Human biology
• Immunity
• Dr .Zahraa Mohammed
pathogens
• Pathogens : usually microorganisms cause
diseases in hosts.
• Host : organism that invaded and often
harmed by a pathogen.
• Pathogens include bacteria, protists, fungi
and other infectious organisms , found in food
and water, on surfaces, and in the air.
Immune system
The immune factors identify the nature of the
pathogen,
strengthen the corresponding cells and
molecules to combat it
cleared host cell damage
remember pathogens to which it has been
exposed to create a more efficient response
upon re-exposure , memory can last several
decades.
Immune responce
• Classified into innate or adaptive.
• The innate immune response is always present
, defend against all pathogens rather than
focusing on specific ones.
• the adaptive immune response stores
information about past infections
Innate Immunity
• nonspecific toward a particular kind of
pathogen,
• not caused by an infection or vaccination
• depends on physical and chemical barriers ,
(the first line of defense).
• The second line of defense includes chemical
signals that produce inflammation and fever
responses , mobilizing protective cells and
other chemical defenses.
Adaptive immunity
• specific to substances and organisms that do
not belong in the body.
• takes longer to respond
• has a memory system that allows it to respond
with greater intensity even after year
External and Chemical Barriers
• protein keratin in skin resists physical entry into
cells.
• Other body surfaces, particularly those
associated with body openings, are protected by
the mucous membranes , the sticky mucus
provides a physical trap for pathogens,
preventing their movement deeper into the body.
• The openings of the body, such as the nose and
ears, are protected by hairs that catch pathogens,
External and Chemical Barriers
• the mucous membranes of the upper
respiratory tract have cilia move pathogens
trapped in the mucus coat up to the mouth.
• The acidic surface of the skin prevents
bacterial growth.
• Saliva, mucus, and the tears of the eye
contain an enzyme that breaks down bacterial
cell walls.
External and Chemical Barriers
• The acidic stomach secretions kills many
pathogens entering the digestive system.
• the surface of the body and the lower
digestive system have beneficial
microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, and fungi)
that coexist without harming the body ,
combating disease-causing organisms and
outcompeting them for nutritional resources .
Internal Defenses
• include the inflammatory response, phagocytosis,
natural killer cells, and the complement system.
• WBC is nucleated, able to move using amoeboid
locomotion , leave the blood to go to infected
tissues.
• a monocyte is a type of WBC that circulates in
the blood and lymph and develops into a
macrophage after it moves into infected tissue.
Internal Defenses
• A macrophage is a large cell engulfs foreign particles
&pathogens.
• Mast cells reside in connective tissues especially
mucosal tissues , release chemicals in response to
physical injury ,play a role in the allergic response
• When a pathogen is recognized as foreign, chemicals
called cytokines are released , is a chemical messenger
that regulates cell differentiation (form and function),
proliferation (production), and gene expression to
produce a variety of immune responses.
• Cytokines released from WBC after pathogen
recognition,also released by the infected cells.
inflammation
• The cytokines encourage inflammation
• Inflammation is a response to physical trauma,
chemical irritation, and infection by pathogens
(viruses, bacteria, or fungi).
• The chemical signals that trigger an inflammatory
response enter the extracellular fluid and cause
capillaries to dilate (expand) and capillary walls to
become more permeable
• The serum and other compounds leaking from
capillaries cause swelling of the area ( in turn
causes pain)
WBC
• Various kinds of WBC are attracted to the area of
inflammation , depending on the nature of the
injury or infecting pathogen a neutrophil is an
early arriving engulfs and digests pathogen
,followed by macrophages
• Cytokines increase the core body temperature,
causing a fever. The elevated temperatures of a
fever inhibit the growth of pathogens and speed
up cellular repair processes.
• Only dangerously high fever should be
suppressed
Natural Killer Cells
• the only lymphocytes of the innate immune system ,
can kill cells infected with viruses (or cancerous cells).
• NK cells identify intracellular infections, especially from
viruses, by the altered expression of major
histocompatibility class (MHC) I molecules on the
surface of infected cells , unhealthy cells display an
altered MHC class I complement on their cell surfaces.
• it induces programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
• Phagocytic cells then come and digest the cell debris
Complement
• approximately 20 types of proteins
• activated by infection or the activity of the cells
of the adaptive immune system and functions to
destroy extracellular pathogens.
• Liver cells and macrophages synthesize inactive
forms of complement proteins continuously;
• Certain complement proteins can combine to
open pores in microbial cell membranes and
cause lysis of the cells.
Adaptive Immunity
• The adaptive, or acquired, immune response
takes days or weeks to become established ,
more specific to an invading pathogen
• occurs after exposure to an antigen either
from a pathogen or a vaccination.
• activated when the innate immune response
is insufficient to control an infection.
• require information from the innate immune
system
Adaptive Immunity
• two types the cell-mediated immune
response, (controlled by activated T cells
which target infected cell), and the humoral
or antibody- immune response (controlled by
activated B cells and antibodies).
• involves a memory give the host long-term
protection from reinfection with the same
type of pathogen on re exposure
B and T Cells
• types of lymphocytes
• The B cells mature in the bone marrow
• T cells mature at thymus ,
becoming immunocompetent ,then migrate to
the spleen and lymph nodes remain until called
during an infection
Humoral (or Antibody)-Mediated
Immune Response
B cells participate in a chemical response to
antigens present in the body by producing
specific antibodies
Each B cell has only one kind of antigen
receptor, which makes every B cell different.
immunoglobulin is a protein produced by
plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen.
occur in the blood, in gastric and mucus
secretions, and in breast milk.
Antibody
• circulate in the blood stream and lymphatic
system
• can bind to viruses or bacteria and interfere with
the chemical interactions required for them to
infect or bind to other cells.
• The antigen-antibody complex stimulates the
complement system
• Phagocytic cells, are attracted by the antigen-
antibody complexes, and phagocytosis is
enhanced when the complexes are present.
• Antibodies stimulate inflammation
Active and passive response
• Active immunity :The production of antibodies
by plasma cells in response to an antigen (
response to infection or vaccination).
• Passive immune response :giving antibodies
from an outside source : antibodies circulating in
a pregnant woman's body move across the
placenta into the developing fetus ,or by
injecting antibodies into an individual
• gives immediate protection to body
Cell-Mediated Immunity
• T lymphocytes are unable to recognize pathogens without
assistance.
• dendritic cells and macrophages first engulf and digest
pathogens into hundreds or thousands of antigens.
• Then, an antigen-presenting cell (APC) detects, engulfs,
and informs the adaptive immune response about an
infection.
• Antigen fragments will then be transported to the surface
of the APC, where they will serve as an indicator to other
immune cells.
• Dendritic cells are located in the skin, the linings of the
nose, lungs , stomach ,intestine
• Macrophages also function as APCs.
