guarantee that trains are given the correct amount of power for optimal
performance, enabling safe and dependable railway travel (Figure 7.20).

Figure 7.20. Transformers in railway usage.

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--2024–05–03T154944850.webp.

• Backup Power Systems: Transformers are essential components in UPS systems,

ensuring a constant power supply during outages. They adjust voltage levels
to support key equipment such as computers, servers, and medical devices,
preventing disruptions and protecting against data loss or damage. Their
 TRANSFORMER 239
role is crucial in maintaining • Application of Transformers in
operational continuity and ensuring Power Generation: Transformers
uninterrupted power flow. play a crucial role in the electricity
• Voltage Stabilization: Tap changers generation process by ensuring
are used in transformers to efficient delivery of electricity
maintain stable voltage in circuits from power plants to homes and
by automatically adjusting their businesses. One of their primary
turn ratio. This process allows for functions is to increase the voltage
consistent voltage levels, even in of electricity for long-distance
the face of fluctuating loads. By transmission and maintain a
constantly monitoring and making constant voltage for consumers.
adjustments, transformers help They also serve as protectors
ensure a steady voltage, improving against electrical issues like short
the reliability and efficiency of circuits and lightning. In cases
electrical systems, no matter the where electricity needs to be
changing demands. transmitted over long distances,
transformers switch to direct current
• Arc Furnaces: Electric arc furnaces
for improved transmission. Upon
require transformers to provide
reaching communities, transformers
the necessary high currents for
lower the voltage to safe levels for
melting metals. These transformers
use in households and appliances.
also supply power for a variety of
industrial metal refining processes, • Transmission and Distribution:
enabling efficient operations in Transformers play a crucial role in
metalworking and manufacturing the transmission and distribution
sectors (Figure 7.21). of electricity, ensuring that power
generated from different sources
can reach homes and businesses
safely and effectively. One key
function of transformers in power
transmission is to regulate voltage
levels. By stepping up voltage
levels at power plants, transformers
aid in the efficient transmission
of high voltage electricity over
long distances, minimizing power
loss. Additionally, transformers in
substations along transmission lines
help regulate voltage to maintain a
steady flow of electricity. Moreover,
transformers have a crucial
Figure 7.21. Transformers in arc furnaces. role in providing electricity to
Source: https://internationalelectricalsuppliers. households. Community distribution
weebly.com/uploads/5/0/6/7/50679149/7541319_ transformers lower the voltage to
orig.jpg. a safe level for domestic purposes
and regulate electrical distribution,
adjusting power supply to meet
240 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

demand and maintain stability in various locations including homes, schools,

and hospitals. Overall, transformers are essential for preserving the efficiency
of power transmission and distribution, guaranteeing the consistent and reliable
supply of electricity to consumers.
• Lighting: Transformers are essential in lighting systems as they help to regulate
voltage levels to achieve the desired output. They are particularly crucial in
low-power lighting applications like landscape or street lighting, where they
play a key role in reducing voltage to a stable level that meets the lighting
requirements. Additionally, transformers are used for dimming control and for
providing safety isolation.
• Telecommunication: Transformers are commonly utilized in telecommunication
for receiving different types of signals. The primary role of transformers in
this field is for installation and adjustments. They are also essential in other
devices like modems and routers, where they convert digital signals to analog
for transmission, as well as vice versa. Furthermore, transformers play a crucial
role in power supply units and voltage regulators to guarantee a steady and
dependable power supply to communication equipment, while also protecting
against fluctuations and electrical interference.
7.4. EMF EQUATION OF
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Let Np represent the number of turns in the main winding, and Ns represent the number
of turns in the secondary winding of the transformer. When an AC voltage is applied
to the main coil of the transformer, the resulting current produces a magnetic flux that
links the secondary coil and induces an emf. The magnitude of this emf is determined
by the number of turns in the secondary coil. In an ideal (lossless) transformer with no
resistance in the primary coil and all flux contained within the core linking the primary
and secondary windings, the voltage Vp applied to the primary coil results in a flux
linkage in each turn of the core at time t due to the current flowing in the primary coil.
(William R. Huber, 2022) (Figure 7.22).

Figure 7.22. EMF equation of ideal transformer.

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The induced emf or voltage (εs) in the secondary with Ns turns is then calculated.
εs = –Ns x dϕ/dt (7)
In addition, the alternating flux generates a reverse emf in the main. This is it.
εp = –Np x dϕ/dt (8)
And for an ideal transformer, εp=Vp
By approximation, if the secondary is an open circuit or the current drawn from it
is modest, εs=Vs.
The voltage across the secondary coil is Vs. As a result, Eqns (7) and (8) may be
written as:

TRANSFORMER 241
242 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Vs = –Ns x dϕ/dt (9)

Vp = –Np x dϕ/dt (10)

From Eqns (3) and (4), we have

Vs / Vp = Ns / Np (11)

The above equation is known as Transformer Equation or Transformer Formula.

 TRANSFORMER 243

7.5. TRANSFORMER
TESTING
Testing of transformers includes several procedures to verify the specifications and
functionality of transformers prior to and following their installation.

7.5.1. Type Test of Transformer

In order to demonstrate that the transformer meets the customer’s specifications and design
requirements, it must undergo various testing procedures at the manufacturer’s facilities.
Some of these tests are conducted to validate the fundamental design expectations of
the transformer. These tests are typically performed on a prototype unit rather than
on every unit in a production batch. The type test of the transformer verifies the main
and essential design criteria for the entire production lot.

7.5.2. Routine Tests of Transformer

Routine tests on transformers are primarily conducted to verify the operational performance
of each unit within a production batch. These tests are performed on every unit produced.

7.5.3. Special Tests of Transformer

Tests on transformers are tailored to meet the specific needs of customers, offering
important data for the maintenance and operation of the equipment.
• Pre-Commissioning Test of Transformer: Besides these, the transformer
undergoes additional tests before being officially commissioned at the site.
These tests, known as pre-commissioning tests, are conducted to evaluate
the transformer’s condition post-installation and to compare the results of low
voltage tests with the factory test reports.
Type tests of transformer include:
• Winding resistance test of transformer
• Transformer ratio test
• Transformer vector group test
• Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap) and
load loss (Short circuit test)
• Measurement of no-load loss and current (Open circuit test)
• Measurement of insulation resistance
244 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Dielectric tests of transformer accessories such as Buchhloz relay,

• Temperature rise test of transformer temperature indicators, pressure
relief devices, oil preservation
• Tests on on-load tap-changer
system etc.
• Vacuum tests on tank and radiators
Routine tests of transformer include: 7.5.4. Transformer Winding
• Winding resistance test of Resistance Measurement
transformer Tr a n s f o r m e r winding resistance
• Transformer ratio test measurements are conducted to determine
• Transformer vector group test the I2R losses and calculate the winding
temperature following a temperature rise
• Measurement of impedance voltage/
test. This test is performed as both a type
short circuit impedance (principal
test and routine test. Additionally, it is
tap) and load loss (Short circuit
conducted on-site to assess the condition of
test)
the transformer, including checking for loose
• Measurement of no load loss and connections, broken conductor strands, high
current (Open circuit test) contact resistance in tap changers, high
• Measurement of insulation voltage leads, and bushings.
resistance
There are different methods for
• Dielectric tests of transformer. measuring of the transformer winding,
• Tests on on-load tap-changer. likewise:
• Oil pressure test on transformer to • Current-voltage method of
check against leakages past joints measurement of winding resistance.
and gaskets
• Bridge method of measurement of
This means that routine tests include winding resistance.
all type tests except for the temperature
rise and vacuum tests. Additionally, an oil • Kelvin bridge method of Measuring
pressure test is performed to ensure there Winding Resistance.
are no leakages at joints and gaskets. • Measuring winding resistance by
Automatic Winding Resistance
Special Tests of transformer include: Measurement Kit.
• Dielectric tests. It is important to note that measurements
• Measurement of zero-sequence of transformer winding resistance must be
impedance of three-phase performed at every tap.
transformers
• Short-circuit test 7.5.5. Transformer Ratio Test
• Measurement of acoustic noise level The efficiency of a transformer is greatly
• Measurement of the harmonics of influenced by the accuracy of its specific
the no-load current. turns or voltage ratio. Therefore, conducting
• Measurement of the power taken a transformer ratio test is a crucial step in
by the fans and oil pumps. testing a transformer. This test is not only
essential, but also a routine procedure in
• Tests on bought out components /
 TRANSFORMER 245
the testing of transformers. To ensure that voltage induced in different phases is
an electrical power transformer operates determined by the position of the limb in the
effectively, testing the voltage and turn core. The voltage induced in each phase in
ratio is essential. relation to the neutral terminals is provided
in the table below.
Performing the transformer ratio test
is straightforward. By connecting a three-
Left Central Right
phase 415 V supply to the HV winding Side Phase Side
while keeping the LV winding open, we can Phase Phase
measure the induced voltages at both the AN BN CN
HV and LV terminals to determine the actual
Voltage applied 230 V 180 V 50 V
voltage ratio of the transformer. This test is at left phase
repeated for each tap position individually.
Voltage applied 115 V 230 V 115 V
at central phase
7.5.6. Magnetic Balance Test of Voltage applied 50 V 180 V 230 V
at right phase
Transformer
The magnetic balance test for transformers
is specifically carried out on three-phase 7.5.7. Magnetizing Current Test
transformers to detect any discrepancies of Transformer
in the magnetic circuit.
The magnetizing current test of a transformer
is conducted to identify issues such as faults
7.5.6.1. Procedure of Magnetic Balance Test in the magnetic core structure, movement of
of Transformer windings, breakdown of insulation between
turns, or malfunctions in tap changers.
• Keep the tap changer of transformer These problems can alter the magnetic
in normal position. circuit’s effective reluctance, which in turn
• Now disconnect the transformer impacts the amount of current needed to
neutral from ground. create flux in the core.
• Then apply single phase 230 V • Keep the tap changer in the lowest
AC supply across one of the HV position and open all IV and LV
winding terminals and neutral terminals
terminal.
• Then apply three phase 415 V
• Measure the voltage in two other supply on the line terminals for
HV terminals in respect of neutral three-phase transformers and single
terminal. phase 230 V supply on single phase
• Repeat the test for each of the three transformers
phases. • Measure the supply voltage and
In case of an autotransformer, a current in each phase
magnetic balance test of transformer should • Now repeat the magnetizing
be repeated for LV winding also. current test of transformer test
In the core of the transformer, three with keeping tap changer in normal
limbs are arranged side by side with one position
phase winding wound in each limb. The
246 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Repeat the test while keeping the 7.5.9. Insulation Resistance Test
tap at highest position
or Megger Test of Transformer
In most cases, two outer limb phases on a
The insulation resistance test is a crucial
transformer core will typically read higher
type of test for transformers. It is conducted
compared to the center limb phase in three
to verify the effectiveness of the insulation
phase transformers. Generally, an agreement
system in an electrical power transformer
within 30% of the exciting current measured
and ensure its proper functioning.
in previous tests is deemed acceptable.
However, if the measured exciting current
value is 50 times greater than the factory test 7.5.9.1. Procedure of Insulation Resistance
value, it may indicate a fault in the winding Test of Transformer
that requires additional analysis.
• Disconnect all the line and neutral
terminals of the transformer
7.5.8. Vector Group Test of • Megger leads to be connected to LV
Transformer and HV bushing studs to measure
insulation resistance IR value in
It is crucial to conduct a vector group test between the LV and HV windings
on a 3-phase transformer in order to ensure
proper vector grouping, which is necessary • Megger leads to be connected to HV
for the parallel operation of transformers. bushing studs and transformer tank
Various internal connections are available earth point to measure insulation
for three-phase transformers in the market, resistance IR value in between the
which offer different magnitudes and HV windings and earth
phases of the secondary voltage. While • Megger leads to be connected to LV
the magnitude can be adjusted for parallel bushing studs and transformer tank
operation by choosing the appropriate earth point to measure insulation
turn ratio, the phase difference cannot be resistance IR value in between the
compensated for. LV windings and earth
NB: Testing the insulation resistance of
In order to operate transformers
each phase in a three-phase transformer is
in parallel, we must select one with
not required. This is because the windings
matching phase sequence and divergence.
on the high voltage side are connected
Transformers with identical vector groups
together to form a star or delta configuration,
will have the same phase sequence and
as are the windings on the low voltage side.
divergence between primary and secondary.
Therefore, insulation resistance values are
Before procuring an electrical power taken collectively between all the windings.
transformer, you should ensure the vector
Measurements are to be taken as
group of the transformer, whether it will be
follows:
matched with his or her existing system or
not. The vector group test of transformer • For autotransformer: HV-IV to LV,
confirms his or her requirements. HV-IV to E, LV to E.
• For two winding transformer: HV
to LV, HV to E, LV to E.
• Three winding transformers: HV to
 TRANSFORMER 247
IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV of the applied voltage should be twice
to E, LV to E. that of the power frequency. If there is no
• Oil temperature should be noted failure of insulation, the test is considered
at the time of insulation resistance successful. Apart from dielectric tests on
test of the transformer, since the IR transformers, there are other types of tests
value of transformer insulating oil to check the insulation of the transformer,
may vary with temperature. including lightning impulse tests, switching
impulse tests, and partial discharge tests.
• IR values to be recorded at intervals
of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10
minutes. 7.5.10.1. Induced Voltage Test of Transformer
• With the duration of application The induced voltage test of the transformer
of voltage, IR value increases. The is intended to check the inter-turn and line
increase in IR is an indication of end insulation as well as main insulation
dryness of insulation. to earth and between windings-
• Absorption coefficient = 1 minute
value/15 secs. value. • Keep the primary winding of
transformer open circuited.
• Polarization index = 10 minutes
value/1 minute value. • Apply three-phase voltage to the
secondary winding. The applied
voltage should be twice of the rated
7.5.10. Dielectric Tests of voltage of secondary winding in
Transformer magnitude and frequency.
The dielectric test of a transformer is a • The duration of the test shall be
type of insulation test that is conducted to 60 seconds.
verify the anticipated insulation strength of • The test shall start with a voltage
the transformer. It is one of multiple tests lower than 1/3 the full test voltage,
carried out to ensure the appropriate quality and it shall be quickly increased up
of transformer insulation. The dielectric test to the desired value.
is conducted in two separate stages.
The test is successful if no breakdown
The first test is known as the Separate occurs at full test voltage during the test.
Source Voltage Withstand Test for
transformers. During this test, a single-phase
power frequency voltage of a specified level 7.5.11. Temperature Rise Test
is applied to the winding under examination of Transformer
for a period of 60 seconds, while the other The temperature rise test is a crucial
windings and tank are grounded. The component of the transformer’s type testing.
purpose of this test is to determine if any This assessment involves verifying that the
insulation failures occur. The second test is transformer’s winding and oil temperatures
the induced voltage test on the Transformer. do not exceed specified limits. During this
In this test, a three-phase voltage that is test, both the oil and winding temperatures
twice the rated secondary voltage is applied must be closely monitored to ensure they
to the secondary winding for 60 seconds, are within the allowable limits for the
while keeping the primary winding of the electrical transformer.
transformer open circuited. The frequency
248 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CASE STUDY
MODERNIZING POWER DISTRIBUTION WITH ELECTRIC
TRANSFORMERS

Background
ABC Power Company, a leading utility provider, is faced with the challenge of modernizing
its power distribution infrastructure to meet growing energy demands, improve efficiency,
and integrate renewable energy sources into the grid. This case study explores how
the company leverages electric transformers to upgrade its power distribution network.

Challenges
1. Aging Infrastructure: ABC Power Company’s existing power distribution
infrastructure consists of aging transformers and substations, which are prone
to failures, inefficiencies, and voltage fluctuations.
2. Capacity Constraints: The current infrastructure is reaching its maximum
capacity, limiting the company’s ability to meet increasing electricity demands
from residential, commercial, and industrial customers.
3. Integration of Renewable Energy: With a growing emphasis on renewable
energy sources such as solar and wind, ABC Power Company needs to integrate
these intermittent energy sources into its grid while maintaining stability and
reliability.
4. Efficiency and Reliability: Improving the efficiency and reliability of the power
distribution network is essential to minimize energy losses, reduce downtime,
and ensure consistent electricity supply to customers.

Solution
ABC Power Company implements a comprehensive plan to modernize its power distribution
infrastructure, with a focus on upgrading electric transformers to enhance efficiency,
capacity, and flexibility.

Implementation Steps:
1. Transformer Upgrades:
i. Replacement of Aging Transformers: The company replaces outdated
 TRANSFORMER 249

transformers with modern, high-efficiency units equipped with advanced

monitoring and control capabilities.
ii. Installation of Smart Transformers: Smart transformers with built-in
sensors and communication capabilities are deployed to enable real-time
monitoring of voltage levels, load conditions, and performance metrics.

Grid Modernization:
i. Distribution Automation: Automation technologies are implemented to improve
the responsiveness and flexibility of the distribution network, enabling automatic
reconfiguration and optimization of power flow.
ii. Remote Monitoring and Control: Remote monitoring and control systems are
deployed to enable centralized monitoring of transformer operations, fault
detection, and predictive maintenance.

Integration of Renewable Energy:

i. Grid-Connected Inverters: Grid-connected inverters are installed to facilitate the
integration of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind into the grid.
These inverters help manage voltage fluctuations and maintain grid stability.
ii. Advanced Grid Management Systems: Advanced grid management systems are
implemented to optimize the utilization of renewable energy resources, balance
supply and demand, and ensure grid reliability.

Energy Efficiency Measures:

i. Loss Reduction Techniques: Loss reduction techniques, such as voltage
optimization and load management, are employed to minimize energy losses
and improve overall system efficiency.
ii. Demand-Side Management Programs: Demand-side management programs are
introduced to encourage customers to reduce peak electricity demand through
incentives and energy efficiency measures.

Results
1. Enhanced Efficiency: The deployment of modern electric transformers and
grid automation technologies improves the efficiency of the power distribution
network, reducing energy losses and optimizing power flow.
2. Increased Capacity: Upgrading transformers and integrating renewable energy
sources increases the capacity and flexibility of the grid, allowing ABC Power
Company to meet growing energy demands and support future growth.
3. Improved Reliability: Advanced monitoring and control systems enable proactive
250 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

maintenance, early fault detection, and rapid response to disruptions, enhancing

the reliability and resilience of the power distribution network.
4. Integration of Renewable Energy: The integration of renewable energy sources
into the grid reduces dependency on fossil fuels, lowers greenhouse gas emissions,
and contributes to a more sustainable energy future.

CLASS ACTIVITY
Objective: To familiarize students with the architecture and functionality of Transformers
in NLP tasks.

Materials Needed:
• Whiteboard/flip chart
• Markers
• Printed handouts or digital slides explaining Transformer architecture
• Computers or tablets with internet access (optional, for demonstrations)

Assessment:
Explain key components such as self-attention mechanisms, encoder and decoder layers,
and positional encoding.
Discuss how the self-attention mechanism allows the model to weigh the importance
of different words in a sentence when processing information.
Provide each group with a set of discussion questions related to Transformer
architecture. Questions can include:
• What are the advantages of using self-attention mechanisms in NLP tasks?
• How does the Transformer model handle sequential data without using recurrent
neural networks (RNNs)?
• What are the limitations of the Transformer architecture?
 TRANSFORMER 251
SUMMARY
• Transformer is the simplest device that is used to transfer electrical energy from
one alternating-current circuit to another circuit or multiple circuits, through the
process of electromagnetic induction. A transformer works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction to step up or step down voltage.
• The core is made up of stacked thin sheets, which are assembled from high
grade oriented steel and a thin insulating material separates them. The carbon
content of the core steel is kept below a degree of 0.1% in order to minimize
the hysteresis and the eddy currents in the system.
• Insulation is the most important requirement for transformers and in case they
experience a failure, severe damages to the transformers can occur. These should
have high dielectric strength and the ability to withstand high temperatures
together with having high mechanical properties.
• The tank serves two purposes: to protect the core and the windings from the
outside environment. The other purpose is to contain oil and later also provide
support for other transformer accessories. These tanks are made by rolling steel
plates to containers. In cases where weight has to be reduced aluminum sheets
are used in place of the steel sheets.
• The oil conservator is located above the tank and the bushings. In some oil
conservators, a rubber bladder is usually inserted. Its use is to provide enough
space for oil expansion after the oil in the transformer had expanded and
contracted due to an increase and decrease in temperature.
• The explosion vent serves the purpose of being an emergency exit for oil and
air gasses that are held inside a transformer. It is a pipe made up of metal,
contained above the conservator tank, and has a diaphragm at one of its ends.
• The power transformers are big in size. They are suitable for high voltage
(greater than 33 KV) power transfer applications. It used in power generation
stations and Transmission substations. It has a high insulation level.
• The potential transformer is also known as a voltage transformer. In this
transformer, the primary winding can be connected across the HV (High voltage)
line whose voltage is to be calculated, & all the instruments used for measuring
& meters are allied to the secondary winding of the transformer.
• The current transformer (CT) is mainly used to gauge as well as also for safety.
Once the current within the circuit is high to directly apply to the measuring
instrument, this transformer is mainly used to change the high current into the
preferred value of the current necessary within the circuit.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the basic function of a transformer, and how does it operate?
2. Explain the difference between step-up and step-down transformers. Provide
examples of where each type might be used.
252 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3. Discuss at least three common applications of transformers in everyday life and

industry.
4. Derive the EMF equation of an ideal transformer and explain the significance
of each term.
5. What are the main types of transformer testing? Describe each type and its
purpose.
6. Explain the importance of insulation testing in transformer maintenance and
safety.

REFERENCES
1. Bedell, F. (1942). History of A-C wave form, its determination and standardization.
Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 61(12), 864. https://
doi.org/10.1109/T-AIEE.1942.5058456.
2. Chow, T. L. (2006). Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory: A Modern Perspective
(p. 171). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-3827-3.
3. Hartley, W. H. (2003). Analysis of transformer failures. 36th Annual Conference
of the International Association of Engineering Insurers (p. 7). Archived from the
original on October 20, 2013.
4. Horning, M., Kelly, J., Myers, S., & Stebbins, R. (2004). Transformer Maintenance
Guide (3rd ed.). Transformer Maintenance Institute, S. D. Myers Inc.
5. Huber, W. R. (2022). George Westinghouse: Powering the World (p. 84). McFarland
& Company. ISBN 9781476686929.
6. Kalita, P. K., Muduli, S. K., D’Antoni, L., Reps, T., & Roy, S. (2022). Synthesizing
abstract transformers. Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages,
6(OOPSLA2), 1291–1319. https://doi.org/10.1145/3563334.
7. Knowlton, A. E. (Ed.). (1949). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.,
pp. 547–644). McGraw-Hill.
8. Kothari, D. P., & Nagrath, I. J. (2010). Electric Machines (4th ed.). Tata McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-069967-0.
9. Kubo, T., Sachs, H., & Nadel, S. (2001). Opportunities for New Appliance and
Equipment Efficiency Standards (p. 39, fig. 1). American Council for an Energy-
Efficient Economy.
10. Landee, R. W., Davis, D. C., & Albrecht, A. P. (1957). Electronic Designers’ Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
11. Nagy, Á. Z. (1996). Lecture to mark the 100th anniversary of the discovery of
the electron in 1897 (preliminary text). Budapest. Archived from the original on
November 25, 2012.
12. Parker, M. R., Ula, S., & Webb, W. E. (2005). Transformers & the ideal transformer.
In J. C. Whitaker (Ed.), The Electronics Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 172, 1017). Taylor
& Francis. ISBN 0-8493-1889-0.
 TRANSFORMER 253
13. Skilling, H. H. (1962). Electromechanics (p. 39). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
14. Survilo, J., & Kutjuns, A. (2009). Operation modes of HV/MV substations. Scientific
Journal of Riga Technical University. Power and Electrical Engineering, 25(25), 81–86.
 CHAPTER

8 DC Machines

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand the electromechanical energy conversion
• Describe the constructional features and classification
of DC machines
• Explain the types of DC machines
• Understand about losses in DC machines
• Learn about advantages and applications of DC machines

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Ac machines AC motor Armature
Armature winding Brushes Commutator
DC generator DC motor DC power
Electric machine Electrical energy Electrical motor
Electromagnetic force Field System Magnetic field
Mechanical energy Pressure Torque
Electromechanical energy conversion
INTRODUCTION
Energy converters, which connect the electrical and mechanical energy systems, are
revolving electrical machines. Electromechanical energy conversion is the continuous
conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa. Thus, as Figure 8.1
illustrates, an electric machine is a connection between an electrical and mechanical
system. The conversion process in these machines is reversible. The device is referred
to as a generator if the conversion is from mechanical to electrical. When a machine
converts from electrical to mechanical, it is referred to as a motor (Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1. Electromechanical energy conversion.

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The electrical machines can be classified as either dc or ac machines based on the

kind of supply systems they are connected to. Single-phase, three-phase, or synchronous
induction machines are the types of AC machines. Electrical devices that run on a
direct current supply are categorized as dc devices. This chapter covers the topic of
DC machines.

256 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

8.1. ELECTROMECHANICAL
ENERGY CONVERSION
In any electromagnetic energy conversion process, energy is transferred between electrical
and mechanical systems through a coupling medium, which in rotating electric machines
is typically the magnetic field.
The principal electromagnetic phenomenon in dc machines are:
• When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor,
and
• Production of mechanical forces on current carrying conductors placed in a
magnetic field.

8.1.1. Induced EMF

Any coil with dynamic magnetic flux linkages will eventually induce an electromagnetic
field, according to Faraday’s law of induction. The equation governing this law is;

(1)
Where; N is the number of turns of the coil; φ is the flux linking the coil in coil; λ

is the flux linkage of the coil; and rate of change of flux

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf is to lessen the
cause of the occurrence.
If a conductor of length l meters moves at the linear speed of V m/sec in a magnetic
field of intensity B wb/m2, than the magnitude of emf induced in the conductor is given
by;

(2)
where vector B, l and v are mutually perpendicular. Fleming’s right hand rule for emf
and the right hand screw law both specify the polarity of induced emf. According to
this rule, the middle finger of the right hand points in the direction of the induced
electromagnetic field if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger are held mutually at

DC MACHINES 257
258 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

right angles with the forefinger pointing in the direction of magnetic field B and the
thumb in the direction of motion (velocity).

8.1.2. Electromagnetic Force

The electromagnetic force F experienced by a conductor of length l meter carrying
current I amp, placed in a magnetic field intensity of B wb/m2 is given by;

(3)
Force F, magnetic field B, and current I are all represented by vectors that are
perpendicular to one another. The left hand rule indicates the direction of force F that
the conductor is experiencing. According to this rule, the thumb indicates the direction
of the force or motion if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger are held perpendicular
to each other, the forefinger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field, and the
middle finger pointing in the direction of current flow.

8.1.3. Back EMF and Counter Torque

The armature windings of a generator induce electromagnetic fields. Eqn. (1) provides
the value of the induced emf in the DC generator, which is determined by Faraday’s
Laws. In a similar manner, a DC motor draws current from its terminal after receiving
a DC supply. Therefore, a DC motor’s magnetic field also contains a current-carrying
conductor that is rotating. Consequently, a dc motor’s armature winding also experiences
emf induction. This emf is roughly the same as the applied motor terminal voltage in
terms of magnitude and direction. Therefore, this induced emf in a DC motor’s armature
winding is referred to as the back or counter emf. The armature resistance drop, brush
voltage drop, and losses are the causes of the variation between the applied terminal
voltage and back emf.
Motoring torque, which drives the mechanical load on the machine’s shaft, is produced
in an electrical motor by forces acting on current-carrying conductors in a magnetic
field (Hughes Austin & Drury Bill, 2019). A mechanical torque will be produced even
in a generator because the armature conductors are located in a magnetic field and
carry current. But this torque will act in the opposite direction of the generator’s prime
mover torque. Consequently, this type of torque is known as a counter torque (William
H. Yeadon & Alan W. Yeadon, 2001).
8.2. DC MACHINES
An electromechanical energy alteration device is called a DC machine. A DC machine
rotates a DC motor by means of torque produced by the magnetic force acting on an
electric current flowing through a coil in a magnetic field. The DC machines are divided
into two categories: DC motors and DC generators (Wilson & Tricky, 1962).
A DC motor converts DC power into mechanical power, while the primary purpose
of a DC generator is to convert mechanical power into DC electrical power. Industrial
applications usually use AC motors to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
On the other hand, DC motors are useful in situations requiring a wide range of speeds
and effective speed regulation, such as electric-transaction systems.
DC machines can function as DC motors or generators. DC generators are no longer
necessary because rectifiers are now used to produce DC. However, these are still in
use in a few unique circumstances and applications. However, DC motors are still useful
and the preferred machine for many tasks. Sometimes knowledge of dc motors requires
knowledge of dc generator principles. As a result, the constructional features of a DC
machine that can be utilized as a DC motor or generator will be briefly discussed in
this section.

8.2.1. Construction of a DC Machine

The main parts of a dc machine are
• Armature – Rotating part
• Field – Stationary part
• Commutator – Rotating part
• Brush Assembly – Stationary part
A DC machine’s electrical circuit consists of brush, armature and field winding,
commutator, and terminals for the armature and field. The armature, field poles, yoke,
and core are all connected by the magnetic circuit. Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show a cross
section view of a typical DC machine showing its various parts.

DC MACHINES 259
260 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 8.2. Different views of DC machine.

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i. Armature: The term “armature core,” or simply “armature,” refers to the primary
rotating component of a DC machine. An armored core consists of a stack of
laminations with slots around the outside. There is armature winding in these
slots. There are venting ducts available to cool the armature. A cylinder is
created by stacking the steel armature core laminations, as seen in Figure 8.3.
Conductors of the armature winding are carried by axial slots on the armature’s
perimeter. Laminations are sealed off from the rotor iron and from one another.
A wood or fibrous material wedge holds the conductors in place in the slot.
 DC MACHINES 261

Figure 8.3. Armature lamination of DC machine.

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When using a dc generator, the current is sent from the generator to the external
electrical load circuit through the conductors, where the emf is induced in the armature
winding.
When a dc motor is operating, the armature winding’s current-carrying conductors
exert force, which causes electromagnetic torque to develop and the rotor (armature)
to rotate.
ii. Field System: Field system produces magnetic field. This is also known as the
starter and is typically a stationary component of the machine. A DC machine’s
field winding is mounted on field poles. These field poles, also known as yoke,
are projecting poles on the inner rim of the stator frame. The poles are composed
of steel laminations, and the yoke is composed of solid cast steel. A magnetic
field is created by dc field current flowing through field coils that are fixed on
field poles. Between the rotor’s cylindrical iron surface and external pole shoe,
there is an air gap. Flux is established by the field current and flows through
the armature, yoke, pole shoe, and air gap. Figure 8.2 displays the flux path
and the various components of a DC machine.
iii. Commutator and Brush: A DC machine’s armature winding experiences alternating
induced emf. This alternating voltage is changed to direct current, or dc, by the
commutator. The commutator is composed of several tapered copper segments
that are mounted on the shaft and are insulated from one another by mica
sheets. The commutator segments mounted on the shaft are seen in Figure 8.4.
The two ends of the coils are connected to two commutator segments, and the
number of coils on the armature equals the number of commutator segments.
Carbon brushes, which ride on commutator segments, lead current into and out
of the armature conductors. Two fixed brush sets are placed diametrically opposed to
one another on two pole machines. The number of brush sets in machines with four or
more poles is equal to the number of poles. These brushes surround the commutator at
equal intervals. The polarities of adjacent brush sets alternate between being positive
and negative. Positively polarized brushes are brought out to the positive terminal after
262 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

being connected to one another. Similar to this, brushes with opposite polarity are linked
to the negative terminal. We refer to these two terminals as armature terminals.

Figure 8.4. Commutator segment mounted on a shaft.

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The commutator rotates in tandem with the armature, allowing the segments to
brush past the stationary brushes. Carbon is used to make the brushes because it is soft
enough and has good electrical conductivity, which prevents wear on the commutator.
Brush holders hold the brushes in place and use adjustable springs to press them up
against the commutator. One can manually change the pressure. Inadequate pressure
causes sparking and imperfect contact. Over pressurized conditions lead to increased
friction, heating, and premature brush wear.
iv. Armature Winding: On the rotor of a DC machine is the armature winding. The
following is a definition of some common terms used in armature winding. A
turn is made up of two conductors that are joined at one end by a connector.
Forming a coil involves joining multiple turns in series. A winding is created by
joining multiple coils in series. Figure 8.5 illustrates the turn, coil, and winding.
S indicates the start of a turn, and F indicates its conclusion.

Figure 8.5. Turn, coil and winding of DC machine.

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 DC MACHINES 263
The armature winding’s coils can be connected to one another in several different
ways. Armature coils connected by lap winding and wave winding are the most popular
types of interconnections.
When it comes to lap winding, the number of parallel paths (a) and the number
of brushes (P) are always equal. Large current machines frequently use this kind
of connection. Figure 8.6 depicts a typical lap winding schematic along with the
corresponding coil representation.

Figure 8.6. Lap winding.

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The number of parallel paths “a” in the case of wave windings is always two. Usually,
high voltage, low current rated DC machines employ this scheme. Figure 8.7 displays
a typical wave winding schematic along with the corresponding coil representation.
264 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 8.7. Wave winding.

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8.2.2. Armature Voltage

As the armature rotates in the magnetic field produced by the starter poles, emf is induced
in the armature winding.

Let P = number of poles,

Z = total number of armature conductors;
N = armature speed in rpm;
φ = flux per pole in wb; and
A = number of parallel paths through the armature winding.
The average emf induced in the conductor is given by;
 DC MACHINES 265

(10)
(4) or
Since the armature is rotating at N rpm
(= N/60 rps), time for one revolution is 60/N
secs. Time taken for a conductor to move (11)
one pole pitch (i.e., 1/P of a circumference) Induced armature emf is dependent on
rotational speed and flux (i.e., field current).
or 1/P of a revolution will be Whether the machine runs as a generator or
secs. (5) a motor has no bearing on this expression of
induced emf. When referring to a generator,
Average emf induced in a conductor it is called generated emf (or voltage), and
when it comes to motor operation, it is
called back emf.

8.2.3. Electromagnetic Torque

(6) There are various methods by which an
expression for torque can be developed.
Let r = average radius of armature
(7)
Ia = armature current
There are a total of Z conductors
arranged in A parallel paths on the armature. L = effective length of each conductor
In other words, number of conductors in
series per parallel path is Z/A. Thus, the
actual emf induced in one parallel path Current in each conductor
(and, therefore, for the whole winding) is
given by;
Average flux density

(8)
Cross sectional area of
flux path at radius r

(9)
A = 2 for wave winding, and
A = P for lap winding. Force on each conductor F = Bil

For a given dc machine, Z, P and A are Torque on one conductor T = F . r Nm

constants, so that, emf induced
266 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Emf generated (13)

(14)

(15)

Example 8.2
(12)
The armature of a 4-pole dc machine has
Hence, torque developed by the armature of a a lap winding accommodated in 60 slots,
dc machine depends upon flux and armature each slot having 16 conductors. The flux per
current. Flux depends upon field current. pole is 0.06 wb. What is the total torque
For a dc machine Z, P and A are constants, developed by the motor when the armature
therefore T ∝ φ Ia. current is 500 amps.

Example 8.1 Solution

Calculate the emf generated by a 4-pole Given
wave wound armature having 45 slots with
18 conductors per slot when driven at 1,200 φ = 0.06 wb
rpm. The flux per pole is 0.016 wb. Ia = 500 A
P = 4
Solution
Z = 60 × 16
Let number of armature conductors be Z.
Then = 960 conductors

Z = No. of slots × No. of conductors per slot A = 4 (lap)

= 45 × 18
= 810
Given
P = 4
A = 2 (wave winding) (16)
Speed N = 1200 rpm
Flux φ = 0.016 wb
 DC MACHINES 267
8.2.4. Classification of DC Machines
One great benefit of dc machines is their ability to link their armature and field windings
in different ways to offer a wide range of performance characteristics. Field windings
provide energy to the field poles. These field windings can be connected in series
with the armature winding, which is known as a series field winding, or they can be
connected across the armature winding, which is known as a shunt field winding. A
shunt field winding is one that is connected across the armature voltage, has a higher
resistance, more turns, and draws a smaller current (less than 5% of the rated armature
current). Because the series field winding must supply the full rated armature current,
it has a low resistance and few turns. A DC machine that has both series and shunt
field windings will have either a differentially or cumulatively compound connection
between the armature and field winding.

Figure 8.8. Different connections of DC machines (a) separately excited Dc machine; (b) series DC
machine; (c) Shunt DC machine; and (d) Compound DC machine.

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When a DC machine’s field winding receives stimulation from an independent DC

source, the device is referred to as a separately excited DC machine. Conversely, a
self-excited DC machine is a DC machine that generates its own field current. It is a
shunt machine if the field winding is positioned across the armature winding of the
self-excited DC machine.
Similar to this, a series machine’s armature and field windings are connected in series.
The compound machine can be connected as a long or short shunt and has a series
and shunt field. It is a cumulatively compounded machine if the shunt winding mmf is
assisted by the series winding mmf. It is a differentially compounded DC machine if the
268 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

series winding mmf is in opposition to the shunt winding mmf. Figure 8.8 depicts the
various connections and classifications of DC machines that were previously discussed.
In order to control the filed current and alter the field mmf for voltage or speed
control, a rheostat is typically included in the circuit of the shunt field.
Permanent magnets can also be used to provide field excitation. This could be a type
of continuously mmf machine that is separately excited. The functioning and features
of several DC machines—first as generators, then as motors—will be examined in the
ensuing sections.
 DC MACHINES 269

8.3. TYPES OF DC
MACHINES
A DC machine is a device that transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy in
the form of direct current or electrical energy into mechanical energy. Consequently, an
electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially what a DC machine is.
Based on the energy conversion, DC machines can be classified into the following
two types:
• DC Motor
• DC Generator
Both DC motors and DC generators share a nearly identical basic construction.
However, the underlying ideas that drive the functioning of a DC generator and motor
are distinct.
In essence, every DC machine is made up of a system of conductors and an
electromagnet system. In DC machines, the conductor system is referred to as the
armature and is fixed to a movable shaft. The field system, which consists of magnets
or electromagnets, generates the necessary working magnetic flux.

8.3.1. DC Motor
The block diagram of a DC motor is shown in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9. DC machine as motor.

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machines.htm.

A DC motor is a DC machine that is intended to transform DC electrical energy into

mechanical energy through rotation. Consequently, in the case of a DC motor, mechanical
energy is extracted from the shaft in the form of shaft rotation, and electrical energy
is supplied to the device through input terminals.
270 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

8.3.2. DC Generator
The block diagram of a DC generator is shown in Figure 8.10.

Figure 8.10. DC machine as generator.

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machines.htm.

A DC generator is a device that can transform mechanical energy input into electrical
energy output. As a result, mechanical energy from an engine, turbine, etc. can be used
in a DC generator. is delivered to the DC machine as the shaft’s rotational energy, and
the armature terminals provide the DC electrical energy as an output.
8.4. LOSSES IN DC
MACHINES
In DC machines (generator or motor), the losses may be classified into three categories
namely,
• Copper losses
• Iron or core losses
• Mechanical losses
All these losses appear as heat and hence raise the temperature of the machine.
They also reduce the efficiency of the machine.

8.4.1. Copper Losses

Copper losses are the losses that happen in DC machines as a result of the resistance of
the machine’s various windings. Since the copper losses are caused by current passing
through the windings’ resistance, they are also referred to as I2R losses.
The major copper losses that occur in dc machines are as;

(17)

(18)

(19)
Brush contact resistance causes brush contact loss in DC machines as well. This
loss is typically included in the armature copper loss in practical calculations.

8.4.2. Iron Losses

Because the armature rotates in the magnetic field, iron losses happen in the armature
core of DC machines. We also refer to these losses as core losses because they take
place in the armature’s core. Iron or core losses come in two flavors: eddy current loss
and hysteresis loss.

8.4.3. Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis loss is the term used to describe the core loss that happens in the armature
core of a DC machine as a result of magnetic field reversal in the armature core as it

DC MACHINES 271
272 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

passes under successive magnetic poles 8.4.5. Mechanical Losses

with different polarities. The hysteresis loss
Mechanical losses are the power losses in a
is given by the following empirical formula,
DC machine caused by windage and friction.
The friction loss in a DC machine takes the
(20) form of brush friction, bearing friction, etc.
whereas the spinning armature’s air friction
Where, k h is the Steinmetz’s hysteresis causes windage loss. The machine’s speed
coefficient, Bmax the maximum flux density, affects the mechanical losses. But for a
f is the frequency of magnetic reversal, and certain speed, these losses are essentially
V is the volume of armature core. constant.
By using materials like silicon steel Note: Iron or core losses and mechanical
for the armature core, which have a low losses together are known as stray losses.
value of Steinmetz’s hysteresis coefficient,
the hysteresis loss in DC machines can be
decreased. 8.4.6. Constant and Variable
Losses
8.4.4. Eddy Current Loss In DC machines, we may group the above
discussed losses in the following two
An electromagnetic field (EMF) is created in categories:
the armature core of a DC machine when it
rotates in the magnetic field of the poles, • Constant Losses
causing eddy currents to flow through it. • Variable Losses
Eddy current loss is the term for the power
Constant losses are those losses in a
loss brought on by these eddy currents.
DC machine that don’t change regardless
The eddy current loss is given by,
of the load. – iron losses, shunt field copper
loss, and mechanical losses are some of
(21) these losses.

Where, Ke is a constant of proportionality, Variable losses are those losses in a

and tis the thickness of lamination. DC machine that change depending on the
load. In a DC machine, the two variable
It is evident from the eddy current loss losses are the series field copper loss and
expression that the eddy current loss is the armature copper loss.
dependent on the square of the lamination
thickness. Thus, the armature core is Total losses in a DC machine = Constant
constructed from thin laminations separated losses + Variable losses
from one another by a thin varnish layer in
order to minimize this loss.
 DC MACHINES 273

8.5. DC MACHINE
ADVANTAGES
The advantages of this machine include the following.
• DC machines like dc motors have various advantages like starting torque is high,
reversing, fast-starting & stopping, changeable speeds through voltage input
• These are very easily controlled as well as cheaper when compared with AC
• Speed control is good
• Torque is high
• Operation is Seamless
• Free from harmonics
• Installation and maintenance is easy

8.6. APPLICATIONS
OF DC MACHINES
Currently, alternating current is the primary source of electrical energy generation. As
a result, there is now less use of DC machines (motors or generators). Nevertheless,
dc machines are still employed in a number of processes, such as welding, electrolysis,
and providing excitation systems for alternators.

8.6.1. Applications of DC Generators

The applications of different kinds of DC generators are listed below:
• Separately-Excited DC Generator
– Generators are mainly used in laboratories for experiments and testing
purposes.
– They are also used as a source of DC power for supplying DC motors.
• Series DC Generator
– Series DC generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking
for supplying field excitation current.
274 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

– Series DC generators are also used as a booster in distribution systems.

– Differentially compounded series generators are used for arc welding.
– Over compounded cumulative series generators are used for lighting and
heavy power supplies.
– Flat compounded series generators are used for supplying power to offices,
houses, and the other commercial buildings.
• Shunt DC Generator
– Shunt DC generators are mainly used for lighting purposes.
– Shunt DC generators are used for charging batteries.
– These generators are also used for supplying field excitation current to
alternators.

8.6.2. Applications of DC Motors

The applications of different types of DC motors are given below:
• Series DC Motor
– Series DC motors are used in applications where high starting torque is
required.
– Series DC motors are used in cranes and hoists.
– Series DC motors are used in electric tractions.
– They are used in air compressors.
– They are also used in vacuum cleaners.
– Series DC motors are also used in sewing machines, etc.
• Shunt DC Motor
– Shunt DC motors are used in applications that require constant speed.
– Shunt DC motors are used for driving lathe machines.
– These are also used in centrifugal pumps and blowers.
– These are used in fans, conveyors, and spinning machines.
– These DC motors are also used in lifts.
• Compound DC Motor
– Compound DC motors are used in those applications which require high
starting torque and constant speed.
– Used in printing presses.
– They are also used in shears.
– They are used in elevators and lifts.
– Compound DC motors are also used in rolling mills and heavy planners,
etc.
 DC MACHINES 275

ROLE MODEL
WILLIAM STURGEON

William Sturgeon (22 May 1783 – 4 December 1850) was an English physicist and inventor
who made the first electromagnets, and invented the first practical electric motor.

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WihfS3H9i2gQ6limQ&s.

Early Life:
Sturgeon was born on 22 May 1783 in Whittington, near Carnforth, Lancashire, and
became apprenticed to a shoemaker.

Career:
Sturgeon joined the army in 1802 and taught himself mathematics and physics. In 1824 he
became lecturer in Science and Philosophy at the East India Company’s Military Seminary
at Addiscombe, Surrey, and in the following year he exhibited his first electromagnet.
He displayed its power by lifting nine pounds with a seven-ounce piece of iron wrapped
with wire through which a current from a single battery was sent.
In 1832 he was appointed to the lecturing staff of the Adelaide Gallery of Practical
Science in London, where he first demonstrated the DC electric motor incorporating a
commutator.
In 1836 he established the journal Annals of Electricity, Magnetism and Chemistry,
and in the same year he invented a galvanometer.
276 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Sturgeon was a close associate of John Peter Gassiot and Charles Vincent Walker,
and the three were instrumental in founding the London Electrical Society in 1837.
In 1840 he became superintendent of the Royal Victoria Gallery of Practical Science
in Manchester. He formed a close social circle with John Davies, one of the Gallery’s
promoters, and Davies’s student James Prescott Joule, a circle that eventually extended
to include Edward William Binney and the surgeon John Leigh. The Gallery closed in
1842, and he earned a living by lecturing and demonstrating.
In 1843 he started the monthly journal, The Annals of Philosophical Discovery and
Monthly Reporter of the Progress of Practical Science; issue 1 of volume 1 is dated July
1843. Each month’s issue contains a mixture of original “long” papers (over 5 pages
long), republished papers from foreign journals (translated where necessary) and shorter
articles. However, the journal did not prove successful, and ceased publication at the
end of volume 1, in December 1843. This single volume is archived at Internet.org.

Death and Burial:

Sturgeon died in Prestwich, Lancashire (now in Greater Manchester) on 4 December
1850. He is buried there, in the churchyard of the St Mary the Virgin: he is identified
on his grave slab as “William Sturgeon – The Electrician.”

CLASS ACTIVITY
The armature of a 6 pole dc machine 0.75 meter in diameter has 664 conductors each
having an effective length of 0.30 meter and carrying a current of 100 A. If 70% of total
conductors lie simultaneously in field of average flux density of 0.85 Wb/m2, student
calculate the armature torque developed.
 DC MACHINES 277
SUMMARY
• Rotating electrical machines are energy converters, which link electrical energy
system to mechanical energy system. The process of continuous translation of
electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa is called electromechanical
energy conversion.
• A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device. The working
principle of a DC machine is when electric current flows through a coil within a
magnetic field, and then the magnetic force generates a torque that rotates the
dc motor. The DC machines are classified into two types such as DC generator
as well as DC motor.
• The main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC
electrical power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical power.
The AC motor is frequently used in industrial applications for altering electrical
energy to mechanical energy. However, a DC motor is applicable where good
speed regulation & an ample range of speeds are necessary like in electric-
transaction systems.
• The main rotating part of a dc machine is called as armature core or simply
armature. Armature core is a stack of laminations with slots at its external
periphery. These slots carry armature winding. Ventilating ducts are provided
for cooling of armature.
• Magnetic field is produced by field system. This is normally a stationary part
of the machine and is also referred to as starter. The field winding of a dc
machine is placed on field poles. These field poles are projecting poles on the
inner periphery of stator frame, also called as yoke. Yoke is made of solid cast
steel and poles are made up of steel laminations.
• The induced emf in the armature winding of a dc machine is alternating in
nature. The commutator converts this alternating voltage to unidirectional or
direct current or dc. Commutator is made up of a number of tapered copper
segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft
and insulated from it.
• Armature winding of a dc machine are placed on rotor. Some basic terms related
to armature winding are described below. A turn consists of two conductors
connected to one end by the connector. Connecting several turns in series forms
a coil. Several coils connected in series forms a winding.
• When the DC machine is designed to convert DC electrical energy into rotational
mechanical energy, it is called a DC motor. Therefore, in case of a DC motor, the
electrical energy is supplied to the machine through input terminals and mechanical
energy output is taken from the shaft in the form of rotation of the shaft.
• A DC machine which can convert mechanical energy input into electrical energy
output is known as a DC generator. Thus, in a DC generator, the mechanical
energy from a source like engine, turbine, etc. is supplied to the DC machine
in the form of rotational energy of the shaft and the DC electrical energy is
received as output from the armature terminals.
278 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a DC Machine?
2. List the parts of a DC machine.
3. Name the two types of DC machines.
4. What are the classification of losses in DC machines?
5. What are the advantages of DC machine?

REFERENCES
1. Acarnley, P. P., & Al-Tayie, J. K. (1997). Estimation of speed and armature temperature
in a brushed DC drive using the extended Kalman filter. IEE Proceedings–Electric
Power Applications, 144(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1049/ip-epa:19970927.
2. Herman, S. L. (2009). Electric Motor Control (9th ed.). Delmar, Cengage Learning.
3. Hughes, A., & Drury, B. (2019). Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types
and Applications (5th ed.). Newness. ISBN 978-0-08-102615-1.
4. Wilson, T. G., & Trickey, P. H. (1962). D.C. machine with solid state commutation.
AIEE paper I. CP62-1372.
5. Yeadon, W. H., & Yeadon, A. W. (2001). Handbook of Small Electric Motors. McGraw-
Hill Professional.
 CHAPTER

9 Three Phase
Induction Motors

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand the overview of three phase induction motor
• Discuss on single phase induction motors
• Explain the special machines

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

AC electric motor Asynchronous motor
Auxiliary winding Electromagnetic induction
Electromotive force (EMF) Faraday’s law
Induction motor Magnetic field
Rotating Magnetic Field Single-phase induction motor
Stator Casing Stator Core
Stator Winding Three-phase induction motor
Variable-frequency drives (VFD) Winding
INTRODUCTION
An induction motor, also known as an asynchronous motor, is an AC electric motor
where the electric current in the rotor is created through electromagnetic induction from
the stator winding’s magnetic field. This eliminates the need for electrical connections
to the rotor. The rotor of an induction motor can be either wound type or squirrel-
cage type. Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are commonly used in industrial
settings due to their self-starting capability, reliability, and cost-effectiveness. Single-
phase induction motors are more commonly used for smaller loads like garbage disposals
and stationary power tools. While traditionally used for constant-speed operations,
both single- and three-phase induction motors are now being utilized in variable-speed
applications through the use of variable-frequency drives (VFD). VFDs provide energy-
saving opportunities for induction motors in applications with variable loads, such as
fans, pumps, and compressors.

280 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

9.1. OVERVIEW OF
THREE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTOR
A three-phase induction motor is a specific type of AC induction motor that operates
on a three-phase power supply, as opposed to a single-phase induction motor which
operates on a single-phase power supply. The three-phase supply current creates an
electromagnetic field in the stator winding, resulting in the generation of torque in the
rotor of the motor due to the magnetic field.

9.1.1. History
French physicist François Arago first proposed the concept of rotating magnetic fields in
1824, which later became known as Arago’s rotations. Walter Baily further demonstrated
this phenomenon in 1879 by manually controlling switches, creating what is considered
the first early form of an induction motor (Thompson Silvanus Phillips, 1895). Hungarian
engineer Ottó Bláthy is credited with inventing the first single-phase AC induction motor
without a commutator. Bláthy utilized this motor to power his creation, the electricity
meter.
The first AC commutator-free polyphase induction motors were independently
invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been
demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. Tesla applied for US
patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May
1888. In April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris’s research
on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. In May 1888
Tesla presented the technical paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and
Transformers to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) describing three
four-stator-pole motor types: one having a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting
reluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor,
and the third a true synchronous motor with a separately excited DC supply to the
rotor winding (Alger, & Arnold, 1976).
George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system
at that time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888 and purchased a US patent option
on Ferraris’ induction motor concept. Tesla was also employed for one year as a
consultant. Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 281

282 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

took over development of the induction a changing magnetic field relates to the
motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his generation of an electromotive force (EMF).
promotion of three-phase development,
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the The basic idea of Faraday’s regulation
cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the is summarized as follows:
three-limb transformer in 1890. Furthermore, Whenever there is a change in the
he claimed that Tesla’s motor was not magnetic field surrounding a conductor,
practical because of two-phase pulsations, it generates an electromotive force (EMF)
which prompted him to persist in his within the conductor. The magnitude of
three-phase work. Although Westinghouse the induced EMF is directly proportional to
achieved its first practical induction motor the rate of change of magnetic flux passing
in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase through the conductor.
60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these
early Westinghouse motors were two-phase • Rotating Magnetic Field: In a
motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme 3-phase induction motor, three
developed a rotating bar winding rotor. arrangements of windings are
set 120° separated in space. At
The development of three-phase the point when a three-phase
induction motors by the General Electric AC voltage is applied to these
Company (GE) began in 1891, leading to windings, it delivers a rotating
significant advancements in the industry. magnetic field.
In 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse
• Interaction with Rotor Conductors:
collaborated on a cross-licensing agreement
The rotating magnetic field induces
for the bar-winding-rotor design, later
an EMF in the rotor conductors
known as the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur
because of Faraday’s law. As the
E. Kennelly was the first to recognize the
magnetic field rotates, it cuts across
importance of using complex numbers (using
the rotor conductors, causing an
j for the square root of minus one) to analyze
adjustment of attractive motion.
AC problems, specifically the concept of
a 90° rotation operator. Charles Proteus • Generation of Current in Rotor:
Steinmetz, an engineer at GE, further refined The induced EMF in the rotor
the application of AC complex quantities conductors causes the progression
and introduced an analytical model called of current in the rotor. This current
the induction motor Steinmetz equivalent in the rotor conductors connects
circuit. Thanks to these innovations, a with the magnetic field, creating a
modern 100-horsepower induction motor torque that makes the rotor turn.
today shares the same mounting dimensions • Rotor Movement and
as a 7.5-horsepower motor back in 1897. Synchronization: The rotor begins
to follow the rotating magnetic
field, endeavoring to find its
9.1.2. Faraday’s Law of rotational speed. The asynchronous
Induction Motor development (slip) between the
The theory of electromagnetic induction, rotor and the turning magnetic field
developed by Michael Faraday, explains the permits the motor to ceaselessly
key principles behind the operation of a create torque and rotate.
three-phase induction motor. It shows how
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 283
• 3 Phase Power: Three-phase power is a form of electrical power distribution in
which three sinusoidal voltages of the same frequency are generated or used. It
is a common technique used in electrical and industrial systems, as well as in
large electrical motors. The three-phase system is more efficient and provides
a more stable power supply compared to a single-phase system (Figure 9.1).

Figure 9.1. Three phase wave-forms.

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9.1.3. Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

The construction of an induction motor is exceptionally basic and robust. It has
predominantly two sections (Figure 9.2):
• Stator
• Rotor

Figure 9.2. Construction of three-phase induction motor.

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1. Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor: As the name recommends, the stator
is a fixed piece of the motor. The stator of the induction motor comprises of
three primary parts;
284 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

– Stator Casing of the stator winding, which in

– Stator Core turn controls the motor’s speed. A
higher number of poles results in a
– Stator Winding
lower speed, while a lower number
– Stator Casing: The stator of poles results in a higher speed.
housing is the external The poles are typically grouped in
component of the motor, pairs, resulting in an even total
designed to provide support for number of poles. The connection
the stator core and winding. between simultaneous speed and
Its main function is to provide number poles is as displayed in the
mechanical reinforcement below equation;
for the internal components
Ns = 120f / P
of the motor. The housing
is equipped with fins on its Where;
exterior for effective heat
dissipation and motor cooling. f = Supply Frequency
The enclosure is designed for small P = Total Number of Poles
machines but can also be used for larger
machines. It can be made from die-cast Ns = Synchronous Speed
or fabricated steel, aluminum or aluminum As the end of winding connected with
alloys, or stainless steel, depending on the the terminal box. Consequently, there are
specific application. six terminals (two of each phase) in the
– Stator Core: The main purpose terminal box.
of the stator core is to transport As per the application and sort of
the alternating magnetic flux, turning over techniques for motors, the
which results in hysteresis and stator winding is associated in star or
eddy current losses. To minimize delta and it is finished by the association
these losses, the core is made of of terminals in the terminal box.
high-quality steel stampings with
a thickness typically between 0.3 2. Rotor of Three Phase Induction
and 0.6 mm. These stampings are Motor: As the name proposes, the
shielded from each other by a rotor is an rotating part of the
protective coating. The stampings motor. As indicated by the type
are stacked together to form the of rotor, the induction motor is
stator core, which is then firmly delegated;
attached to the stator frame. – Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
The inner layer of the stator core
contains a varying number of slots. – Phase Wound (Wound Rotor)
induction motor / Slip-ring
– Stator Winding: The stator winding induction motor
is located in the available gaps in
the stator core and is made up of The development of the stator is same
three phases, with a three-phase in the two kinds of induction motor. We
power supply being connected to it. will examine the kinds of rotors utilized in
The number of poles in the motor 3-phase induction motor in the accompanying
is determined by the arrangement part of types of three phase induction motor.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 285
9.1.4. Types of Three Phase Induction Motor
There are two main classes of three-phase motors based on the type of rotor winding:
squirrel cage and slip ring (wound rotor motor).
• Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
• Slip-ring or Wound Rotor Induction Motor
• Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: The rotor of this motor is comparable to a
squirrel’s cage enclosure, earning it the nickname of an “induction squirrel cage
motor.” This type of rotor is both simple to manufacture and highly durable. As
a result, approximately 80% of induction motors utilize a squirrel cage design
for their rotors (Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3. Squirrel cage induction motor rotor.

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The rotor of the motor has a tubular shape at its center, with spaces along its outer
edges that are not evenly distributed. This design helps create a magnetic locking effect
between the stator and rotor teeth, leading to smoother operation and reduced noise.
However, this design also increases the resistance of the rotor due to the longer rotor
guide. Unlike traditional rotor windings, the squirrel cage rotor is made up of rotor
bars typically constructed from aluminum, steel, or copper. These bars are connected
to end rings, effectively shortening the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are either welded
or supported by the end rings for mechanical stability. The short-circuited rotor bars
eliminate the need for slip rings and brushes, making the motor simpler and more
durable in construction. This design also means there is no external protection for the
rotor circuit.

9.1.5. Working Principle of a Three-Phase Induction Motor

The working principle of a 3-phase induction motor can be explained by considering a
portion of it as follows (Figure 9.4):
• When the 3-phase stator winding is fed from a balanced 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field (RMF) is produced in the motor. This RMF rotates around
the stator at synchronous speed which is given by;
286 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 9.4. Working principle of a 3-phase induction motor.

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advantages-and-disadvantages.

Synchronous Speed, NS=120f / P

• The rotating magnetic field (RMF) travels through the air gap and intersects
with the stationary rotor conductors. This movement creates electromagnetic
forces (EMFs) in the rotor conductors. When the rotor circuit is completed with
a short circuit, currents begin to flow in the rotor conductors.
• The rotor conductors, which carry current, are positioned in the magnetic field
generated by the stator winding. This interaction causes the rotor conductors
to undergo a mechanical force. The combined forces on all rotor conductors
create a torque that propels the rotor in line with the rotating magnetic field.
Therefore, the three-phase electric power input is converted into mechanical
power output in a 3-phase induction motor.
• Additionally, as per Lenz’s law, the rotor is expected to move in the direction
of the stator field. This means that the rotor currents will flow in a way that
opposes the action causing them. In this case, the relative speed between the
rotating magnetic field (RMF) and the rotor conductors is what causes the rotor
currents. Therefore, in order to decrease this relative speed, the rotor begins
moving in the same direction as the RMF.

9.1.6. Advantages of Three Phase Induction Motor

Following are the chief advantages of a 3-phase induction motor:
• It has simple and rugged construction.
• It requires less maintenance.
• It has high efficiency and good power factor.
• It is less expensive.
• It has self-starting torque.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 287
9.1.7. Disadvantages of Three Phase Induction Motor
The disadvantages of a 3-phase induction motor are given as follows:
• The 3-phase induction motors are constant speed motors; hence their speed
control is very difficult.
• 3-phase induction motors have poor starting torque and high inrush currents
(about 4 to 8 times of the rated current).
• They always operate under lagging power factor and during light loads, they
operate at very worst power factor (about 0.3 to 0.5 lagging).
9.2. SINGLE PHASE
INDUCTION MOTORS
A single-phase power source can be used to operate a three-phase motor, but it will
not start on its own. It can be manually started in either direction and will reach full
speed within a few seconds. However, it will only produce 2/3 of the 3-φ power rating
because one winding is not used (Figure 9.5).

Figure 9.5. 3-φ motor runs from 1-φ power but does not start.

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induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20winding%20is%20not%20
used.

9.2.1. Single Coil of a Single Phase Motor

The single coil in a single-phase induction motor generates a pulsating magnetic field
that peaks at 0° and 180° electrical, rather than a rotating magnetic field.

Figure 9.6. Single-phase stator produces a nonrotating, pulsating magnetic field.

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induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20winding%20is%20not%20
used.

288 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 289
Another perspective suggests that a powered by two phases of current that are
single-coil, excited by a single-phase current, 90° displaced in time. This type of motor
generates two magnetic field phasors that is known as a permanent-split capacitor
rotate in opposite directions. These phasors motor (Figure 9.7).
align twice during each revolution at 0°
(Figure 9.6a) and 180° (Figure 9.6e). At 90°
and –90°, the phasors nullify each other
(Figure 9.6c).
At angles of 45° and –45° (as shown
in Figure 9.6b), the phasors are partially
additive along the x-axis and cancel out
along the y-axis. A similar scenario is
observed in Figure 9.6d. The combined
result of these two phasors is a stationary Figure 9.7. Permanent-split capacitor induction
phasor in space, but with alternating polarity motor.
over time, preventing the development of
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any starting torque. However, if the rotor
textbook/alternating-current/chpt-13/single-
is rotated slightly below the synchronous phase-induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20
speed, it will reach maximum torque at three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20
10% slip compared to the forward rotating winding%20is%20not%20used.
phasor. Torque generated will be less at slip
values above or below 10%. The rotor will
experience a slip of 200%–10% in relation to
the counter-rotating magnetic field phasor.
Minimal torque, with a double frequency
ripple, is produced by the counter-rotating
phasor. Consequently, the single-phase coil
will generate torque once the rotor is in
motion. Starting the rotor in the opposite
direction will result in a similarly strong
torque as it approaches the speed of the
backward rotating phasor. Single-phase
induction motors are equipped with a copper
or aluminum squirrel cage placed within a
core of steel laminations, a common feature
in polyphase induction motors.

9.2.2. Permanent-Split Capacitor Figure 9.8. Single-phase induction motor with

Motor embedded stator coils.

A solution to the single phase problem Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/

involves constructing a 2-phase motor that textbook/alternating-current/chpt-13/single-
generates 2-phase power from a single phase phase-induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20
source. This involves using a motor with three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20
winding%20is%20not%20used.
two windings that are 90° apart electrically,
290 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

This particular motor experiences higher Additionally, the auxiliary winding may
current levels and a delay in reaching full consist of many more turns of thicker wire
speed, resulting in torque fluctuations once compared to a resistance split-phase motor
at maximum speed. To address this issue, it in order to prevent excessive temperature
is recommended to use a small capacitor to increase. As a result, greater starting torque
reduce losses. Compared to a shaded pole is accessible for heavy loads such as air
motor, the losses are minimal. This motor conditioning compressors. This motor setup
design is effective for motors up to 1/4 is so effective that it is offered in a variety of
horsepower (200 watts), typically used for horsepower (kilowatt) options (Figure 9.9).
smaller applications. Reversing the direction
of the motor is simple by changing the
placement of the capacitor in relation to 9.2.4. Capacitor-Run Motor
the other winding (Figure 9.8). Induction Motor
Single-phase induction motors may have Another option for starting a motor is
coils embedded in the stator for larger using a capacitor-start motor with a large
models, while smaller sizes typically use capacitor for high starting torque. After
simpler concentrated windings with salient starting, a smaller capacitor can be put in
poles. place to improve running characteristics
without drawing too much current. The
capacitor-run motor is more complex but
9.2.3. Capacitor-Start Induction is beneficial for larger motors (Figure 9.10).
Motor
The diagram shows that a larger capacitor
can be utilized to kickstart a single-phase
induction motor using the auxiliary winding.
This capacitor is then disconnected by a
centrifugal switch once the motor reaches
its optimal speed. Figure 9.10. Capacitor-run motor induction
motor.

A motor starting capacitor may be a

double-anode non-polar electrolytic capacitor
which could be two + to + (or – to -) series-
connected polarized electrolytic capacitors.
Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have
such high losses that they can only be
used for intermittent duty (1 second on,
60 seconds off) like motor starting.
Figure 9.9. Capacitor-start induction motor.
A capacitor for motor running must not
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textbook/alternating-current/chpt-13/single- be of electrolytic construction, but a lower
phase-induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20 loss polymer type.
three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20
winding%20is%20not%20used.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 291
9.2.5. Resistance Split-Phase Motor Induction Motor
A smaller wire auxiliary winding with much fewer turns placed at 90° to the main
winding can help start a single-phase induction motor. This auxiliary winding has lower
inductance and higher resistance, causing less phase shift compared to the main winding.
This results in approximately 30° of phase difference. The coil provides moderate starting
torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This
uncomplicated setup, without a capacitor, works well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower
(250 watts) that drive easily started loads (Figure 9.11).

Figure 9.11. Resistance split-phase motor induction motor.

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induction-motors/#:~:text=A%20three%2Dphase%20motor%20may,one%20winding%20is%20not%20
used.

This motor has a higher starting torque compared to a shaded pole motor, but lower
than a two-phase motor with the same parts. The high current density in the auxiliary
winding during startup causes a rapid temperature increase, making frequent or slow
startups impractical.

9.2.6. Nola Power Factor Corrector

In the mid-1970s, Frank Nola from NASA introduced a power factor corrector designed
to enhance the efficiency of AC induction motors. The concept behind the device
stemmed from the understanding that induction motors operate inefficiently when not
at full load, leading to a low power factor. This low power factor is primarily caused by
the magnetizing current needed by the stator. As the motor load decreases, this fixed
current makes up a greater proportion of the overall motor current. By decreasing the
applied voltage at lighter loads, the power factor and efficiency could be improved by
reducing the need for the full magnetizing current.
The power factor corrector senses power factor, and decreases motor voltage, thus
restoring a higher power factor and decreasing losses. Since single-phase motors are
about 2 to 4 times as inefficient as three-phase motors, there are potential energy
292 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

savings for 1-φ motors. There are no savings for a fully-loaded motor since all the stator
magnetizing current is required.
Reducing the voltage is not an option, but potential cost savings can be achieved
by operating a motor below its full load capacity. A motor rated for 117 VAC can safely
operate between 104–127 VAC, meaning it is not fully loaded when operating above
104 VAC – such as in the case of a 117 VAC refrigerator. By decreasing the line voltage
to 104–110 VAC, the power factor controller can improve efficiency and save on energy
costs. Motors operating at higher voltages have greater potential for savings. Additionally,
single-phase induction motors that are idle or operate at 25% or less of their full load
capacity are suitable candidates for a power factor controller. These motors should run
for a significant number of hours per year, such as in lumber saws, punch presses, or
conveyors, in order to justify the cost of the controller. It is recommended to invest
in a power factor controller for single-phase induction motors as they are more cost-
effective compared to three-phase motors. However, the cost of the controller may not
be recovered if the motor operates only a few hours per day.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 293

9.3. SPECIAL MACHINES

There a various types of special motors, which are as follows:

9.3.1. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM)

The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is an AC synchronous motor that
utilizes permanent magnets for field excitation and produces a sinusoidal back EMF
waveform. It combines features of both induction motors and brushless DC motors, with
a permanent magnet rotor and stator windings. The stator windings are designed to
generate a sinusoidal flux density in the air gap similar to an induction motor. The PMSM
has higher power density compared to induction motors of the same rating due to not
needing stator power for magnetic field production. Thanks to the permanent magnets,
the PMSM can generate torque at zero speed, but requires a digitally controlled inverter
for operation. PMSMs are commonly used in high-performance and high-efficiency motor
applications, as they allow for smooth rotation across all speeds, full torque control
at zero speed, and rapid acceleration and deceleration. In order to achieve this level
of control, vector control techniques like field-oriented control (FOC) are employed for
PMSMs. This algorithm breaks down the stator current into separate components for
generating magnetic fields and torque, allowing for individual control of each component
after decomposition.
• Construction: Permanent magnet synchronous motors, like other rotating electric
motors, consist of a rotor and a stator. The construction of a permanent magnet
synchronous motor is similar to a basic synchronous motor, with the main
difference being the rotor. In this motor, permanent magnets are attached to
the rotor instead of field windings. These magnets create field poles and are
typically made of materials like samarium-cobalt, medium iron, and boron for
their high permeability. Neodymium-boron-iron magnets are the most commonly
used due to their cost-effectiveness and widespread availability.
• Working Principle: The permanent magnet synchronous motor operates similarly
to a synchronous motor, relying on the interaction between the rotating magnetic
field of the stator and the constant magnetic field of the rotor. The motor
generates electromotive force at synchronous speed by utilizing the rotating
magnetic field. When the stator winding is powered by a 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field is created in the air gaps, producing torque when the
rotor field poles align with the rotating magnetic field at synchronous speed.
As these motors require a variable frequency power supply to start, they are
not self-starting.
• Characteristics
– No sparks, safer in explosive environments
– Clean, fast, and efficient
– More compact, efficient, and lighter than an ACIM
– Designed for high-performance servo applications
294 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

– Runs with/without position encoders

– Low audible noise and EMI
– Smooth low- and high-speed performance
– Produces optimal torque when coupled with Field-Oriented Control (FOC)
• Types
Depending on how magnets are attached to the rotor and the design of the rotor,
permanent magnet synchronous motor can be classified into two types:
– Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor (SPMSM)
– Interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM).
SPMSM mounts all magnet pieces on the surface, and IPMSM places magnets inside
the rotor.
Also, depending on the stator design, a permanent magnet synchronous motor can be:
– With distributed winding
– With concentrated winding
• Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control
Permanent magnet synchronous motors necessitate sinusoidal waveforms for operation,
leading to increased control complexity. These motors require a dedicated control system
such as a variable frequency drive or a servo drive (Figure 9.12).

Figure 9.12. Permanent magnet synchronous motor control.

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There are numerous control techniques used in control systems, with the optimal
choice depending on the specific task facing the electric drive. For simple tasks,
trapezoidal control with Hall sensors is typically used, while for more demanding tasks
that require maximum performance, field-oriented control is usually preferred.

Advantages
The advantages of permanent magnet synchronous motor include;
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 295
– Dynamic performance in both high and low-speed operation
– High power density
– Low rotor inertia makes it easy to control
– No torque ripple when the motor is commutated
– High and smooth torque
– High efficiency at high speeds
– Resistant to wear and tear
– Available in small sizes at different packages
– Easy maintenance and installation
– Capable of maintaining full torque at low speeds
– High reliability
– Efficient dissipation of heat
– Less noisy

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of permanent magnet synchronous motors are:
• High initial cost
• Very expensive
• Difficult to start up because it is not a self-starting motor

Applications
The permanent magnet synchronous motors applications are:
– Air conditioners
– Refrigerators
– AC compressors
– Direct-drive washing machines
– Automotive electrical power steering
– Machine tools
– Control of traction
– Data storage units
– Servo drives
– Electric vehicle drivetrain
– Large power systems to improve leading, and lagging power factor
– Industrial applications like robotics, aerospace, and many more.
296 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

9.3.2. Switched Reluctance asymmetric bridge converter, which allows

for a lower switching frequency compared
Motor (SRM)
to AC motors. This converter corresponds
The switched reluctance motor (SRM), to the motor phases, activating each phase
also known as the variable-reluctance by turning on the power switches on either
motor, is becoming increasingly popular side. Once the current reaches a certain
in industrial sectors such as wind energy level, the switch turns off, and the energy
systems and electric vehicles. This is due stored in the winding maintains the current
to its straightforward and durable design, direction, known as back EMF. This back
high-speed operation capabilities, ability EMF is redirected through the diodes to the
to withstand high temperatures, and fault capacitor for reuse, ultimately improving
tolerance features. While SRM motors were efficiency.
previously used in clocks and phonograph
turntables, they are now being more
widely used in various applications such 9.3.3. Stepper Motor
as appliances, industrial equipment, and A stepper motor is an electric motor that
commercial and vehicular uses. This low- rotates its shaft in fixed increments, or
cost electric motor operates using reluctance steps, due to its unique internal structure.
torque, with power being supplied to the This allows for precise control over the
stator instead of the rotor. This simplifies motor’s angular position without the need
the mechanical design but makes the for a sensor. The stepper motor’s step-wise
electrical design more complex, requiring movement makes it versatile and suitable
a switching system to distribute power to for a variety of applications.
the different windings.
Manufacturers of switched reluctance 9.3.3.1. Stepper Motor Working Principles
motors claim to offer superior performance,
reliability, efficiency, and affordability Like all electric motors, stepper motors
compared to standard induction or other consist of a stationary part known as the
adjustable speed motors. These motors stator and a moving part known as the rotor.
operate by switching currents in the stator The stator contains teeth with wired coils,
windings in response to changes in the while the rotor can be either a permanent
magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and magnet or a variable reluctance iron core.
stator. While the stator of a switched We will explore the various rotor structures
reluctance motor contains windings similar in more detail later on. In Figure 9.13, a
to a brushless DC motor, the rotor is simply drawing is presented that illustrates a cross-
made of steel shaped into salient poles, section of the motor, with the rotor being
with no windings or magnets. This sets it a variable-reluctance iron core.
apart from induction motors, which have
The basic working principle of the
rotor windings or permanent magnets. Since
stepper motor is the following: By energizing
switched reluctance motors lack rotor bars,
one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic
there is no torque-producing current flow in
field is generated by the current flowing in
the rotor. They can be a viable alternative
the coil and the rotor aligns with this field.
to induction motors in situations where
By supplying different phases in sequence,
operating conditions do not favor the latter.
the rotor can be rotated by a specific amount
The most common method of powering
to reach the desired final position. Figure
a switched reluctance motor is using an
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 297
9.14 shows a representation of the working principle. At the beginning, coil A is
energized and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it produces. When coil B is
energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the new magnetic field. The
same happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the colors of the stator teeth
indicate the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

Figure 9.13. Cross-section of a stepper motor.

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Figure 9.14. Stepper motor steps.

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9.3.3.2. Stepper Motor Types and Construction

The resolution, speed, and torque of a stepper motor are impacted by its construction
details, which also determine its controllability. Stepper motors vary in internal structure,
with different rotor and stator configurations.
• Rotor: For a stepper motor, there are basically three types of rotors:
– Permanent Magnet Rotor: The rotor, a permanent magnet, aligns with the
magnetic field generated by the stator circuit, ensuring both good torque
and detent torque. This allows the motor to resist a change in position,
even if only to a small degree, when a coil is energized. However, this
solution has drawbacks including lower speed and resolution compared to
298 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

other types of motors. Figure 9.15 provides a simplified example

9.15 depicts a section of a of this motor’s structure, showing
permanent magnet stepper how the N-magnetized tooth of the
motor. rotor aligns with the S-magnetized
tooth of the stator when coil A is
energized. Real motors have a more
intricate structure with a greater
number of teeth than illustrated,
but they operate on the same
principle as the stepper motor. The
increased number of teeth enables
the motor to achieve a small step
size, potentially as low as 0.9°
(Figure 9.16).

Figure 9.15. Permanent magnet stepper motor.

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learning/resources/stepper-motors-basics-types-
uses.

• Variable Reluctance Rotor: The

rotor, constructed from an iron
core, is designed with a specific Figure 9.16. Hybrid stepper motor.
shape that enables alignment with
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the magnetic field, as illustrated in
learning/resources/stepper-motors-basics-types-
Figures 9.13 and 9.14. Although this uses.
design facilitates achieving higher
speeds and resolutions, it typically • Stator: The stator is responsible for
results in lower torque and lacks generating the magnetic field that
detent torque. aligns the rotor. Key features of the
• Hybrid Rotor: This type of rotor is a stator circuit include the number of
combination of permanent magnet phases, pole pairs, and wire configu-
and variable reluctance designs, ration. The number of phases refers
with a specific construction that to the independent coils, and the pole
includes two caps with alternating pairs indicate the number of teeth
teeth magnetized axially. This design occupied by each phase. Two-phase
offers the benefits of both types of stepper motors are most popular, with
rotors, including high resolution, three-phase and five-phase motors
speed, and torque. However, the being less common. See Figure 9.17
increased performance of this rotor and Figure 9.18 for visual examples.
comes with a higher cost due to its
more complex construction. Figure
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 299

Figure 9.17. Two-phase stator winding (left), three-phase stator winding (right).

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Figure 9.18. Two-phase, single-pole pair stator (left) and two-phase, dipole pair stator (right). The
letters show the magnetic field generated when positive voltage is applied between A+ and A–.

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9.3.3.3. Stepper Motor Control

As previously observed, the motor coils must be energized in a precise order to create
the magnetic field needed for the rotor to align. Various devices are utilized to provide
the required voltage to the coils, ensuring the motor operates correctly.
Starting from the devices that are closer to the motor we have:
• A transistor bridge is the device physically controlling the electrical connection
of the motor coils. Transistors can be seen as electrically controlled interrupters,
which, when closed allow the connection of a coil to the electrical supply and
thus the flow of current in the coil. One transistor bridge is needed for each
motor phase.
• A pre-driver is a device that controls the activation of the transistors, providing
the required voltage and current, it is in turn controlled by an MCU.
• An MCU is a microcontroller unit, which is usually programmed by the motor
300 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

user and generates specific signals for the pre-driver to obtain the desired
motor behavior.
Figure 9.19 shows a simple representation of a stepper motor control scheme. The
pre-driver and the transistor bridge may be contained in a single device, called a driver.

Figure 9.19. Motor control basic scheme.

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9.3.3.4. Stepper Motor Driver Types

Various stepper motor drivers are available for purchase, each tailored to specific
applications and offering unique features. The most important characteristics include
the input interface. The most common options are:
• Step/Direction: By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes its output
such that the motor will perform a step, the direction of which is determined
by the level on the Direction pin.
• Phase/Enable: For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the current
direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
• PWM: Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side FETs.
Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only able to control
the voltage across the winding, or also the current flowing through it:
• With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across the winding.
The torque developed and the speed with which the steps are executed only
depend on motor and load characteristics.
• Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the current flowing
through the active coil in order to have better control over the torque produced,
and thus the dynamic behavior of the whole system.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 301
9.3.3.5. Unipolar/Bipolar Motors
The layout of the stator coils in the motor plays a crucial role in controlling the direction
of the current, which ultimately determines the magnetic field’s direction. Properly
energizing and controlling the current direction is essential for achieving rotor motion.
See Figure 9.20 for a visual representation. In stepper motors, the issue of controlling
the current direction is solved with two different approaches.

Figure 9.20. Direction of the magnetic field based on the direction of the coil current.

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In unipolar stepper motors, one lead is connected to the central point of the coil.
This setup allows for easily controlling the current’s direction with a simple circuit
and components. The central lead (AM) is connected to the input voltage VIN. When
MOSFET 1 is active, the current flows from AM to A+. When MOSFET 2 is active, the
current flows from AM to A–, creating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This
simpler driving circuit only requires two semiconductors, but using only half of the coil’s
copper at a time means the magnetic field intensity is halved compared to using all the
copper. Additionally, constructing these motors can be more challenging as more leads
are needed for motor inputs.

Figure 9.21. Unipolar stepper motor driving circuit.

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302 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available, and to control the
direction it is necessary to use an H-bridge (see Figure 9.22). As shown in Figure 9.21, if
MOSFETs 1 and 4 are active, the current flows from A+ to A–, while if MOSFETs 2 and
3 are active, current flows from A– to A+, generating a magnetic field in the opposite
direction. This solution requires a more complex driving circuit, but allows the motor
to achieve the maximum torque for the amount of copper that is used.

Figure 9.22. Bipolar stepper motor driving circuit.

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With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are becoming less relevant,
and bipolar steppers are currently the most popular.

9.3.3.6. Stepper Motor Driving Techniques

There are four different driving techniques for a stepper motor:
• In wave mode, only one phase at a time is energized (see Figure 9.23). For
simplicity, we will say that the current is flowing in a positive direction if it is
going from the + lead to the – lead of a phase (e.g., from A+ to A–); otherwise,
the direction is negative. Starting from the left, the current is flowing only in
phase A in the positive direction and the rotor, represented by a magnet, is
aligned with the magnetic field generated by it. In the next step, it flows only
in phase B in the positive direction, and the rotor spins 90° clockwise to align
with the magnetic field generated by phase B. Later, phase A is energized
again, but the current flows in the negative direction, and the rotor spins again
by 90°. In the last step, the current flows negatively in phase B and the rotor
spins again by 90°.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 303

Figure 9.23. Wave mode steps.

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• In full-step mode, two phases are consistently powered simultaneously. Figure

9.24 illustrates the various steps involved in this driving mode. These steps
resemble those of the wave mode, with the main distinction being that in this
mode, the motor can generate a higher torque due to increased current flow
and a stronger magnetic field.

Figure 9.24. Full-step mode steps.

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• Half-step mode is a blend of wave and full-step modes as shown in Figure

9.24. By utilizing this combination, the step size can be halved, resulting in a
45° step instead of 90°. However, the drawback of this mode is that the torque
generated by the motor is not consistent. It is stronger when both phases are
energized and weaker when only one phase is energized.

Figure 9.25. Half-step mode steps.

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304 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Microstepping is an improvement upon half-step mode, as it allows for even

smaller step sizes and consistent torque output by controlling current intensity
in each phase. Implementing this mode requires a more advanced motor driver
than previous solutions. Figure 9.26 illustrates how microstepping functions,
with the maximum current flowing in a phase denoted as IMAX. In the first figure
shown, IA = IMAX and IB = 0 when starting from the left side. In the following
stage, the currents are adjusted in order to achieve IA = 0.92 × IMAX and IB = 0.38
× IMAX, resulting in a magnetic field that is shifted by 22.5° clockwise from the
previous position. This process is then repeated with varying current values to
reach the 45°, 67.5°, and 90° positions. By doing so, the step size is effectively
halved compared to the half-step mode, with the potential to further refine
positioning accuracy. However, this increased precision comes at a cost – utilizing
microstepping requires a more intricate control system for the motor, and results
in reduced torque output with each step. The torque is directly proportional to
the sine of the angle between the stator and rotor magnetic fields, meaning
that as step size decreases, torque diminishes accordingly.

Figure 9.26. Microstepping.

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9.3.3.7. Stepper Motors Advantages and Disadvantages

Having gained an understanding of how stepper motors function, let us now examine
their advantages and disadvantages in comparison to other types of motors.

Advantages:
• Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a sensor to detect
the motor position. Since the motor moves by performing “steps,” by simply
counting these steps, you can obtain the motor position at a given time.
• In addition, stepper motor control is pretty simple. The motor does need a driver,
but does not need complex calculations or tuning to work properly. In general,
the control effort is lower compared to other motors. With microstepping, you
can reach high position accuracy, up to approximately 0.007°.
• Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for holding position,
and also tend to have a long lifespan.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 305
Disadvantages: circuit. A brushless motor, or BLDC Motor,
operates as a synchronous motor with the
• They can miss a step if the load stator and rotor magnetic fields rotating at
torque is too high. This negatively the same frequency. Unlike brushed motors,
impacts the control, since there is brushless motors do not contain current-
no way to know the real position carrying commutators. Instead, the magnetic
of the motor. Using microstepping field inside a brushless motor is controlled
makes stepper motors even more by an amplifier triggered by a commutating
likely to experience this issue. device such as an optical encoder.
• These motors always drain
The layout of a DC brushless motor can
maximum current even when still,
vary depending on whether it is in “Out
which makes efficiency worse and
runner” style or “Inrunner” style.
can cause overheating.
• Stepper motors have low torque • Outrunner: The field magnet is a
and become pretty noisy at high drum rotor which rotates around
speeds. the stator. This style is preferred
• Finally, stepper motors have low for applications that require high
power density and a low torque- torque and where high rpm isn’t
to-inertia ratio. a requirement.
• In Runner: The stator is a fixed
drum in which the field magnet
9.3.4. PMBLDC Motor rotates. This motor is known for
Brushless DC electric motors, also referred producing less torque than the
to as electronically commutated motors out runner style, but is capable of
(ECMs or EC motors), prioritize primary spinning at very high rpm.
efficiency. This is because the rotor, which
carries the magnets, requires no power 9.3.4.2. Working Principle of Brushless DC
and eliminates the need for connections, Motor
a commutator, and brushes. Instead, BLDC
motors utilize control circuitry in place of The BLDC motor operates based on a similar
traditional components. To determine the principle to that of a Brushed DC motor.
rotor’s position at specific times, BLDC According to the Lorentz force law, when
motors are equipped with either rotary a current-carrying conductor is placed in
encoders, Hall sensors, or controllers. a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
This results in a reaction force, causing the
magnet to experience an equal and opposite
9.3.4.1. Construction of Brushless DC Motor
force. In a BLDC motor, the current-carrying
This motor utilizes permanent magnets on conductor remains stationary while the
the rotor and current-carrying conductors permanent magnet moves. When the stator
on the stator. Electrical commutation is coils are supplied with power, they become
employed to transform electrical energy into electromagnets and create a consistent field
mechanical energy. The primary distinction in the air gap. Even though the power
in design between brushed and brushless source is DC, the motor generates an AC
motors is the elimination of a mechanical voltage waveform with a trapezoidal shape
commutator in favor of an electric switch through switching. The interaction between
the electromagnet stator and permanent
306 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

magnet rotor causes the rotor to rotate. By • Higher dynamic response due to
switching the windings between High and low inertia and carrying windings
Low signals, the corresponding windings are in the stator
energized as North and South poles. This • Less electromagnetic interference
alignment between the North and South
• Low noise due to absence of
poles of the permanent magnet rotor and
brushes
the stator poles causes the motor to rotate.

Limitations of Brushless DC Motor

Advantages of Brushless DC Motor
• These motors are costly
• Less overall maintenance due to
• Electronic controller required
absence of brushes
control this motor is expensive
• Reduced size with far superior
• Requires complex drive circuitry
thermal characteristics
• Need of additional sensors
• Higher speed range and lower
electric noise generation.
• It has no mechanical commutator
Applications of Brushless DC Motor
and associated problems Brushless DC motors (BLDC) use for a wide
• High efficiency and high output variety of application requirements such as
power to size ratio due to the use varying loads, constant loads and positioning
of permanent magnet rotor applications in the fields of industrial control,
• High speed of operation even in automotive, aviation, automation systems,
loaded and unloaded conditions health care equipments etc.
due to the absence of brushes that • Computer hard drives and DVD/
limits the speed CD players
• Smaller motor geometry and lighter • Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles,
in weight than both brushed type and electric bicycles
DC and induction AC motors.
• Industrial robots, CNC machine
• Long life as no inspection and tools, and simple belt driven
maintenance is required for systems
commutator system
• Washing machines, compressors
and dryers
• Fans, pumps and blowers.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 307

CASE STUDY
TROUBLESHOOTING INDUCTION MOTOR SHAFT ISSUES

Troubleshooting induction motor shaft issues involves identifying symptoms and

addressing various potential problems. Misalignment typically causes vibrations, noise,
and excessive wear on couplings and bearings, which can be resolved by realigning the
motor and load. A bent shaft often results in unusual vibrations and uneven bearing
wear, necessitating either replacement or professional straightening. Shaft imbalance,
indicated by excessive vibrations and noise, can be corrected by balancing the rotor and
shaft assembly. Shaft wear, which leads to increased clearance and potential bearing
failure, requires measuring and replacing the shaft if it exceeds acceptable limits, while
also investigating the root cause of the wear. Bearing issues, characterized by noise,
heat, and increased vibrations, can be resolved by inspecting for wear or damage
and ensuring proper lubrication. Loose or worn couplings cause noise, vibrations, and
slippage, and should be inspected, tightened, or replaced as needed.

Situation
One of our valued clients recently purchased a new F-Class Induction Motor of our
company to power their machinery. However, to their surprise, the motor’s shaft broke
after running for a short period of time.
Concerned about the issue, the operator promptly brought the motor to our service
center. As the motor was still under warranty, we immediately replaced the rotor and
conducted standard inspections before returning the motor to the operator.
Unfortunately, just one day later, the operator returned with the motor once again
experiencing a broken shaft.
Recognizing the recurring problem, our support team decided to send an engineer
to the client’s factory to investigate the root cause behind the repeated shaft failures.
Our F-Class induction motor is renowned for its high quality and reliability. In the
event of any issues with our motors or pumps, we strongly recommend contacting us
through our toll-free number to report the problem.
This allows us to dispatch a trained professional who can conduct a thorough
inspection and identify the underlying cause of the problems.
1. Customers can register a complaint by calling our toll-free number, after which
they will receive a text message with information about the complaint as well
as the contact details of our service engineer.
308 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2. Our Engineer usually calls up to fix an appointment as per the electricity

schedule of the area – as there are frequent power disruptions in some places.

Observation
Upon reaching the site, our service engineer immediately commenced the inspection to
validate the reported problem and identify its root cause.
He first assessed the motor’s foundation to ensure stability.
• The foundation of an F-Class induction motor should be solid and stable to ensure
proper installation and operation. It should be constructed using a concrete base,
designed to withstand the motor’s weight and vibrations. Adequate reinforcement
and leveling should be implemented to maintain the motor’s alignment and
prevent any movement or misalignment during operation.
• When attaching a pulley and belt-drive to an F-Class induction motor, it is
important to ensure proper alignment and tension. The pulley should be securely
mounted on the motor shaft with accurate alignment to minimize vibration
and prevent belt slippage. The belt-drive system should be properly tensioned,
maintaining the manufacturer’s recommended tension levels, to ensure efficient
power transmission and avoid excessive wear on the belt and pulley surfaces.
• Our engineer then went on to thoroughly examine the He then assessed
the motor’s speed (using a tachometer) and compared its value to the speed
recommended by the equipment manufacturer.
• This comparison allows for a verification of whether the motor is operating within
the prescribed speed range as advised by the manufacturer of the machinery.

Findings
While inspecting the foundation for the motor, our engineer found that its surface was
uneven and unbalanced.
The motor had inadequate support and the materials used for base support were
of sub-standard quality.
The engineer also observed that both the pulley and the belt drive exhibited signs
of significant wear.
While checking the speed (RPM) of the machine, he observed that it exceeded the
RPM recommended by the manufacturer.

Solution
Our engineer’s visit proved instrumental in identifying multiple factors contributing to
the motor’s failure and damage.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 309

Our engineer recommended the following remedial measures to the operator to

avoid any future issues.
• Firstly, he emphasized the importance of constructing a sturdy and well-leveled
foundation for the motor.
• Secondly, he advised the incorporation of heavy C Section Channels as a robust
base plate or support for the machine.
• Next, he recommended them to replace the pulley and the belt as they had
both worn out.
• Finally, he suggested them to buy a new pulley of appropriate size to ensure
the motor operates within the manufacturer’s recommended RPM range.
The operator diligently adhered to our engineer’s recommendations and implemented
all necessary changes. Upon installation of the motor, it was observed that the motor
operated smoothly, devoid of any vibrations or undesirable noise.

Remarks
1. The F-Class induction motor is a very powerful machine which plays a significant
role in a groundnut processing factory. It is typically utilized to power various
machinery and equipment involved in groundnut processing operations. This
motor provides the necessary power and torque to drive machines such as
groundnut cleaning and sorting equipment, oil extraction machines, and other
auxiliary systems within the factory.
2. The recommended power supply for a three-phase F-Class induction motor is
280 to 415 Volts.
3. Ensure that the belt and pulley are properly fitted and that the tension is
appropriate before starting the motor.
4. Make sure your motor operates at the load as declared by the manufacturer.
Please contact our customer support team to learn more.
5. Regular lubrication of the motor is crucial to ensure its optimal performance.
6. Regular inspection and servicing of the motor can help detect many issues
beforehand.
For smooth and uninterrupted working of your motor, always follow the instructions
and standard operating procedure issued by the manufacturer in the user manual.
310 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CLASS ACTIVITY
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
1. Suppose you need to design a three-phase electric heater to dissipate 15 kW of
heat when powered by 480 VAC. Your options are to build a delta-connected
heater array or a wye-connected heater array:

Calculate the proper resistance value for each array, to achieve the desired heat output:

Rdelta=
Rwye=
2. A three-phase electric motor operating at a line voltage of 4160 VAC (RMS)
draws 27.5 A of current (RMS) through each of its lines. Calculate the amount
of apparent power consumed by this motor in both kVA electrical and HP
mechanical units.
 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 311
SUMMARY
• The induction motors especially three-phase induction motors are by and large
used AC motors to convey mechanical power in modern applications. 80% of the
motor is a three-phase induction motor among all motors used in undertakings.
Consequently, the induction motor is the fundamental motor among any excess
types of motor.
• When the rotor is stationary the frequency of rotor current is the same as
the supply frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency
depends upon the relative speed or on slip speed.
• Stator is made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to receive the
windings. The stator carries a 3- phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase
supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles
being determined by the requirements of speed.
• The resistance of a squirrel-cage rotor is fixed & small as compared to its
reactance which is very large especially at the start because at stand till, the
frequency of the motor currents equals the supply frequency.
• The starting torque of such a motor is increased by increasing its power factor by
adding external resistance in the rotor circuit from the star connected rheostat,
the rheostat resistance being progressively cut out as the motor gains speed.
• The slip rings are mounted on the shaft. One end of each phase winding, after
connecting the winding in star or delta is connected to the slip ring. Thus there
are three slip rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them.
• An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled
to form a linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. The
generating mode for induction motors is complicated by the need to excite the
rotor, which begins with only residual magnetization.
• Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed-torque
characteristics. The current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending
on the frequency of the induced current.
• The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends
on whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. A three-phase motor
can be reversed by swapping any two of its phase connections.
• Many useful motor relationships between time, current, voltage, speed, power
factor, and torque can be obtained from analysis of the Steinmetz equivalent
circuit, a mathematical model used to describe how an induction motor’s electrical
input is transformed into useful mechanical energy output.
312 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the role of the changing magnetic field in generating electromotive
force (EMF) in an induction motor.
2. What is difference between synchronous motor and induction motor?
3. Describe the advantages of using 3-phase power systems over single-phase
power systems.
4. What is part of 3-phase induction motor?
5. How are the windings arranged in the stator of a 3-phase induction motor?
6. What is the function of the rotor bars and end rings in a squirrel cage rotor?
7. Explain the concept of slip and its significance in the operation of a 3-phase
induction motor.
8. Describe how alternating current (AC) in the single coil produces a magnetic
field.

REFERENCES
1. Alger, P. L., & Arnold, R. E. (1976). The history of induction motors in America.
Proceedings of the IEEE, 64(9), 1380–1383.
2. Behrend, B. A. (1901). The Induction Motor: A Short Treatise on Its Theory and
Design, With Numerous Experimental Data and Diagrams. McGraw Publishing
Company / Electrical World and Engineer.
3. Boy de la Tour, H. (1906). The Induction Motor: Its Theory and Design, Set Forth
by A Practical Method of Calculation (C. O. Mailloux, Trans.). McGraw Pub. Co.
4. Cook, D. M. (2003). The Theory of The Electromagnetic Field (p. 158). Courier Dover.
5. Ferraris, G. (1885). Electromagnetic rotation with an alternating current. Electrician,
36, 360–375.
6. Fogiel, M. (2002). Basic Electricity (p. 76). Research & Education Association.
7. Keljik, J. (2009). The three-phase, squirrel-cage induction motor. In Electricity 4:
AC/DC Motors, Controls, and Maintenance (9th ed., pp. 112–115). Delmar, Cengage
Learning.
8. Kennelly, A. E. (1893). Impedance. Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, X, 172–232.
9. Loeb, L. B. (2007). Fundamentals of Electricity and Magnetism (Reprint of Wiley
1947 3rd ed.).
10. Tesla, N. (1888). A new system for alternating current motors and transformers.
AIEE Transactions, 5, 308–324.
11. Thompson, S. P. (1895). Polyphase Electric Currents and Alternate-Current Motors
(1st ed.). E. & F.N. Spon.
 CHAPTER

10 Alternator and
Synchronous Motor

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand the basics of alternator
• Define alternator voltage regulation
• Describe alternator on load
• Discuss about synchronous motor
• Describe armature winding

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Alexanderson alternator Amplidyne
Armature resistance Combustion engines
Electrical energy Electrical generator
Hysteresis motors Lap winding
Mechanical energy Permanent magnet alternator
Permanent magnet generator (PMG) Phasor diagram
Rotating field Synchronous motors
Terminal voltage Voltage regulator (VR)
INTRODUCTION
An alternator is a type of electrical generator that transforms mechanical energy into
electrical energy in the form of alternating current. In most cases, alternators utilize a
rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature for cost-effectiveness and simplicity.
However, there are instances where a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a
stationary magnetic field is employed. While technically any AC electrical generator can
be classified as an alternator, the term is commonly used to describe small rotating
machines powered by automotive and other internal combustion engines. A magneto
is an alternator that utilizes a permanent magnet for its magnetic field. Alternators in
power stations powered by steam turbines are referred to as turbo-alternators. The
majority of the world’s electric power is generated by large 50 or 60 Hz three-phase
alternators in power plants, which is then distributed through electric power grids.
The synchronous motor is a popular AC rotating electrical machine that is commonly
used to convert AC power from the grid into mechanical power. Featuring a salient
pole synchronous rotor, it automatically synchronizes with the frequency of the power
supply and operates at the synchronous speed.
Synchronous motors are used in environments that demand accurate speed control,
such as oil pipelines, rolling mills, machine tools, production lines, and conveyors
where fluctuations in speed could impact product quality. These motors operate using
electromagnetic induction, with a 3-phase design that includes a field system producing
a rotating magnetic field, along with a wound rotor or damper bars to create torque.

314 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

10.1. ALTERNATOR
An alternators is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most
alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear
alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle,
any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to
small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.
Simple forms of alternating current generating systems have been around since
the discovery of magnetic induction in the 1830s. Initially, rotating generators naturally
produced alternating current, but because it was not widely used, it was typically
converted into direct current using a commutator in the generator. Pioneers like Michael
Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii played a role in developing early machines, including Faraday’s
rotating rectangle with heteropolar operation. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also
contributed to the development of early alternators with frequencies ranging from 100
to 300 Hz.
In the late 1870s, the first large-scale electrical systems were introduced with
central generation stations to power Arc lamps. These lamps were used to illuminate
entire streets, factory yards, and the interiors of large warehouses. Some lamps, such
as the Yablochkov arc lamps introduced in 1878, operated more efficiently on alternating
current. The development of these early AC generating systems also brought about the
first use of the term “alternator.”
In the early systems, engineers had to rely on their skills to regulate the proper
amount of voltage supplied by generating stations. However, in 1883, the Ganz Works
introduced the constant voltage generator, which could maintain a specified output voltage
regardless of the load. The introduction of transformers in the mid-1880s popularized
the use of alternating current, requiring the use of alternators to generate it. By 1891,
polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents with multiple phases. As
technology advanced, alternators were designed to accommodate a range of alternating
current frequencies for various applications such as arc lighting, incandescent lighting,
and electric motors. Specialized radio frequency alternators like the Alexanderson
alternator were developed for longwave radio transmission during World War 1, but
were eventually replaced by vacuum tube transmitters in high power wireless telegraphy
stations (Figure 10.1).

ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 315

316 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

magnet machines do not have the loss of

magnetizing current in the rotor, but they
are limited in size due to the expense of
the magnet material. As the permanent
magnet field remains constant, the terminal
voltage of the generator changes in direct
correlation with its speed. Brushless AC
generators are typically larger than those
found in automotive settings (Gandzha,
Sogrin, & Kiessh, 2015).
The automatic voltage control device
adjusts the field current to maintain a
Figure 10.1. Exploded view of an alternator. steady output voltage. If demand causes
a drop in voltage from the armature coils,
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figure/Exploded-view-of-an-alternator-12_
the voltage regulator (VR) increases current
fig1_317158608. to the rotating field coils. This boosts the
magnetic field around the coils, generating
a higher voltage in the armature coils and
10.1.1. Principle of Operation restoring the output voltage to its initial
level.
When a conductor moves in relation to a
magnetic field, an electromotive force (EMF) Alternators in central power stations
is produced (according to Faraday’s Law). are responsible for managing field current
This EMF changes its direction when the to regulate reactive power and stabilize
conductor passes under magnetic poles of the power system during temporary faults.
different polarity. Usually, a rotating magnet, Typically, they contain three sets of stator
known as the rotor, spins within a fixed windings that are physically offset to
group of conductors, called the stator, produce a three-phase current, each phase
which are wound around an iron core. The shifted by one-third of a period relative to
magnetic field cuts through the conductors, the others.
creating an induced EMF as the mechanical
energy causes the rotor to rotate.
10.1.2. Classifications
The AC voltage in the stator windings
is created by the rotating magnetic field. There are different ways to classify
A synchronous generator becomes an alternators, including by their method of
alternator because the currents in the stator excitation, number of phases, rotation type,
windings change in sync with the rotor’s cooling method, and intended application.
position. • By Excitation: There are two
The magnetic field of the rotor can be primary methods for generating
created by either permanent magnets or the magnetic field in alternators.
a field coil electromagnet. In automotive One way is by utilizing permanent
alternators, a rotor winding is used to magnets that produce their own
adjust the voltage output by changing the constant magnetic field, while the
current in the rotor field winding. Permanent other method involves the use of
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 317
field coils. Alternators that utilize technology made it possible to
permanent magnets are known as create brushless alternators. While
magnetos. smaller brushless alternators may
In some alternators, wound field coils appear as a single unit, the main
create an electromagnet for generating a alternator and exciter are clearly
rotating magnetic field. An alternator that visible in larger versions. The exciter
utilizes permanent magnets to produce contains stationary field coils and a
alternating current is known as a permanent rotating armature, while the main
magnet alternator (PMA). A permanent alternator uses a rotating field and
magnet generator (PMG) can generate stationary armature configuration.
either alternating current or direct current A rotating rectifier assembly, known
with the presence of a commutator. as a bridge rectifier, is mounted on
the rotor, eliminating the need for
• Direct-Connected Direct-Current brushes and slip rings. This design
(DC) Generator: This excitation reduces the number of wearing
method involves a DC generator parts in the alternator, with the
mounted on the same shaft as main alternator featuring a rotating
the alternator. The DC generator field and stationary armature for
produces a small amount of power power generation.
to stimulate the field coils of the Adjusting the current in the stationary
alternator, allowing it to generate exciter field coils changes the 3-phase output
electricity. Another version of this from the exciter. This output is converted
system involves an alternator that to DC by a rotating rectifier assembly,
initially uses DC power from a located on the rotor. The DC then powers
battery for excitation upon startup, the rotating field of the main alternator,
and then becomes self-excited. affecting the overall alternator output. In
• Transformation and Rectification: essence, a small DC exciter current indirectly
This technique relies on the governs the main alternator’s output.
residual magnetism in the iron
core to produce a slight magnetic • By Number of Phases: Alternators
field, resulting in a small voltage can also be classified based on
being created. This voltage is then the number of phases in their
utilized to stimulate the field coils, output voltage. This can be either
enabling the alternator to produce single phase or polyphase. Among
a more powerful voltage during its polyphase alternators, three-phase
initial buildup phase. Once the AC alternators are the most prevalent,
voltage has been established, the though they can also have two
field is then powered by rectified phases, six phases, or even more.
voltage from the alternator. • By Rotating Part: The alternator can
• Brushless Alternators: A brushless have either a revolving armature or
alternator consists of two alternators a revolving magnetic field as its
connected end-to-end on a single rotating component. In the revolving
shaft. Prior to 1966, alternators armature type, the armature is
utilized brushes with a rotating field. wound on the rotor and moves
The development of semiconductor through a stationary magnetic field.
This type is not commonly used.
318 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The revolving field type, on the both charge the battery and supply
other hand, has a magnetic field power to the electrical system while
on the rotor that rotates through the engine is operating.
a stationary armature winding. Before the 1960s, cars were equipped
This design has the advantage of with DC dynamo generators featuring
requiring less power in the rotor commutators. However, with the introduction
circuit compared to the armature of cost-effective silicon-diode rectifiers,
circuit, resulting in smaller and less alternators became the preferred choice.
expensive slip ring connections.
For direct-current rotors, only two • Diesel-Electric Locomotive
contacts are needed, whereas rotors Alternators: In newer diesel-electric
with multiple phases and sections trains, the prime mover powers an
would require more connections. alternator that generates electricity
The stationary armature can be for the traction motors, whether
wound for various medium voltage they are alternating current (AC)
levels, but slip ring connections or direct current (DC).
for voltages over a few thousand The traction alternator typically includes
volts are costly and inconvenient built-in silicon diode rectifiers to supply the
to manufacture. traction motors with a maximum of 1,200
• Cooling Methods: Several volts DC.
alternators are cooled by
The original diesel electric locomotives,
surrounding air, pushed through
as well as those that are still in use today,
the enclosure by a fan attached
were equipped with DC generators for easier
to the same shaft that powers
speed control of the DC traction motors. In
the alternator. In certain vehicles
many cases, these locomotives were built
like transit buses, a significant
with two generators, one for producing
load on the electrical system may
excitation current for the main generator.
necessitate an oil-cooled alternator.
Water-cooling is also utilized in The generator can also provide head-
marine applications. High-end end power (HEP) or power for electric train
automobiles may opt for water- heating, if desired. To enable the HEP
cooled alternators to accommodate option, the engine must maintain a steady
demanding electrical systems. speed of 900 revolutions per minute (r/min)
for a 480-volt, 60 Hz application, even when
10.1.3. Specific Applications the locomotive is stationary.
• Electric Generators: Many • Marine Alternators: Marine
power generation stations utilize alternators used in yachts are
synchronous machines as their specifically designed for the salt-
generators. To connect these water environment, similar to
generators to the utility grid, automotive alternators but with
synchronization conditions must necessary modifications. These
be fulfilled. alternators are built to be explosion
• Automotive Alternators: Modern proof in order to prevent brush
internal combustion engine sparking from igniting any explosive
automobiles utilize alternators to gas mixtures in the engine room.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 319
They can be either 12 or 24 volt, depending on the yacht’s electrical system.
Larger marine diesels may have multiple alternators to meet the high electrical
demand of a modern yacht. In systems with a single alternator, power can be
divided between the engine starting battery and the domestic battery using a
split-charge diode or a voltage-sensitive relay. Because large house battery banks
are expensive, Marine alternators typically utilize external regulators. Multistep
regulators are used to manage the field current in order to optimize charging
efficiency and prolong battery lifespan. These regulators can be customized
for various types of batteries. Additionally, two temperature sensors can be
installed – one for the battery to adjust charging voltage and another to protect
the alternator from overheating.
320 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

10.2. ALTERNATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulators are used to automatically control the terminal voltage of the generator.
It should be mentioned that AC machines have higher internal reactance as compared to
DC machines. Magnetic amplifying components are often used in regulators to achieve
this voltage control.
The purpose of automatic regulator equipment is to:
• Control the system voltage within prescribed limits.
• Regulate the division of reactive power shared between machines running in
parallel.
• Control the field circuit closely to keep the machine in synchronism with the
system when operating at near unity or leading power factor.
• Boost the excitation under system fault conditions to keep the machine in
synchronization with the system.
The output voltage can only be maintained approximately constant, and this regulation
is determined by two key measurements:
• Load regulation, which signifies the change in output voltage for a given change
in load current.
• Line regulation, also known as input regulation, refers to how much the output
voltage fluctuates when there are changes in the input voltage. It is typically
expressed as a ratio of the output change to the input change.
The output voltage of an AC generator is controlled by regulating the strength of
the rotating DC field. Increasing the field strength increases the AC output voltage,
whereas decreasing the DC field strength decreases the output voltage. As the load on
the generator increases, it is necessary to increase the field strength in order to keep
the output voltage constant. (Guo Min, Jin Qingren, Yao Zhiyang, & Chen Weidong,
2020) (Figure 10.2).
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 321

Figure 10.2. Restoration of voltage as a function of response time.

Source: https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/electrotechnology/chapter/part-4-alternator-voltage-
regulation/.

Voltage regulation methods:

i. Direct-acting rheostat regulator
ii. Electromechanical
iii. Electronic
iv. Amplidyne
v. Power amplifier
i. Direct-Acting Rheostat Regulator: Direct-acting rheostat regulators rely on
adjusting variable resistances in the main exciter’s field circuit.

Figure 10.3. Silverstat voltage regulator on an AC generator.

Source: https://electronicstechnician.tpub.com/14344/Figure-8–5-A-Silverstat-Voltage-Regulator-
On-An-Ac-Generator-334.html.
322 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The Silverstat voltage regulator uses to the field of a second generator, creating
silver-buttoned leaf springs to control another 100:1 ratio, resulting in a total
voltage, operating as a direct-acting power amplification of 10,000:1.
rheostatic type of regulator. The leaf springs
close or open contacts in a series to adjust Nevertheless, a major downside to this
the voltage (Figure 10.3). configuration is the extensive time needed
to implement the change in output. The time
ii. Electromechanical Vo l t a g e delay in a two-stage amplification process
Regulators is around 1 second, which is deemed too
Disadvantages sluggish.

• The response time of the regulator iv. Amplidyne: The DC generator is

and the equipment necessary to uniquely designed to achieve both
change the voltage variation signal higher amplification than a two-
into a mechanical force and act on stage amplifier and a response
the main exciter field is too great. speed ten to twenty times faster.
• The dead band is not acceptable The Amplidyne is a unique motor
for steady-state conditions when generator that serves as a power amplifier.
generators are running near the It has a separately excited field that enables
stability limit. fine adjustments in excitation power, known
as the input or control signal. These small
• As machines get larger in output,
alterations in the input signal lead to
the increasing power in the
significant changes in the output power. By
excitation circuits makes it difficult
utilizing this technique, power amplification
for the regulator contacts to handle
ratios of up to 250,000:1 can be attained.
iii. Electronic Regulators: The initial
electronic regulators were designed v. Magnetic Amplifier Regulator
with a bridge circuit containing Magnetic amplifier regulators consist of:
both fixed and variable arms. This
bridge was powered by a reference • A voltage reference circuit.
voltage, with the error voltage • A two-stage magnetic amplifier,
determined by the two remaining power transformer, and rectifier.
bridge terminals, showing the vi. Reference Circuit
variance between the current value
A reference circuit consists of:
and the desired setting.
The error voltage from the bridge is • A three-phase rectifier
input into an electronic amplifier, which can • A Potentiometer
be constructed using a grid of thyratrons to
• A bridge circuit made up of two
regulate the flow of field current. Thyratrons
fixed resistors and two glow-
are specialized gas-filled tubes that serve
discharge tubes
as high-energy electrical switches and
controlled rectifiers. A VR tube, also known as a glow-
discharge tube, is used to regulate voltage
In a standard power amplifier setup, a in a circuit by creating a constant voltage
DC generator is designed to use 1 watt in despite changes in line voltage or load.
the field circuit, while expecting an output When a specific voltage is applied to the
load of 100 watts. This output can be sent
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 323
electrodes of the tube, the gas becomes ionized, producing a glow discharge near the
cathode electrode. This ionization turns the VR tube into a negative resistance device.
As the current passing through the tube increases, the level of ionization also increases,
leading to a decrease in resistance. This allows the VR tube to conduct sufficient current
to maintain the desired voltage across its terminals.
Advantages
• Minimum of moving parts
• No electronic components
• Regulator is built entirely of static components
• Time response is very rapid, and there is no dead band.
• This regulator operates by amplifying the difference between the generator
terminal voltage and a fixed reference voltage using magnetic amplifiers in
series. The amplified voltage is then used to directly adjust the main exciter
field current.
10.3. ALTERNATOR
ON LOAD
The terminal voltage of the alternator will fluctuate when the load changes, primarily
due to three factors: armature resistance IRa causing voltage drop, armature leakage
reactance IXL causing voltage drop, and voltage drop due to armature reaction.

10.3.1. Effect of Load on Alternator

• Voltage Drop Due to Armature Resistance: The armature winding resistance
per phase results in a voltage drop of IRa per phase.
The voltage drop caused by the armature resistance is synchronized with the
armature current I. In reality, this voltage drop is so minuscule that it can be
disregarded.
• Voltage Drop Due to Armature Leakage Reactance: As current passes through
the armature conductors, the magnetic flux will begin to move through the
armature core. Some of the flux will follow alternate paths and will not pass
through the air gap, leading to what is known as leakage flux (Figure 10.4).

Figure 10.4. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance.

Source: https://www.electrically4u.com/alternator-on-load/#google_vignette.

In this scenario, the amount of leaked energy is determined by the current passing
through the conductor and its alignment with the terminal voltage. This leakage energy
creates an electromotive force (emf) due to self-inductance, known as reactance emf.
This reactance emf causes the armature current I to lag by 90°.

324 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 325
Therefore, the armature winding is characterized by a leakage reactance XL, resulting
in a voltage drop of IXL. The generated emf must surpass this voltage drop caused by
the leakage reactance in order to produce its output.
E = V + I (Ra + jXL) (1)
This is illustrated in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5. Phasor diagram of voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance.

Source: https://www.electrically4u.com/alternator-on-load/#voltage-drop-due-to-armature-
resistance.

The above phasor diagram is constructed as below;

• The voltage phasor is taken as the reference phasor.
• The armature current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. Hence the current
phasor is drawn at an angle Φ from the voltage phasor.
• The phasor for armature resistance drop is drawn parallel to the current phasor
from the extremity of Voltage phasor V.
• Leakage reactance drop is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor from the
extremity of IRa phasor.
• Join 0 and the extremity of IXL phasor to get Eb.
• Voltage Drop Due to Armature Reaction: Armature reaction is the influence of
the armature flux on the main field flux. This phenomenon can also be observed
in DC generators.
When comparing to a DC generator, the power factor of a load in an alternator
significantly impacts the armature reaction. When discussing power factor under loading
conditions, three cases are considered.
• Unity power factor load.
• Zero power factor lagging load
• Zero power factor leading load.
The alternator’s armature reaction results in various effects including cross-
magnetizing, demagnetizing, and magnetizing effects, all of which induce distortion
326 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

in the main field flux and impact the generated electromotive force. The voltage drop
caused by armature reaction can be approximated by considering the presence of a
fictitious reactance Xa, known as armature reactance. This voltage drop is expressed
as IXa.
The leakage reactance XL and armature reaction reactance Xa together called
synchronous reactance XS.
XS = XL + Xa (2)
Therefore, the total voltage drop in an alternator when under load is the combined
result of voltage drops caused by armature resistance, armature leakage reactance, and
armature reaction reactance.
V = I Ra + j I XL + j I Xa = I (Ra + j XL + j Xa ) = I (Ra + j (XL + Xa ) (3)
V = I (Ra + j XS ) = I ZS (4)
Where; ZS is known as the synchronous impedance of an alternator.
The above discussions indicate that changes in load result in alterations to the
terminal voltage of the alternator, which can be attributed to the synchronous impedance
of the alternator.
Now let us look at the phasor diagrams of alternator for different load conditions.

10.3.2. Phasor Diagrams of Alternator on Load

In order to create the phasor diagrams, it is important to understand the terms used
in the diagrams below.
E0 is the no-load voltage. It is the maximum voltage induced in the armature without
giving any load.
E is the load voltage. It is the induced voltage after overcoming the armature
reaction. E is vectorially less than the no-load voltage.
I is the armature current per phase
V is the terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E by IZ and also vectorially less
than E0 by IZS.
Φ is the cosine angle between terminal voltage and current.
The impedances are given by:

(5)

(6)
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 327
where XL is the leakage reactance, Xa is the armature reaction reactance and XS is
the synchronous reactance and ZS is the synchronous impedance.

10.3.2.1. Unity Power Factor Load

The phasor diagram of an alternator for unity power factor load is shown Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6. Phasor diagram of an alternator for unity power factor load.

Source: https://www.electrically4u.com/alternator-on-load/#phasor-diagrams-of-alternator-on-load.

• How the Phasor Diagram Is Drawn? Follow the Below Given Procedure
1. Voltage phasor V is taken as the reference phasor.
2. For unity power factor load, V and I phasor are in phase. So, the Current
phasor I is drawn on the voltage phasor V.
3. The phasor of Armature resistance drop IRa is drawn parallel to the current
phasor from the extremity of V phasor.
4. The armature leakage resistance drop IXL is drawn perpendicular to the
current phasor, from the extremity of IRa phasor.
5. Join V phasor and IXL phasor to get IZ phasor (shown as a dotted line).
6. Join O and the extremity of IZ to get E (shown as a pink color line)
7. Draw the armature reaction reactance drop phasor IXS perpendicular to
the current phasor from the extremity of IXL phasor.
8. Join V phasor and IXS phasor to get IZS phasor (shown as a dotted line).
9. Join O and the extremity of IZS to get E0(shown as a pink color line)

10.3.2.2. Lagging Power Factor Load

The phasor diagram of an alternator for lagging power factor load is shown Figure 10.7.
328 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 10.7. Phasor diagrams of alternator on load.

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The phasor diagram above is created using the same method detailed for unity
power factor.
The sole difference is that the current is now lagging behind the voltage by an
angle Φ. Therefore, draw the current phasor with an angle Φ in relation to the voltage
phasor V.

10.3.2.3. Leading Power Factor Load

The phasor diagram of an alternator for leading power factor load is shown Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8. Phasor diagram of an alternator for leading power factor load.

Source: https://www.electrically4u.com/alternator-on-load/#phasor-diagrams-of-alternator-on-load.

When dealing with the leading power factor load, the phasor diagram is drawn in a
manner similar to that of unity power factor. The main distinction is that in this case,
the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ. Therefore, the current phasor is depicted
at an angle Φ in relation to the voltage phasor V.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 329

10.4. SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor where the shaft rotates in sync with the
supply current frequency. Electromagnets are used in the stator to create a magnetic
field that aligns with the current oscillations. The rotor, equipped with permanent
or electromagnets, turns in unison with the stator field, creating two synchronized
rotating magnet fields. If the motor is powered by independently excited multiphase AC
electromagnets on both the rotor and stator, it is referred to as doubly fed (Figure 10.9).

Figure 10.9. Structure of synchronous motor.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Structure-of-synchronous-motor_fig3_368944283.

Synchronous and induction motors are the two most commonly utilized AC motors.
Synchronous motors operate at a speed synchronized with the line frequency as they
do not rely on induction for the rotor’s magnetic field. On the other hand, induction
motors require slip, where the rotor must rotate slightly slower than the AC frequency
to induce current in the rotor. (Cai, Hao, Wang, et al., 2021).
Synchronous clocks, appliances timers, tape recorders, and precision servomechanisms
require small synchronous motors which must operate at a precise speed. The accuracy
of these motors depends on the power line frequency, which is controlled in large
interconnected grid systems.
Synchronous motors come in a variety of sizes, from self-excited fractional to industrial sizes.
In the lower horsepower range, they are often used to maintain a consistent speed. These
motors are commonly found in analog electric clocks, timers, and similar devices.
330 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

In industrial applications, synchronous equipped with windings that are connected

motors are a highly efficient way to convert to an AC electricity supply in order to
AC energy into work. Larger motors typically produce a rotating magnetic field, similar
have an electrical efficiency of over 95%, and to an asynchronous motor. When operating
they can operate at leading or unity power at synchronous speed, the rotor poles align
factor to help correct power factor issues. with the rotating magnetic field. PMSMs
are comparable to brushless DC motors,
with neodymium magnets being the most
10.4.1. Types of Synchronous commonly used. However, fluctuations
Motor in neodymium magnet prices have led
Synchronous motors fall under the category to research in ferrite magnets. Machines
of synchronous machines that also includes using ferrite magnets require a magnetic
synchronous generators. When the field circuit that can concentrate the magnetic
poles are advanced ahead of the air-gap flux flux, often resulting in the use of spoke
by the prime mover, it results in generator type rotors. While machines with ferrite
action. Conversely, when the field poles magnets have lower power and torque
are lagging behind the air-gap flux due to densities compared to neodymium machines.
the shaft load’s retarding torque, it causes (Orlowska-Kowalska, Wolkiewicz, Pietrzak,
motor action. et al., 2022) (Figure 10.10).

There are two main categories of

synchronous motors based on how the
rotor is magnetized: non-excited and direct-
current excited.

10.4.1.1. Non-Excited Motors

In motors without excited components,
the rotor is constructed from steel and
revolves in synchronization with the
stator’s rotating magnetic field, resulting
in a nearly consistent magnetic field within
Figure 10.10. Permanent magnet synchronous
it. The external stator field causes the
motor.
rotor to become magnetized, creating the
necessary magnetic poles for its rotation. Source: https://electricalbaba.com/permanent-
The rotor is typically composed of high- magnet-synchronous-motor-pmsm-construction-
retentivity steel, such as cobalt steel. These working-principle/.
are manufactured in permanent magnet,
Permanent magnet synchronous motors
reluctance and hysteresis designs:
(PMSMs) have been utilized as motor
options for gearless elevators since the year
10.4.1.1.1. Permanent-Magnet 2000. While many PMSMs need a variable-
frequency drive for initial activation, some
A motor that uses permanent magnets in models incorporate a squirrel cage in the
the rotor to create a constant magnetic rotor for self-starting capabilities, known
field is known as a permanent-magnet as line-start or self-starting models. These
synchronous motor (PMSM). The stator is
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 331
PMSMs are commonly chosen as more 10.4.1.1.3. Hysteresis
efficient replacements for induction motors
due to their lack of slip, but it is essential Hysteresis motors feature a sturdy, smooth,
to ensure that the synchronous speed is cylindrical rotor made from high-coercivity
achieved and the system can handle torque magnetically “hard” cobalt steel. This
ripple during startup. The control of PMSMs material has a broad hysteresis loop,
is typically achieved through direct torque requiring a strong magnetic field to reverse
control and field oriented control methods. magnetization once it is magnetized in a
specific direction. As the stator field rotates,
each section of the rotor experiences
10.4.1.1.2. Reluctance a changing magnetic field, causing the
magnetization phase to lag behind the
Reluctance motors have a rotor made of
applied field. This lag results in the rotor’s
solid cast steel with salient toothed poles
magnetic field axis trailing behind the stator
that project out. Typically, there are fewer
field’s axis by a constant angle δ, generating
rotor poles than stator poles in order to
torque as the rotor attempts to align with
reduce torque variations and prevent all
the stator field. When the rotor is operating
poles from aligning at once, which would
at a speed below synchronous speed,
result in no torque being generated. The
each particle within the rotor encounters
air gap in the magnetic circuit and thus the
a magnetic field that oscillates at the slip
reluctance is smallest when the rotor poles
frequency, guiding it through a hysteresis
align with the rotating magnetic field of the
loop. This results in the rotor field falling
stator, and increases as the angle between
behind and generating torque. The rotor is
them grows. This difference in alignment
constructed with a 2-pole low reluctance bar
creates torque that causes the rotor to align
structure. As the rotor nears synchronous
itself with the nearest stator pole. Once
speed and the slip decreases to zero, it
the rotor reaches synchronous speed, it
becomes magnetized and aligns itself with
becomes “locked” to the rotating stator
the stator field, leading to the rotor being
field, preventing the motor from starting. To
synchronized with the rotating stator field.
provide torque below synchronous speed,
the rotor poles are usually equipped with One of the main benefits of the hysteresis
squirrel-cage windings. The motor initially motor is its ability to maintain a constant
operates as an induction motor until it nears torque from the moment it starts up until it
synchronous speed, at which point the rotor reaches synchronous speed, thanks to the
is pulled in and locks to the stator field. fact that the lag angle δ is not dependent
on speed. This allows the motor to be self-
Reluctance motors can be rated from
starting without requiring an induction
a few watts to 22 kW. Smaller reluctance
winding, although some designs include a
motors are suitable for instrumentation
squirrel-cage conductive winding structure
applications due to their low torque.
in the rotor to provide additional torque
Medium torque, multi-horsepower motors
during start-up.
typically utilize squirrel cage construction
with toothed rotors. When paired with Hysteresis motors are produced in sub-
an adjustable frequency power supply, all fractional horsepower capacities, mainly for
motors in a drive system can run at the servomotors and timing motors. While more
same speed since the motor operating speed costly than reluctance motors, hysteresis
depends on the power supply frequency. motors are preferred for applications where
332 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

consistent and precise speed control is motors. The variants of the scalar control
essential. include open-loop control and closed-loop
control.
10.4.1.2. Externally excited motors • Open-Loop: In an open-loop system,
the voltage V is typically controlled
These motors are typically manufactured
proportionally to the frequency f
in larger sizes, usually greater than 1
(known as V/f control, V/Hz control,
horsepower or 1 kilowatt, and require direct
Constant Volts/Hertz, or CVH). The
current (DC) for rotor excitation. The most
V/f method has the advantage of
common method of supplying DC to these
maintaining a constant magnetic
motors is through the use of slip rings.
flux within the stator, ensuring
A brushless AC induction and rectifier consistent motor performance at
arrangement can also be used. all speeds. A voltage boost is often
utilized at lower frequencies to
The power may be supplied from a offset the resistance of the coils.
separate source or from a generator directly
An open-loop V/f control system
connected to the motor shaft.
is effective for applications where
the load torque remains constant
10.4.2. Control Techniques and there are slow changes in
rotational speed. These controllers
A control system, such as a VFD or servo are commonly referred to as general
drive, is necessary for the operation of a purpose AC drives.
permanent magnet synchronous motor or
reluctance motor. Various control methods • Closed-Loop: When sensors are
for synchronous machines are available used in a closed-loop configuration
and can be selected based on the specific to improve transitional response
construction and application of the electric time, a common method involves
motor. employing a rotational speed
sensor, also known as closed-loop
V/Hz control. The speed error
10.4.2.1. Scalar Control is sent through a proportional-
integral controller to generate the
Scalar control of an AC electric motor allows
accumulated slip difference, which
for variable speed operation by adjusting the
is then combined with the direct
supply voltage or current (“magnitude”) and
speed sensor reading to create a
frequency without considering the motor’s
frequency control signal.
magnetic field orientation. It is typically
open-loop, using equations for steady-state In a torque-control variant (TC), not
operation and limited current sensing. to be confused with direct torque control
While scalar control is still common in low- (DTC), the motor torque remains constant in
performance motors due to its simplicity the steady state, but this method requires
and cost-effectiveness, higher-performance a current sensor. In TC, the control signals
motors now often utilize vector control for for frequency and flux (voltage or current,
improved handling of transient processes. depending on the drive type) are separated.
The industry expects vector control to The flux control is determined by the flux
eventually become the standard for all estimate, and the frequency control is
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 333
derived from the torque estimate and speed 10.4.3. Synchronous Speed
sensor data. Although this approach offers
The speed at which an AC motor operates
improved performance, it also introduces
synchronously is influenced by both the
additional complexity and potential stability
frequency of the power source and the
challenges.
number of poles in the motor. To calculate
the motor’s revolutions per minute (RPM),
10.4.2.2. Vector Control you can multiply the frequency by 60 and
then divide by the number of pole pairs.
Vector control, also known as field-oriented
control (FOC), is a method of controlling a The synchronous speed of a synchronous
variable-frequency drive (VFD) for a three- motor is given:
phase AC or brushless DC electric motor. In
this method, the stator currents of the motor in RPM, by:
are identified as two orthogonal components
that can be represented as a vector. One (7)
component represents the magnetic flux of
the motor, while the other represents the and in rad·s−1, by:
torque. The control system of the drive
calculates the current component references
based on the flux and torque references (8)
provided by the speed control. Proportional-
Where; f is the frequency of the AC
integral (PI) controllers are typically used
supply current in Hz; p is the number of
to ensure that the measured current
magnetic poles; and P is the number of pole
components match their reference values,
pairs (rarely, planes of commutation),
with pulse-width modulation determining .

the transistor switching based on the output

of the PI current controllers. Examples
Field-oriented control (FOC) is utilized The synchronous motor, which has 4 poles
for regulating AC synchronous and induction (2 pole-pairs), is running on a single-phase
motors. Initially designed for demanding AC supply with a frequency of 50 Hz.
motor tasks which necessitate seamless
operation across the entire speed spectrum, The number of pole-pairs is 2, so the
delivering maximum torque at zero speed, synchronous speed is:
and boasting superior dynamic performance
like rapid acceleration and deceleration. (9)
Nevertheless, FOC is gaining popularity
in less demanding applications due to A three-phase, 12-pole (6-pole-pair)
its ability to reduce motor size, cost, and synchronous motor is operating at an AC
power consumption. As microprocessors supply frequency of 60 Hz. The number of
continue to boost in computational power, pole-pairs is 6, so the synchronous speed is:
it is anticipated that FOC will eventually
supplant single-variable scalar control
methods such as volts-per-Hertz (V/f control) (10)
in a widespread manner.
334 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The number of magnetic poles, 10.4.5. Operation

represented as p, in a motor is equivalent
Electric motors function by utilizing the
to the number of coil groups per phase.
interaction between the magnetic fields
To calculate the number of coil groups per
of the stator and rotor. In synchronous
phase in a 3-phase motor, simply divide the
motors, the stator carries three-phase
total number of coils by 3. This process
currents, creating a rotating magnetic
can become complicated when the coils
flux that generates a rotating magnetic
span multiple slots in the stator core. For
field. The rotor aligns with this magnetic
example, if you count 12 coil groups in
field and rotates accordingly, leading to
a 3-phase motor, it will have 4 magnetic
synchronization. While it is possible for
poles. In a 12-pole 3-phase machine, there
a single-phase or two-phase stator to be
will be a total of 36 coils. It is important
utilized, the direction of rotation may not
to note that the number of magnetic poles
be defined and the motor could start in
in the rotor is always equal to the number
either direction unless specific measures
of magnetic poles in the stator.
are taken during startup.

10.4.4. Construction 10.4.5.1. Amortisseur Winding

Electric motors consist of two main
The amortisseur winding, also known as
components: the stator and the rotor. The
the damper winding, is a squirrel-cage
construction of synchronous and induction
winding located on the rotor of a standard
motor stators is quite similar. In the case
synchronous electric machine. Its purpose
of a synchronous motor, the construction is
is to reduce transient oscillations and assist
similar to that of a synchronous alternator.
with the start-up process.
The stator frame typically includes a wrapper
plate, along with circumferential ribs and Because the design of a damper winding
keybars. Frame mounts and footings are is similar to that of an asynchronous motor,
necessary to support the weight of the it allows for direct-on-line starting and
machine. The synchronous stator winding can also be utilized for motor operation in
usually consists of a 3-phase winding, asynchronous mode.
supplied with a 3-phase power supply,
while the rotor requires a DC power supply. The damper winding was first created
by Maurice Leblanc in France and Benjamin
DC excited motors need brushes and slip G. Lamme in the US to address the issue
rings to connect to the excitation source. of hunting oscillations that occurred when
The field winding can also be excited by early generators were powered by steam
a brushless exciter. Cylindrical rotors, also engines with pulsating torque. In modern
called non-salient pole rotors, are utilized designs, generators are now driven by
for motors with up to six poles. turbines, making hunting less of a concern.
However, motors, such as those driving
A salient pole rotor is often used in
piston compressors, still encounter pulsating
machines that require a large number of
torque.
poles. In most synchronous motor designs,
the armature remains stationary while the Building the damper windings is a
field winding rotates. This construction complicated process that relies heavily on
offers advantages over DC motors, which practical experience. A standard damper
use a rotating armature.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 335
winding includes short-circuit bars that, in machines with cylindrical rotors, are located
in the same slots as the field windings. In machines with salient pole rotors, the bars
are situated in specific slots on the pole shoes. The quadrature axis area of salient
pole machines does not have any bars. The bars are connected to rings or plates that
encircle the rotor.

10.4.6. Starting Methods

Once a certain size threshold is reached, synchronous motors are unable to start on
their own. This is because of the rotor’s inertia, which makes it unable to immediately
match the rotation of the stator’s magnetic field. Because synchronous motors do not
generate any average torque when at a standstill, they require an additional mechanism
to help them reach synchronous speed.
Big motors running on commercial power have a squirrel-cage induction winding
that offers enough torque for acceleration and helps dampen motor speed oscillations.
As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the field winding becomes energized and
the motor synchronizes. In some cases, very large motor systems might have a “pony”
motor that speeds up the synchronous machine when it’s not loaded. Motors that are
electronically controlled can be accelerated from zero speed by adjusting the frequency
of the stator current.
Compact synchronous motors are frequently utilized in plug-in electric clocks or timers
that rely on the power line frequency to operate the gear mechanism at the precise
pace. These small synchronous motors can initiate without aid as long as the rotor’s
moment of inertia and its mechanical load are minimal enough. The motor progresses
from slip speed to synchronous speed in an accelerating half cycle of the reluctance
torque. Unlike shaded-pole types, single-phase synchronous motors in electric wall clocks
have the ability to rotate in both directions freely.
Costs are a crucial factor for beginners. Rotor excitation can help address this issue.
Furthermore, starting techniques for large synchronous machines involve repeatedly
reversing the polarity of the rotor poles during startup.
10.5. ARMATURE
The armature in electrical engineering refers to the winding or windings in an electric
machine that carry alternating current. These windings are capable of conducting AC
even in DC machines, thanks to the commutator action or electronic commutation found
in brushless DC motors. Depending on the type of electric machine, the armature can
be found on either the rotor (the rotating part) or the stator (the stationary part).
The armature windings engage with the magnetic field in the air-gap, which can be
created by either permanent magnets or electromagnets produced by a conducting coil.
The armature must conduct current, making it either a conductor or a conductive
coil positioned perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of movement,
torque in a rotating machine, or force in a linear machine. The armature serves two
main purposes. The first is to conduct current through the field, producing shaft torque
in a rotating machine or force in a linear machine. The second purpose is to generate
an electromotive force (EMF).
The relative motion between the armature and the field in a machine creates an
electromotive force (EMF) in the armature. When the machine is functioning as a motor,
this EMF resists the armature current, allowing the armature to convert electrical power
into mechanical power in the form of torque, which is then transmitted through the
shaft. Conversely, when the machine is operating as a generator, the armature EMF
drives the armature current, converting the movement of the shaft into electrical power.
In an induction generator, power is generated from the stator.

10.5.1. Armature Winding

An armature winding is typically made up of conductors that are coated with a single
layer of cotton, a double layer of cotton, cotton fiberglass, or enamel. The coils of the
armature winding are usually secured together with cotton tape before being dipped in
varnish and dried. The conductors in the armature winding are housed and protected
within the armature slots and properly connected. These windings generate a helpful
electromotive force (e.m.f) across the brushes.
In a DC machine, the armature winding is typically wound using two techniques
known as Lap Winding and Wave Winding.
1. Lap Winding: In this winding configuration, the conductors are connected so
that their parallel poles and paths are identical. The end of each armature
coil can be connected to the adjacent section of the commutator. The number
of brushes in this winding is the same as the number of parallel paths, and
these brushes are evenly distributed between positive and negative polarity
windings. Lap winding is commonly used in high-current, low voltage machines.
Lap windings are classified into three types which include the following (Figure
10.11):

336 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 337
i. Simplex Type Lap Winding
ii. Duplex Type Lap Winding
iii. Triplex Type TLap Winding

Figure 10.11. Lap winding.

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i. Simplex Type Lap Winding: In this type of winding, one end of the primary coil
is connected to the commutator section, while the other end of the secondary
coil is placed in the same pole position. The number of parallel lanes is equal
to the number of poles in the windings.
ii. Duplex Type Lap Winding: In this winding configuration, there are twice as
many parallel paths between poles as there are poles. Lap winding is commonly
used in high current applications. This type of winding is achieved by placing
two identical windings on the same armature, connecting the even-numbered
commutator bars to the primary winding and the odd-numbered bars to the
secondary winding.
iii. Triplex Type Lap Winding: This winding arrangement involves winding around
one-third of the commutator bars. The triplex lap winding has multiple paths,
making it suitable for high current applications. However, a disadvantage is
that it requires a larger number of conductors, increasing the overall cost of
the winding.
2. Wave Winding: This type of wave winding utilizes only two parallel paths
for the positive and negative brushes. The end of the first armature coil is
connected to the beginning of the second armature coil’s commutator segment
at a distance. Conductors in this winding are connected to the two parallel
paths of the machine poles. The number of parallel ports matches the number
of brushes. This type of winding is best suited for high-voltage, low-current
machines (Figure 10.12).
338 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 10.12. Wave winding.

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Once the armature winding completes one full rotation, it shifts into a slot to the
left of its starting point, resulting in a retrogressive winding. Conversely, if the armature
winding shifts one slot to the right, it is known as a progressive winding.
Assuming there are two winding layers and that the AB conductor is located in
the higher semi of the slot either on the right or left side. Let YF and YB represent the
front and back pitches, which are approximately equal to the winding pole pitch. The
average winding pitch can be calculated using the following equation.

10.5.2. Armature Reaction in an Alternator or Synchronous

Generator
Faraday’s law is the principle that governs the operation of all rotating electrical machines.
All electrical machines consist of a magnetic field and a coil, known as the armature,
which must have relative motion between them. In an alternator, electricity is supplied
to the poles to create a magnetic field, and power is then collected from the armature.
As the field and armature move relative to each other, the armature conductors cut
through the magnetic flux, resulting in a changing flux linkage. According to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, this action induces an electromotive force (emf) in the
armature. Therefore, when the load is connected to the armature terminals, a current
flows through the armature coil. This current creates a reverse effect on the main field
flux of the alternator or synchronous generator, known as armature reaction.
In an alternator, just like in all other synchronous machines, the impact of armature
reaction is determined by the power factor, which is the phase difference between the
terminal voltage and the armature current.
When a generator supplies a lagging load, it is providing magnetic energy to the load
through reactive power. This results in a reduction of reactive power in the generator
due to the excitation of the synchronous machine. As a result, the armature reaction in
the generator becomes demagnetizing. Conversely, when the generator supplies a leading
load, it receives lagging reactive power from the load, causing the armature reaction to
have a magnetizing effect. In the case of a purely resistive load, the armature reaction
is only cross magnetizing.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 339
The phase difference between these armature current I. Hence, armature flux φa
two quantities, i.e., Armature current and is in phase with armature current I.
voltage may vary from – 90° to + 90°
When the power factor is at unity, I and
If this angle is θ, then; E are in phase. Therefore, at unity power
factor, the armature flux, φa, is in phase with
the induced EMF E. This means that the
armature flux is in phase with the induced
To understand actual effect of this angle
EMF E and the field flux is in quadrature
on armature reaction of alternator, we will
with E. As a result, the armature flux, φa,
consider three standard cases:
is in quadrature with the main field flux, φf.
When θ = 0
Since the two fluxes are perpendicular
ii. When θ = 90° to each other, the armature reaction of the
alternator at unity power factor is solely of
When θ = – 90° the distorting or cross-magnetizing type.
As the armature flux pushes the main
10.5.2.1. Armature Reaction of Alternator
field flux perpendicularly, distribution of
at Unity Power Factor
main field flux under a pole face does
When operating at unity power factor, the not remain uniformly distributed. The flux
angle between the armature current (I) and density under the trailing pole tips increases
the induced emf (E) is zero, indicating that somewhat while under the leading pole tips
they are in phase with each other. It is it decreases.
important to note that the emf induced in
the armature is a result of the changing 10.5.2.2. Armature Reaction of Alternator
main field flux that is linked with the at Lagging Zero Power Factor
armature conductor.
When the power factor lags at zero, the
As field is excited by DC, the main field current in the armature lags 90° behind
flux is constant in respect to field magnets, the induced emf. The emf in the armature
but it would be alternating in respect of coil is induced by the main field flux, with
armature as there is a relative motion a 90° lead over the main field flux.
between field and armature in alternator.
If main field flux of the alternator in respect We get, the field flux
of armature can be represented as:
(13)
(11)
Then induced emf E across the armature Therefore, induced emf
is proportional to, dφf/dt
Hence, at ωt = 0, E is maximum and
Now φf is zero.
At ωt = 90°, E is zero and φf has
(12) maximum value.

Now, armature flux φa is proportional to At ωt = 180°, E is maximum and φf zero.

340 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

At ωt = 270°, E is zero and φf has 10.5.3. Advantages of Stationary

negative maximum value. Armature–Rotating Field
Here, φf got maximum value 90° before Alternator
E. Hence φf leads E by 90°. Practically, most of the synchronous
Now, armature current I is proportional generators or alternators have stationary
to armature flux φa, and I lags E by 90°. armature and rotating field.
Hence, φa lags E by 90°. A stationary armature-rotating field
So, it can be concluded that, field flux alternator has several advantages over a
φf leads E by 90°. rotating armature type alternator, as given
below:
As a result, the armature flux and field
flux are in direct opposition to each other. • When an alternator uses a stationary
This means that the armature reaction of armature, the output current can
an alternator at a lagging zero power factor be accessed directly from the fixed
is purely demagnetizing in nature. In other terminals on the armature without
words, the armature flux directly reduces the need for slip rings, brushes,
the strength of the main field flux. and other components.
• Because the armature windings of
the rotating field alternator remain
10.5.2.3. Armature Reaction of Alternator
fixed in place, they are not affected
at Leading Power Factor
by any vibrations or centrifugal
In the optimal power factor scenario, forces.
the armature current I leads the induced • It is simple to insulate a stationary
emf E by 90°. Additionally, it has been armature for the high voltage that
demonstrated that the field flux φf leads the alternator is intended for, which
the induced emf E by 90° as well. can reach up to 33 kV.
Once more, the armature flux φa is • When the stationary armature is
directly proportional to the armature current used, the armature windings can be
I. Therefore, φa is synchronized with I. This braced better mechanically against
means that the armature flux φa leads E by the high electromagnetic forces due
90°, just as I leads E by 90°. to large short circuit currents.
• Direct current is supplied to the
In this scenario, both the armature flux rotating field, needing only two
and field flux in an alternator cause an slip rings for power. Typically, the
induced emf E that is offset by 90°. This field voltage ranges from 100 to 500
suggests that the field flux and armature volts, making insulation of the low
flux are aligned in the same direction. voltage slip rings from the shaft a
Therefore, the resultant flux is simply the simple task.
sum of the field flux and armature flux.
Ultimately, it can be said that the armature • The weight of the armature windings
reaction of an alternator operating at a is greater than the windings of
purely leading electrical power factor is the rotating field poles. Therefore,
primarily of a magnetizing nature. the rotating field type alternator
has smaller size than a rotating
armature type alternator.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 341
• a stationary armature may be cooled easily because the size of the armature
can be increased to provide more cooling ducts.
• Since the rotating field is comparatively light, it can be constructed for high
speed rotation.
• The forced cooling with gas or liquids can be easily provided in stationary
armature type alternators.
• The cost of the rotating field type alternator is low as compared to the rotating
armature type alternator.
342 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CASE STUDY
ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE EXCITATION SYSTEMS:
COMPARATIVE STUDY OVERVIEW

Excitation system is widely used to provide direct current to the synchronous machine
field winding. It also helps to control the field voltage, field current and reactive power
flow of the system. It enhances the stability during the start-up of the synchronous
machines. Furthermore, in a power system, the protection functions of the excitation
system enables to improve the rated capacity limits of the synchronous machines.
The main components of an excitation system are automatic voltage regulator (AVR),
exciter, measuring elements, power system stabilizer (PSS) and protection unit. The
excitation systems can be divided into different categories.

Types of the Excitation Systems

Synchronous machine excitation systems can be classified into three major groups
based on the power supply used as source of excitation. These are DC excitation, AC
excitation and static excitation systems
1. DC Excitation System: This excitation system utilizes DC generators as source
of excitation power. It also provides current to the rotor of synchronous machine
through slip rings. The exciter can be driven by a motor or shaft of a generator.
It can be either self-excited or separately excited. When it is separately excited,
the exciter field current is supplied by a pilot exciter comprising of a permanent
magnet generator.
DC excitation systems represent early systems, spanning the years from the
1920s to the 1960s. They lost favor in the mid1960s and were superseded by
ac excitation systems.
2. AC Excitation Systems: These excitation systems utilize alternators as source
of generator excitation power. Usually, the exciter is kept on the same shaft
as the turbine generator. The AC output of the exciter is rectified by either
controlled or diode rectifiers to produce the direct current which is needed for
the generator field. The rectifiers can be stationary or rotating.
AC excitation systems can take many forms depending on the rectifier arrangement,
method of exciter output control, and source of excitation for the exciter.
Currently, stationary and rotating AC rectifier systems are widely used in AC
excitation systems. In stationary rectifiers, the DC output is fed to the field
winding of the generator through the slip rings. On the other hand, in rotating
rectifiers there is no need of slip rings and brushes. The DC supply is directly
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 343

fed to the generator field as the armature of the exciter and rectifiers rotate
with the generator field. Such systems are known as brush-less systems and
were developed to avoid the problems with brushes when extremely high field
currents are applied to large generators.
3 Static (ST) Excitation Systems: All the components of these systems are either
static or stationary. Such systems directly provide synchronous generator field
winding with excitation current by means of slip rings. Rectifiers in ST systems
gain the power from generator through auxiliary windings or a step-down
transformer. In such systems, generator is a source if power which means that
the generator is self-excited. As the generator cannot produce any voltage
without excitation voltage, the generator must have auxiliary power source to
provide field current and energize the generator. Station batteries are usually
used as additional power sources and the process is known as field flashing.
From the excitation power gain point of view the excitation systems can be further
divided into independent and dependent excitation systems. The independent
exciter is not connected to the grid. Thus, its excitation parameters have no
direct relationship with grid parameter. The dependent exciter utilizes either
part of generator power or it is connected to the grid. Its excitation parameters
are dependent on grip parameters.

Control and Protection of Excitation System

A modern excitation control system includes a number of control, limiting, and protective
functions. Any given excitation system can include only some or all of these functions,
depending on the requirements of the specific application and the type of exciter.
The main components of excitation system are voltage regulators, excitation system
stabilizers, power system stabilizers, voltage sensing and load compensator, under-
excitation limiters, over-excitation limiters, and volts-per-hertz limiters. AC voltage
regulator is used to maintain generator stator voltage. It also helps to control the
generator excitation voltage. DC voltage regulator is used to hold generator excitation
voltage on constant level and it is manually controlled. The regulator is mainly used
during tests, start-ups and to cover the AC regulator outages.

Review
Excitation systems stabilizing circuits are used to improve the dynamic performance of
the excitation system. The DC and AC excitation systems have elements with significant
time constants. Feedback compensation system can used to minimize the phase shift
caused by elements. This contributes to generator stable operation conditions such as
prior to the synchronization or after load rejection. The power system stabilizer (PSS)
uses special stabilizing signals in order to control the excitation system and to improve
the dynamics of the power system. The basic input signals of PSS are shaft speed,
frequency and power. The stabilizer damps rotor oscillations through excitation control.
344 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

In order to get oscillation damping stabilizers, we have to produce appropriate electric

torque component.
Load compensation system can be used to control voltage variation at a point which
is either external or internal to the generator. The compensator’s impedance is required
to be adjustable in order to simulate electrical distance between the generator terminals
and the point at which the voltage to be controlled. Voltage regulation at the point
that is external to the generator is commonly used to provide proper sharing of the
reactive power between generators which are connected together. On the other hand,
voltage regulation at the point that is internal to the generator is used to compensate
the voltage drop on the step up transformers. Under excitation limiter (UEL) is used to
prevent generator excitation from dropping to the limit at which generator stability is lost.
The limiter input signal is either generator voltage and current, or active and reactive
power. The limits are determined by the input signals exceeding the reference level.
The function of over excitation limiter (OEL) is to prevent generator from overheating
due to long term excitation. The OEL senses over-current and after some time delay,
it reduces the excitation to pre-determined value. There are two types of time delay:
Fixed time and inverse time delay. Fixed time limiter operates when excitation current
exceeds reference value during preset time. Inverse time limiter operates with the
delay that matches field thermal condition. Over-flux limiter protects generators and
step-up transformers from excessive magnetic flux due to low frequency or over-voltage.
Excessive magnetic flux can cause overheating of generator or transformer which leads
to permanent damage. Generator protection is applied when Volt-per-hertz regulator
exceeds pre-determined value during specified time.

Figure 10.13. Structure of a detailed excitation system model.

Source: https://publications.waset.org/10007291/analysis-of-synchronous-machine-excitation-
systems-comparative-study.

Model of the Excitation Systems

The mathematical models of excitation systems are used to estimate the parameters of
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 345

control and protection circuit configurations. It also helps to coordinate the whole system
stability. Figure 10.13 depicts the general structure of excitation system model. This
model has the advantage of retaining a direct relationship between model parameters
and physical parameters. In this study, a model reduction technique is used to simplify
and obtain practical model for the system under consideration.
The parameters of the simplified model are selected such that its gain and phase
characteristics matches that of the detailed model over the frequency angle from 0 to
3 Hz. All significant non-linearities that affect the system stability are also taken into
consideration. However, the direct correspondence between the model parameters and
the actual system parameters is generally lost in the simplified model.
IEEE has standardized 12 model structures for representing wide variety of excitation
systems. In this work, two models, AC4A and DC1A, are considered for analysis.
A. Amplifier Model: The excitation system amplifier can be a magnetic amplifier,
rotating amplifier, or electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by its
gain KA and a time constant τA. Its transfer function is given by:

(1)
Typical values of KA lies in the range of 10 to 400. The time constant of the
amplifier is very small, in the range of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and is often neglected.
B. Generator Model: The emf generated from synchronous machine is a function
of its magnetization curve and terminal voltage. It is also dependent on the
generator load. In the simplified model, the transfer function that relates the
generator terminal voltage and its field voltage can be represented by a gain
KG and time constant τG. Its transfer function is given by:

(2)
These constants are load-dependent; KG can vary from 0.7 to 1, and τG lies
between 1.0 and 2.0 seconds from full-load to no-load.
C. Sensor Model: The voltage is sensed by a potential transformer and it is rectified
using a bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a simple first order transfer
function as given below:

(3)
where KR denotes the gain of the sensor and τR is its time constant. The value of τR is
very small in the range of 0.01 to 0.06 second. The block diagram of automatic voltage
regulator (AVR), which uses the aforementioned component models.
346 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The AVR system of a generator has the following parameters The DC1A exciter
model represents field controlled DC commutator exciters, with continuously acting
voltage regulators. The exciter can be separately excited or self- excited, the latter type
being more common. When self-excited, the excitation gain (KE) is selected so that
initially voltage regulation (VR) is equal to zero. Then it tracks the voltage regulator by
periodically trimming the shunt field rheostat to set point. Sample data for DC1A exciter
model of self-excited DC exciter are KA = 187, τA = 1.15, τE = 1.15, AEX = 0.014, BEX =
1.55, KF = 0.058, τF = 0.62, τB = 0.06, τC = 0.173, τR = 0.05, VRMAX = 5 V, VRM IN = −1.7 V.
The AC4A exciter model represents an alternator supplied controlled rectifier excitation
system. It has a high initial response excitation system utilizing bridge rectifier. Excitation
system stabilization is usually provided in the form of a series lag-lead network (transient
gain reduction).
The time constant associated with the regulator and firing of the controlled rectifier
is represented by τA. The overall gain is represented by KA. The effects of rectifier
regulation on exciter output limits are accounted for in the model by constant KC.
Sample data for AC4A exciter model and regulator are given as follows. KA = 200.0, τA =
0.04, τC = 1.0, τB = 12.0, VRMAX = 5.64, VRM IN = 4.53, KC = 0, VIMAX = 1.0, VIMIN = −10.

Conclusion
Comparison of two IEEE standard model structures representing synchronous machines,
generators in particular is presented. Excitation system model for synchronous machines
is very important to deliver field current and to give protection functions. But the most
crucial question here is which excitation model structure and exciter is better, reliable
and stable. Based on Simulink simulation results of synchronous machine excitation
systems, DC1A IEEE model structure representing synchronous machine excitation
system is better, reliable and stable than AC4A.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 347

CLASS ACTIVITY

Using Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator, Power Supply, AC Ammeter, connect

the circuit shown in Figure. Note that the three stator windings are wye- connected to
the fixed 208 V 3-phase output of the power supply, terminals 1, 2, and 3.
348 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUMMARY
• An alternators is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy in the form of alternating current.
• The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since
the currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor,
an alternator is a synchronous generator.
• A device that uses permanent magnets to produce alternating current is called
a permanent magnet alternator (PMA). A permanent magnet generator (PMG)
may produce either alternating current, or direct current if it has a commutator.
• A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one
shaft. Until 1966, alternators used brushes with rotating field. With advancement
in semiconductor technology, brushless alternators are possible.
• Voltage regulators serve the purpose of automatically controlling the terminal
voltage of the generating machine. It’s important to note that AC machines
inherently possess a higher internal reactance in comparison to DC machines.
• DC generator of special design that combines in one machine a greater
amplification than the two-stage amplifier together with ten or twenty times
the speed of response.
• Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. The
effect of the armature reaction can be seen in the DC generator as well.
• The synchronous motor is an AC rotating electrical machine widely used to
convert AC power drawn from the grid into mechanical power.
• Synchronous motors use electromagnets as the stator of the motor which create
a magnetic field that rotates in time with the oscillations of the current.
• A permanent magnet synchronous motor and reluctance motor requires a control
system for operating (VFD or servo drive).
• Electric motors generate power due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of
the stator and the rotor. In synchronous motors, the stator carries three phase
currents and produces three phase rotating magnetic flux (and therefore a
rotating magnetic field).
• In electrical engineering, the armature is the winding (or set of windings) of
an electric machine which carries alternating current. The armature windings
conduct AC even on DC machines, due to the commutator action (which
periodically reverses current direction) or due to electronic commutation, as in
brushless DC motors.

REVIEW QUESTIONS?
1. What is the basic principle of operation of alternators?
2. Describe voltage regulation methods.
3. Discuss the effect of load on alternator.
 ALTERNATOR AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 349
4. What is the basic structure of a synchronous motor? Discuss.
5. Differentiate between non-excited motors and externally excited motors.
6. How does a synchronous motor operate? Explain.
7. Why synchronous motor is not self-starting?
8. Discuss the starting methods of synchronous motors.
9. Deal with the armature reaction in an alternator or synchronous generator
10. Why damper windings are used in synchronous motor? Or how synchronous
motor is started as squirrel cage motor?

REFERENCES
1. Boulter, E. (2004). Historical development of rotor and stator winding insulation
materials and systems. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 20(3), 25–39.
2. Cai, B., Hao, K., Wang, Z., Yang, C., Kong, X., Liu, Z., Ji, R., & Liu, Y. (2021).
Data-driven early fault diagnostic methodology of permanent magnet synchronous
motor. Expert Systems with Applications, 177, 115000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
eswa.2021.115000.
3. Emadi, A., Rajashekara, K., Williamson, S. S., & Lukic, S. M. (2005). Topological
overview of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicular power system architectures and
configurations. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 54(3), 763–770.
4. Gandzha, S. A., & Kiessh, I. E. (2015). Application brushless machines with combined
excitation for small and medium power windmills. Procedia Engineering, 129, 191–194.
5. Gandzha, S. A., Sogrin, A. I., & Kiessh, I. E. (2015). The comparative analysis of
permanent magnet electric machines with integer and fractional number of slots
per pole and phase. Procedia Engineering, 129, 408–414.
6. Guo, M., Jin, Q., Yao, Z., & Chen, W. (2020). Analysis on the reason of low voltage
problem and the effectiveness of voltage regulation in a distribution area. IOP
Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 440(3), 032128.
7. Kalsi, S., Weeber, K., Takesue, H., & Lewis, C. (2004). Development status of
rotating machines employing superconducting field windings. Proceedings of the
IEEE, 92(10), 1688–1704.
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electrical systems circa 2005. IEEE Spectrum, 33(8), 22–27.
9. Orlowska-Kowalska, T., Wolkiewicz, M., Pietrzak, P., Skowron, M., Ewert, P., Tarchala,
G., Krzysztofiak, M., & Kowalski, C. T. (2022). Fault diagnosis and fault-tolerant
control of PMSM drives–state of the art and future challenges. IEEE Access, 10,
59979-60024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3180153.
10. Schmuelling, S., Kreischer, C., & Gołebiowski, M. (2015). Comparison of different
methods for excitation of synchronous machines. KOMEL, 107, 89–93.
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11. Tapia, J. A., Leonardi, F., & Lipo, T. A. (2003). Consequent pole permanent magnet
machine with field weakening capability. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
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12. Wang, W., Tian, W., Wang, Z., Hua, W., & Cheng, M. (2020). A fault diagnosis
method for current sensors of primary permanent-magnet linear motor drives.
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 36, 2334–2345. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPEL.2020.3011125.
13. Zhang, P., & Williamson, S. S. (2008). Recent status and future prospects of integrated
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Index

A Asynchronous motor 280

Atoms 192, 194, 198, 199, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206,
Absolute error 161
214, 219
Access Roads 144
Autotransformer 221, 230, 232
Accuracy 167, 168, 189
Admittance 108 B
Air-Core Transformer 231
Back EMF 258, 265
Alessandro Volta 3
Backlash 170
Alternating current 8
Bandwidth 109, 110, 171
Alternator 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321,
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) 233
324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 334, 338, 339, 340, 341, 346,
Battery 3, 17
348, 349
Battery Packs 37
American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE)
Betavoltaics 142
281
Bias 171
Ampere 8, 29
Bohr magnetons 193
Amplidyne 313, 321, 322
Branch 31, 32, 57, 68, 76, 79, 81
Amplitude 91, 103
Branch current 31, 76
Analog 164, 179
Bridge rectifier 317, 345, 346
Analog Ammeters 63
Brush Assembly 259
Angular Frequency 175
Buchholz Relay 226
Antiferromagnetic materials 201
Bushings 225
Antiferromagnetic structures 208
Apparent power 101 C
Arago’s rotations 281
Cables 5
Arc Furnaces 239
Capacitive Reactance 103
Armature 255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 277
Capacitor 1, 10, 13, 15, 19
Armature core 260, 271, 272, 277
Carbon batteries 142
Armature reactance 326
Cell 6
Armature Winding 262
352 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Charles Proteus Steinmetz 282 Domain wall energy 196

Circuit Breaker 146, 148 Domestic circuit 5
Clamp Meter 166 Drift 169
Closed Circuit 3, 4 Driver 299, 300, 304
Closed-Loop 332 Dry transformers 226
Color Coding Wires 145 Dynamic Error 171
Communications 123 Dynamic response 171
Commutator 255, 259, 261, 262, 277
E
Compensation Theorem 97
Complete circuits 3 Eddy Current Loss 272
Conductance 13 Electrical measuring instruments 163, 188
Conductor 2, 8 Electrical power transmission 142
Constant losses 272 Electric bulb 3
Continuity Tester 165 Electric circuits 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 29
Coulomb 214, 215 Electric dipoles 193
Coulomb’s law 214 Electric forces 214
Curie point 203 Electric power system 130, 140, 153
Curie-Weiss law 206 Electric Transformer Breather 225
Current 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 17, 22, 23, 24, 29 Electrochemistry 142
Current Divider Rule (CDR) 23 Electrodes 148
Current source 32, 56, 71, 73, 75, 86 Electromagnetic energy 197
Current Transformer 234 Electromagnetic Force 258
Electromagnetic phenomena 193, 210, 214
D
Electromechanical energy 191, 192, 209, 210,
Damper winding 334, 335 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220
DC generator 255, 258, 259, 269, 270, 277 Electromechanical energy conversion 255, 256,
DC machine 259, 260, 261, 262, 267, 269, 270, 269, 277
271, 272, 277, 278 Electromotive force (EMF) 209, 215
DC motor 255, 258, 259, 269, 277 Electronic Regulators 322
Dead Zone 169 Electrons 192, 193, 194, 199, 202, 203, 205, 214,
Delta/Delta Connection 120 219
Deviation 162, 163, 169, 170, 171 Electrostatics 214
Deviation from mean 162 Energy 19
Diamagnetic materials 201, 203 Energy converters 256
Diamagnetism 202, 203 Environmental Errors 162
Dielectric absorption 181 Exchange bias 206
Digital 157, 164, 165, 179, 187 Explosion Vent 226
Digital multimeter (DMM) 166 External noise 181
Direct current 8 Extra high voltage (EHV) 141
Disc-type torque meter 183
F
Distribution system 118, 140, 141
Distribution Transformer 221, 230, 233 Faraday 193, 202, 205, 215, 220
Domains 194, 195, 196, 201, 204 Ferromagnetic materials 194, 201, 203, 204, 208,
 INDEX 353
219 Instrument Transformer 235
Ferromagnetism 203, 219 Insulation 224, 225, 233, 246, 251
Fidelity 171 Intensity 164
Field 255, 259, 261, 267 Iron Core Transformer 231
Field-oriented control (FOC) 333 Iron Losses 271
Field system 261 Irradiance Meter 166
Fluxmeter 166 Ising model 208
François Arago 281 Isolation 221, 228, 237
Friction noise 181
K
Fringing 211, 212
Fuel cells 142 Kirchhoff’s Laws 2
Full-scale deflection current 63 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 2, 23
Fully Resistive Circuit 89, 92 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) 22, 29
Fuse 29, 146, 147 Kirchoff’s Laws 20
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 20
G
L
Gas Discharge Tube 147, 148
Gas-filled tube 148 Lap Winding 336, 337
Gauss 215 LCR meter 166
General Electric Company (GE) 282 Leakage Coefficient 211
Generated EMF 265 Leakage current 181
Generators 142 Leakage Flux 211
Gross Errors 161 Lighting Arrester 147, 148
Lighting Circuits 37
H
Linearity 170
Half cycle 125, 127 Line regulation 320
Hertz 91, 100 Load 1, 6, 12
High Leg Delta Connection 117, 125 Load regulation 320
Hippolyte Pixii 315 Long-term stability 168
Hub-type torque meter 183 Loop 31, 32, 78
Hysteresis 157, 170 Loop current 32, 76, 77, 78
Hysteresis Loss 271 LV winding 223, 245
I M
Impedance 92, 105, 107, 110 Magnet 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200,
Impedance of the circuit 105, 108 201, 202, 203, 219
Induction motor Steinmetz equivalent circuit Magnetic circuit 209, 211, 212, 213
282 Magnetic field 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198,
Inductive Reactance 103 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210,
Inductor 1, 10, 14, 15, 19 215, 217, 219, 220
Input regulation 320 Magnetic field lines 195, 197, 198, 199, 200
Inrush Current Limiter 147, 148 Magnetic flux 191, 212
Instrumental Errors 162 Magnetic reluctance 192
354 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Magnetism 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, Ohms 2, 12
201, 204, 205, 214, 215, 218, 219, 220 Ohm’s Law 2, 12, 18, 19, 23, 28
Magnetomotive Force (MMF) 212 Oil Conservators 225
Magnetos 317 One wattmeter method 133
Mains Supply 5 Open Circuit 3, 24
Materials 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 220 Open Delta Connection 117, 123
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 97 Open-Loop 332
Maxwell’s equations 215 Oscilloscope 165
Mean 162
P
Measurement errors 160, 188
Measurement Lag 172 Parallel Circuit 3, 4
Measurement Transformer 233 Parallel Magnetic Circuit 212, 213
Mechanical losses 271, 272 Parallel Resonance 104, 106, 107, 109
Median 162 Paramagnetic 193, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 219
Megger 165 Paramagnetic materials 201, 202, 219
Megohmmeter 165 Particles 214
Mesh 31, 32, 76, 79, 80, 81 Permanent magnet generator (PMG) 317, 348
Mesh Analysis 23 Permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)
Metal Oxide Varistor 146, 148 330
Michael Faraday 315 Permanent-split capacitor motor 289
Miller’s Theorem 98 Permeability 192, 202, 203, 204, 205, 209, 215, 220
Millman’s Theorem 98 Permittivity 215
Molecules 196, 202, 205, 206, 214, 219 Phase Angle 175
Motor 120, 121, 122, 130, 131 Phase Shift 104
Multimeter 164, 165, 179 Phase voltages 123
Mutual flux 227 Phasor 101, 102
Mutual inductance 227 Photons 215
Photovoltaic Effect 142
N
Photovoltaic systems 141
Néel temperature 206, 208 Piezoelectric effect 141
Network analysis 32, 70, 76, 86, 87 PolySwitch 146, 147
Network elements 32 Potential coil (PC) 133, 153
Neutrons 199 Potential difference 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 29
Nodal Analysis 24 Potential Transformer 230, 234
Node 31, 32, 47, 70, 73, 74 Power 2, 7, 18, 25
Node voltage method 31, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 86, 87 Power factor 101, 109, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
Non-contact Voltage Tester 166 135, 136, 137, 153, 154
Non-salient pole rotors 334 Power Quality Analyzer 166
North Pole 199 Power Supply 237
Norton’s Theorem 26, 96 Power Transformer 230, 233
Power triangle 128, 129
O
Precision 168
Observational Errors 162 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) 63
Octave 74 Progressive winding 338
 INDEX 355
Proportional-integral (PI) controllers 333 Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test 247
Protection devices 146, 149, 154 Series circuit 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 51, 61,
Protection Transformers 235 62, 67, 85, 86, 87
Protons 199 Series field winding 267
Pulser 69 Series Magnetic Circuit 212
Series Resonance 89, 104, 105, 109
Q
Settling Time 172
Q–Factor 101 Shaft 258, 261, 262, 269, 270, 277
Quality Factor 106, 109 Short Circuit 3, 4, 25
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) 215 Shunt resistor 64, 87
Silicon solar cells 142
R Single Phase Transformer 235
Radiators 226 Sink 10, 12, 29
Random Errors 162 Sir William Gilbert 199
Range 168, 171 Slip-ring or Wound Rotor Induction Motor 285
Reactance 91, 92, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107 Solar radiation 142
Reactance EMF 324 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor 284, 285
Reactive compensation 130 Squirrel-cage rotor 282, 311
Reactive power 101, 128, 129, 130, 131 Stability 168
Real power 127, 128 Standard Deviation 162, 163
Receiving substations 141 Starter 261, 264, 277
Reciprocity Theorem 97 Static characteristics 167, 169
Red leg connections 125 Stator Casing 279, 284
Red Magnetic Field Lines 195 Stator Core 279, 284
Reference Circuit 322 Stator Winding 279, 284
Registers 164 Step-Down Transformer 230
Repeatability 169 Stray losses 272
Reproducibility 169 Stroboscope 166
Residential voltage 100 Substations 141, 143
Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) 147 Super Position Theorem 95
Residual current device (RCD) 147 Switch 1, 7
Resistance 2, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, Switched reluctance motor (SRM) 296
25, 26, 28 Switch Source 101
Resistor 10, 12, 15, 19 Synchronous impedance 326, 327
Resolution 168 Synchronous reactance 326, 327
Resonance Frequency 105, 107 Systematic Errors 161
Resonant Frequency 103
T
Retrogressive winding 338
Rights of Way (ROWs) 143 Tachometer 165
Tap Changers 226
S Telecommunication 240
Saturation 205 Tellegen’s Theorem 98
Scott-T Connection 117, 124 Temperature sensors 37
356 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Tesla Coil 237 Two Winding Transformer 232

Teslas 204
V
Thermal noise 181
Thermoelectric effect 142 Variable-frequency drives (VFD) 280
Thevenin’s Theorem 96, 115 Variable losses 272
Thevenin’s voltage 96 Variable-reluctance motor 296
Thevinens resistance 96, 97 Variance 162, 163
Thevinens voltage 96 Varistor 148
Three phase system 119, 137, 153 Vector control 333
Three Phase Transformer 235 Vector Group Test 246
Three Wattmeter Method 133 Vectors 101
Threshold 169 Voltage 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20,
Time Constant 172, 175 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29
Tolerance 171 Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) 22
Toroidal Transformers 117, 125, 126 Voltage Dividers 37
Transformer Core 223 Voltage regulation (VR) 17
Transformer Equation 242 Volts 5, 9, 29
Transformer Oil 221, 225
Transformers 192, 204, 209, 215, 216, 220
W
Transformer Tank 225 Wattless power 101
Transformer Winding 223, 244 Wattmeters 133
Transmission lines 141 Watts 18
Transmission system 131, 140, 141, 143 Wave Winding 336, 337
Transmission Towers 143 Wye/Delta Connection 122
Triboelectric effect 141 Wye/Wye Connection 123
True power 101
Two wattmeter method 133 Z
Zero stability 168, 188