ROPE

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N i g el hep H^lr d
The Complete Guide to Rope Techniques
I

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The Complete Guide to
Rope Techniques

Nigel Shepherd

Constable • London
Constable Publishers
3 The Lanchesters
162 Fulham Palace Road
London W6 9ER
[Link]

This combined edition first published in

the UK by Constable, an imprint of
Constable & Robinson,Ltd 2001

Reprinted 2003

A Manual of Modem Rope Techniques first

published by Constable 1990
Copyright © 1990 Nigel Shepherd

Further Modern Rope Techniques first

published by Constable 1998
Copyright © 1998 Nigel Shepherd

All rights reserved. This book is sold subject

to the condition that it shall not, by way of
trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out
or otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it
is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on
the subsequent purchaser.

A copy of the British Library Cataloguing

in Publication Data is available from the
British Library.

ISBN 1-84119-323-2

Printed and bound in the UK

Notes on Photography
The pictures have been staged to show the set-up for each rope
technique in the clearest form possible. To achieve this, clutter
has been eliminated by omitting harnesses in many of the
pictures. I have replaced the harness in such pictures with a
quick draw to depict the tie on point. This is not to be
interpreted as a tie on to the abseil loop of the harness unless a
karabiner is shown. Where the rope is tied through the quick
draw you must assume that this is representative of the harness
tie on loops through which you would normally thread the
rope when tying on.
A garland twined from varied
waifs and strays

The flowers of thoughtless

youth and later days.

T. C. S. Corry
Irish Lyrics, Songs and Poems 1879
Introduction
This book brings together two earlier volumes, A Manual of
Modern Rope Techniques and Further Modern Rope Techniques, to
form the fullest guide to ropework yet published. In these pages
you will find a whole host of ideas and suggestions that will
hopefully make your climbing a safer experience.
The guide covers everything from basic tying on and belay¬
ing methods through to more advanced ropework, and also
provides information on simple and more complex self-rescue
scenarios on both cliff and glacier. It goes further in offering
advice to those who pursue the climbing instructor and SPA
awards - qualifications that require a broad base of safe rope¬
work skills to care for others on mountains and crags.
This comprehensive coverage of such a broad subject is dealt
with in as simplistic a manner as possible. Each scenario is
broken down into its individual components and the solution is
drawn from a repertoire of useful techniques that might be
applied.
It might be argued that a great deal more could be said about
the various techniques and in one sense I would agree. Yet I
also believe that to prescribe an unerring solution to a particu¬
lar problem stifles the imagination, is dogmatic and further¬
more takes away that most valuable of learning experiences -
self-discovery. If you find a better way to do something I say
'good on yer', and if this book helped you to do that then it has
achieved part of its purpose.
Do not encumber yourself with too much extra gadgetry. The
techniques in this book are described for normal day-to-day
climbing and only require normal day-to-day equipment. 'The
more man possesses over and above that which he needs, the
more careworn he becomes.' Keep life simple and light.
Most of the techniques described will need lots of practice
before you can truly say you know how to implement them.
Don't wait for something to go wrong and then expect to be
able to recall the page number and wise words to get you out of
trouble. In practicing, take care. Choose a good place with
8 Introduction

sound anchors and try to operate close to ground level until you
become more proficient. Take a course or hire an instructor pri¬
vately to steer you through the basics and on to more advanced
things - it is much less expensive than you might think, partic¬
ularly if the cost can be spread amongst a group of like-minded
people.
During the years since the volumes appearing in this book
were first conceived, many people have passed comment and
offered ideas on a wide variety of topics associated with rope-
work for climbing and mountaineering. Often these offerings
have proved immensely helpful and I hope that folk will
continue to send things from time to time.
Enjoy your climbing!
Nigel Shepherd
North Wales 2001
A manual of modem rope techniques
for climbers and mountaineers

Nigel Shepherd

Constable London
Contents
List of Illustrations 12
Acknowledgements 16
Useful knots and basic techniques 19
Snow, rock and ice anchors 90
Abseiling 124
Ascending a fixed rope 139
Escaping from the system 144
Direct belays and belaying techniques 174
Moving together 178
Glacier travel 189
Crevasse rescue 199
Other useful rope‘tricks’ 213
12

List of Illustrations

(1) The clove hitch 18

(2) The Italian hitch 21
(3) The double fisherman’s knot 23
(4) The sheet bend 24
(5) The tape knot or ring bend 27
(6) The bowline 29
(7) The bowline on the bight 31
(8) The triple bowline' 32
(9) The figure of eight knot 33
(10) The figure of eight knot into the harness 35
(11) The figure of eight on the bight 36
(12) The three-quarters fisherman 38
(13) The Alpine butterfly 40
(14) Attachment to the middle of the rope 41
(15) The figure of eight with a half fisherman’s 42
(16) The prusik knot 45
(17) The Klemheist 47
(18) The Bachmann and Penberthy knots 49
(19) The French prusik 51
(20) The Alpine clutch 53
(21) The belay plate 55
(22) Tying off the belay plate 57
(23) Taking in the rope 58
(24) The Lowe belay tube 62
(25) The figure of eight descendeur 63
(26) Taking in the rope using a waist belay 67
(27) The shoulder belay 70
 13

(28) A French prusik safety back-up 72

(29) Passing a knot through a lowering device
using the Mariner’s knot 74
(30) The larksfoot 75
(31) The hanging hoist 77
(32) Coiling a rope the traditional way 79
(33) Lap coiling 80
(34) The Dulfer seat and Parisienne baudrier 82
(35) An improvised sit harness 83
(36) An improvised sit harness from two short
slings 85
(37) Connecting a sit harness to an improvised
chest harness 87
(38) Nuts in opposition and the correct way to
extend wire runners 91
(39) A sling around a block 93
(40) A horizontally buried axe in a T-slot 96
(41) T-axe anchor 98
(42) Snow bollard 101
(43) Abseiling over a bergschrund 102
(44) New Zealand boot axe belay 104
(45) Boot belay 105
(46) The ‘stomper’ belay 107
(47) Ski anchors 108
(48) Placing an ice screw 110
(49) Two screws as an anchor and tying off a
screw 112
(50) An ice bollard and an ice thread 113
(51) A figure of eight tied in to a central loop
and directly to an anchor 116
14

(52) Clove hitches back to the central loop 117

(53) One anchor tied back to a central loop and
the second directly to an anchor 119
(54) Alternatives to screwgate krabs 120
(55) Anchors to central point of attachment 122
(56) The figure of eight descendeur 125
(57) A way to lock off the figure of eight 126
(58) Increasing the friction on an abseil 128
(59) A karabiner brake 130
(60) Other abseil brakes 132
(61) Abseiling past a knot 137
(62) Ascending a fixed rope 141
(63) A foot hitch 142
(64) Escaping the system - stage 1 145
(65) Escaping the system - stage 2 146
(66) Escaping the system - stage 3 147
(67) Escaping the system with the anchor out
of reach - stage 1 150
(68) Escaping the system with the anchor out
of reach - stage 2 151
(69) The assisted hoist 156
(70) The direct hoist 158
(71) The basic Z pulley 159
(72) The improved Z pulley 162
(73) The Yosemite lift 163
(74) Assisted evacuation - across the lap 166
(75) Assisted evacuation - between the legs 167
(76) Assisted evacuation - side by side 168
(77) Simplified set-ups of Photos 74 and 76 169
(78) An alternative method of evacuation 172
 15

(79) Direct belay around a spike 176

(80) Shortening the rope 180
(81) The finished version 181
(82) Carrying coils 182
(83) Tying on to the middle of the rope 185
(84) Shortening the rope 187
(85) Glacier travel 190
(86) Connecting a sit harness to a chest harness 192
(87) Tying on to the middle of the rope with
coils for chest support 195
(88) Crevasse rescue escaping the system -
stage 1 203
(89) Crevasse rescue escaping the system -
stage 2 204
(90) Crevasse rescue escaping the system -
stage 3 205
(91) Crevasse rescue when the rope is jammed 208
(92) Making an anchor during crevasse rescue 210
(93) Crossing a narrow snow bridge 211
(94) Retrievable ice screw 214
(95) Retrievable T-axe 215
(96) Tensioning a rope 217
16

Acknowledgements
No book of this kind can ever be entirely the work of one
person. It must, by its very nature, be a medley of many
people’s experiences.
To this end I am indebted to lots of people - climbing
partners of old and new, novice to superstar - for sharing their
experiences and some great days out in the mountains.
In putting this book together I owe a particular debt and I
wish to record my thanks.
To Sir Charles Evans for kind permission to quote from
his fine book On Climbing, still an inspirational instruction
book 30 years on. To Martin Atkinson and Mammut for being
so generous in supplying equipment for the photographs. To
Billy Wayman for some of the best climbing days ever and
sharing his extensive technical knowledge. To Brian Hall for
reading the manuscript. To Louisa Stieger for helping with
the action photos. To Jules and Barbara and Michel at Sport
Extreme in Chamonix for the loan of equipment..
Finally to Helen for lots of things too numerous to
mention but mostly for just being there.
This book is for them. Any credit due we shall share but
any criticism is entirely my responsibility.

Nigel Shepherd
Chamonix, August 1989
 18
(I) The clove hitch
Useful Knots and Basic Techniques
 19

Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

This section of the book covers all sorts of basic techniques,
knots and methods of tying on to the rope that will be found
useful in day to day climbing and mountaineering, and also in the
more problematical rescue and self help situations.
In dealing with individual knots or techniques I have treated
each in isolation and then made suggestions as to where they
might fit in best in the overall rope safety system. By practising
each one thoroughly as a separate entity the reader should be able
to identify and integrate one or a number of the knots or
techniques into his or her day to day climbing and any self-help
rescue situation.
As with all knots and techniques there are any number of
ways of tying them or putting them into operation. The methods
described here are fairly simple and straightforward but once
you have mastered the basic skills I’m quite sure you will evolve
your own methods of arriving at a safe and correct result.

THE KNOTS

Clove Hitch
This knot has been in common usage throughout Europe for a
great many years. Its popularity among UK climbers is increas¬
ing as people discover its versatility. Form two loops identically
as in Photo 1 and pass the right behind the left. With practice the
knot can be tied with one hand - useful if you are hanging on for
grim death and anxious to arrange an anchor.
There are one or two things that you should be aware of in
using this knot. It can be a very difficult knot to undo after it has
been subjected to a heavy or continuous loading, particularly in
wet ropes or in soft tubular tape. You should also try to avoid
tying it in the end of the rope as there may be some slippage. If
you do have to tie it in the rope end, make sure that you have
plenty of tail end and consider tying off with a couple of hitches
20 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

or half a double fisherman’s (page 25).

Useful applications

For tying in directly to anchor points, but only if they are in aim ’ s
reach of your stance (see Tying on to Anchors page 114)

Can be used to bring two anchor points to a single point of

attachment with a tape or rope sling (Photo 55a)

Tying off pitons on ice or rock

Securing the rope from an anchor point back to the harness

Tying slings or climbing ropes around anchor stakes

Italian Hitch
A most useful ‘sliding friction’ knot. Like the clove hitch, it has
been in popular usage throughout continental Europe for many
years, particularly as a method of safeguarding climbing com¬
panions. It is sometimes called a Munter hitch.
To tie this knot, form two loops identically, as in the clove
hitch and fold the two together as in Photo 2. It is important that
the two loops are formed in the same way otherwise the end
result may well be a simple two turns around the karabiner. This
will not afford any safety whatsoever. It is best used on a large
pear-shaped screwgate karabiner.
I have often heard it said that this knot [Link] nylon to rub
over nylon so must be unsafe to use. The nylon over nylon danger
arises only in situations where a moving nylon rope runs over a
static nylon rope. If you study the Italian hitch carefully whilst
it is in use, you will see quite clearly that this is not the case.
Nylon has a very low melting point, and it is quite possible in
situations where a moving rope runs over a static item of kit such
as a harness, to generate enough heat to melt the nylon.
The Knots 21

(2a) The Italian hitch

(2b) Tying off an Italian hitch while under load

22 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

There are some points to watch out for in use. It twists the
rope very badly. Strangely enough some ropes twist more than
others, probably due to individual manufacturers’ construction
designs. This problem can be alleviated to a certain extent by not
allowing the rope to twist as it passes through your hand. It is
difficult to hold a serious leader fall as the rope slips around the
karabiner quite quickly on initial impact. Provided that you can
keep a grip on the rope during this early stage a fall is soon
arrested. Wearing leather gloves makes it much safer to use. If
you are using it as for abseiling on double ropes, it is advisable
to treat the two ropes as one and only tie one knot. Using the hitch
in narrow karabiners can cause the knot to jam at inconvenient
times so it is recommended that you use a large pear-shaped or
HMS karabiner. Photo 2b shows how to tie off the hitch under
load.

Useful applications

As a lowering, abseiling or belaying device

Can be used on a ‘direct belay’ (page 177)

Double Fisherman’s and Double Fisherman’s with Reef

Knot
The traditional knot for joining two ends of rope together is the
double fisherman’s. There is such a thing as a single fisherman’s
but it is not in common usage nor indeed recommended as it does
not have the same holding power. The double fisherman’s with
reef knot is a good safe knot and is easy to undo after being
subjected to a heavy loading, for example when a number of
climbers go down the same abseil or when it is necessary to get
off the mountain by numerous abseils and the ropes are not
untied between each stage. Frequently check the knot for signs
of loosening.
When tying the double fisherman’s knot you must make
 The Knots
23

(3) Double fisherman’s and double fisherman’s with reef knot

 24 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques
(4) The sheet bend
The Knots 25

sure that both halves fit snugly into each other. If they don’t, the
knot is wrong and may come undone when subjected to a severe
load (Photo 3).
Whenever you use the knot make sure that there is, at the
very least, 4 cm (1 Yi in) of tail end at each side and that the knot
is tied firmly and securely. If you use it to join the ends of rope
slung nuts make sure that the knot is well tightened. You
should check it frequently for signs of wear and loosening. Do
not use it to join two ends of tape together. It is nowhere near
as safe or neat as a tape knot.

Useful applications

Joining two ropes together on long abseils

Joining the two ends of a rope slung nut

Half a double fisherman’s knot is commonly used for tying off

the knot that is used to tie into a harness. This is sometimes
referred to as a double stopper knot

Sheet Bend
This knot has very few applications in climbing and mountain¬
eering but is included because it is used in tying the Parisienne
baudrier (page 86). It is possible to use it between the double
fishennan’s knot in place of the reef knot when abseiling. You
may also find it useful in self-help situations when you have run
out or are short of karabiners. It can be used to connect two slings
together but make sure that there is plenty of tail end. It can be
used equally well in tape or rope of different diameters but do not
mix tape with rope (Photo 4 ).

Useful applications

Tying the Parisienne baudrier

26 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

Used in a double fisherman’s knot instead of a reef knot (see

page 22)

The Tape Knot or Ring Bend

This is the recommended knot for joining two ends of tape
together and is most commonly used for making up slings. It is
essentially an overhand knot in one end of the length of tape and
the other end retraces the line back through the knot to come out
on the opposite side (Photo 5). Unlike the fisherman’s knot
which shouldn’t be used in tape, the tape knot can be used in
rope. Make sure that the tape lies flat throughout the whole knot
and that there is at least 4 cm (llA in) of tail end. Frequently
check any knots tied in thick or ‘super blue’ tape for signs of loos¬
ening. Some people stitch the ends of the knot down but per¬
sonally I do not recommend this as I have seen the knot move
along the sling but still appear to be tied. If used in rope ensure
that all the strands lie parallel throughout the knot (Photo 5).

Useful applications

Joining two ends of tape together to make a sling

Joining two ends of rope together to make a sling

KNOTS FOR TYING ON TO THE ROPE.

The Central Loop

There is a bewildering array of harnesses for climbing available
these days. The type of harness that is used most commonly
throughout the world is the sit harness — full body harnesses are
awkward to handle and constrictive to wear in most mountain¬
eering situations.
The technology and design of sit harnesses has come a long
way since the first purpose-made waist belt of some 25 years ago.
 The Knots
27

(5) The tape knot or ring bend

28 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

All harnesses have specific requirements for tying in to the rope

and each individual manufacturer is obliged to provide informa¬
tion on the way in which to tie the rope into a particular harness.
You would be well advised to pay close attention to that
information as in some cases it may be extremely dangerous to
tie in any other way.
In nearly all harnesses there are loops through which the
rope should be threaded and these are referred to as the ‘tie-on
loops’. After threading the rope through these loops a suitable
knot is tied to secure the rope to the harness. The loop that is then
formed is referred to as the central loop and it is crucial to
modern rope techniques, particularly those described in this
book. Photo 10 shows the loop clearly.
On modern harnesses it plays an important role in attaching
belaying devices and for tying on to anchor points. It can also
affect the way in which you are able to escape from the system
(page 144) and whether or not you are able to do this with your
harness intact. The same photo also illustrates how it is used to
clip in belay devices and to secure the climber to the anchor point
which is, in this case, a clove hitch.

Bowline
This knot and the figure of eight are without a doubt the most
commonly used for tying on to the end of the rope. The bowline
is the more traditional, having been used since the early days of
mountaineering.
It can be tied into all harnesses with equal seeurity. The
basic knot is illustrated in Photos 6a and b. It is important to
ensure that the knot is finished off with a half a double fisher¬
man’s knot for extra security. This should fit snugly up against
the bowline. For further security the knot can be tied with the
‘rabbit coming out of two holes’ (Photo 6c). This also makes the
knot easier to undo after being subjected to a shock load. When
tying this knot many people use the ‘rabbit out of a hole, around
the tree and back in the hole again’ technique. It is important to
 Knots for Tying on to the Rope

(6) The bowline (a and b) with the ‘rabbit’ coming out of two holes (c)
29
30 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

ensure that the tree is the main climbing rope in every case.
It can be used to tie the climbing rope directly around the
waist. This of course is not as comfortable as a harness but may
be necessary from time to time. It will almost certainly cause
asphyxiation and death within a short time if you try to hang free
with a rope tied directly around the waist.

Useful applications

Tying the end of the rope into the harness

Tying the end of the rope around a tree or block or thread anchor

Tying the rope directly around the waist. Only recommended if

no harness is available

There are two variations of the bowline that may also be found
useful. The first is the bowline on the bight. Photo 7 shows how
to tie this knot. Initially it can be a little frustrating to tie but like
all knots once mastered it is rarely forgotten. This can be used for
connecting a sit harness to a chest harness (page 88) or for
bringing two anchor points into one central point. The second
variation is the triple bowline (Photo 8). This is essentially used
as an improvised body harness. Don’t expect it to provide much
comfort however!
It is best tied by wrapping the rope around your waist,
doubled of course, and then tying a bowline in the normal way
but without the double stopper knot to finish it off. Step out of
the loop once it is tied. Three loops are formed in doing this and
all should be exactly the same size.
To use it as a harness put a leg through a loop each. The third
loop goes over your head and one arm. The knot should be at
about sternum level.
Knots for Tying on to the Rope 31

(7) Bowline on the bichi

32 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(8) The triple bowline

 Knots for Tying on to the Rope
33

(9) The basic figure of eight knot (a and b) and an alternative method of finishing the knot off (c)
34 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

The Figure of Eight

This is the other commonly used knot but is slightly more
versatile than the bowline as it can be tied in a number of different
ways. In its simplest form the figure of eight is tied in a bight of
the rope and the finished product provides a loop which can be
clipped into a karabiner. This is useful for top-roping or safety¬
roping situations where the rope is clipped into the harness with
a screwgate krab but is generally an inconvenient way of tying
in to most harnesses (Photo 9).
There is actually very little that can go wrong when tying the
figure of eight but people sometimes end up with an overhand
knot or a figure of sixteen or even thirty-two! These are all
adequate although the overhand is difficult to undo after loading
and the others are just plain cumbersome. A second useful
application is for tying in to a harness directly through the
manufacturer’s recommended tie in loops. Be sure to familiarize
yourself with each individual harness tie in method.
When tying the knot directly into the harness the first step
is to tie a figure of eight knot in the single rope about 60 cm
(2 ft) from the end. The end is then threaded through the tie in
loops and the knot completed by tracing the end back through
the single figure of eight. Be sure that the ropes going through
the knot lie parallel and that the finished loop is neither too
small or too large. As a guide to the correct size you should just
be able to get your fist through the loop (Photo 10).
The figure of eight can also be used to tie into the middle of
the rope. It is not ideal for this purpose - an Alpine butterfly
(page 39) is better - but it does suffice. It is tied in a bight of the
rope and the loop that is formed can be clipped into a karabiner
in the harness. (See Tying into the Middle of the Rope page 184.)
As with the bowline and any other knot in the end of a rope,
you should always finish off with the double stopper knot or half
a double fisherman’s. In most cases this contributes negligibly
to the strength of the knot but an enormous amount to the safety
of the knot for it ensures that there is enough tail end of rope to
 Knots for Tying on to the Rope
35

(10) Tying the end of the rope into the harness with a figure of eight knot
 36 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques
(11) Figure of eight on the bight
Knots for Tying on to the Rope 37

absorb shock without the rope pulling through the knot.

Photo 9c and d shows an alternative way of finishing off the
figure of eight knot by tucking the end back into the knot. It is
quite popular and uses less rope than a double stopper knot.
Another way in which the figure of eight can be used is in
tying back to the harness from an anchor point. This is done using
the knot tied in a bight of rope or by threading the doubled rope
through the central loop and securing it with a somewhat
unwieldy but nevertheless effective knot (see page 115 and
Photo 51 a). You should be aware that this method is only safe if
tied around something of a small diameter, such as illustrated
here, the central loop. It would not for instance be as safe to tie
it around the harness belt.
The figure of eight, like the bowline, can be tied ‘on the
bight’ that is to say the finished product forms a double loop
(Photo 11). This has few applications in climbing other than
those already mentioned on page 30 when discussing the
bowline on the bight.

Useful applications

Tying into the end of rope

Tying back to the harness from an anchor point

Tying in to the middle of the rope

The Three-Quarters Fisherman

This knot is only included because it is a rather neat way of tying
in to the rope end. It is rarely, if ever, used in the UK and the only
places I have ever seen it used are the USA and New Zealand. As
an addition to your repertoire, however, it is interesting to know
and perhaps try.
To begin with you tie an overhand in the single rope about
45 cm (18 in) from the end. Thread the end through the tie in
38 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(12) The three-quarters fisherman’s

Knots for Tying on to the Rope 39

loops and then pass it through the single knot, finishing off with
a double stopper knot or half a double fisherman's (Photo 12).

Useful applications

Tying in to rope end

The Alpine Butterfly

This knot is used for tying into the middle of the rope. It is by far
the most suitable knot to use in this situation as it does not put any
undue twisting or distorting action on the knot in the event of
being subjected to a load. Indeed, it could be said that the knot
is designed purely for this purpose.
Although not in common usage, this knot is gaining cre¬
dence and popularity. I suspect that one of the reasons it has been
so ignored over the years is that it is quite complicated to tie
(Photos 13a to f). When tying into the middle of the rope one can
clip in directly to the loop with a screwgate karabiner. One of the
problems, however, with being tied in to the middle of the rope
when moving together (page 178) is that one is constantly being
pulled from in front or held back from behind. This is particu¬
larly awkward for any ‘ middle people ’ as they may be on a tricky
section of climbing just as the rope becomes tight. Similarly if
one member of the party slips there is a chance that they may take
the rest with them.
A way around these problems is to tie an Alpine butterfly
knot in the rope with a long attachment loop. In the end of the
loop you can then tie a figure of eight knot and clip this into your
harness. The length of the attachment from harness to Alpine
butterfly should be no longer than arm’s reach for safety (Photo
14).
40 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

...and finishing off the Alpine butterfly

Knots for Tying on to the Rope 41

(14) Attachment to the middle of the rope

42 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(15) The figure of eight with half fisherman’s

Knots for Tying on to the Rope 43

The Figure of Eight with Half Fisherman’s

Photo 15 clearly shows how this knot is used. A particularly
useful application of this knot is in situations where you have a
few people to rope up a short section of climbing, on a scramble
for instance, and you don’t trust the members of your party to tie
their own knots correctly.
Tie a figure of eight knot in the single rope then tie a half
double fisherman’s beyond it. You must make sure that the half
fisherman’s is finished with the end of rope pointing away from
the figure of eight. It is often easier to tie the knot around your
own waist first. Once tied, step out of it by sliding the half
fisherman’s knot away from you. The single figure of eight
remains in position. To fit the loop to a smaller person all that is
needed is to move the figure of eight away from the half
fisherman’s. To fit a fatter person move it towards the half
fisherman’s. When the person steps into the loop, it is a simple
matter to tighten it by sliding the two knots together. The two
knots must butt up against each other so that when tied around
the waist they form a snug but not overly tight or slack loop.

PRUSIK KNOTS

I use the collective term ‘prusik knots’ because it is the generally

accepted term to describe knots that can be used to ascend a fixed
rope - or to descend for that matter. They are also used in self¬
rescue situations to temporarily secure a rope and some can be
used as safety back-up devices or autoblocs (see page 48).
All of the knots described, apart from the Penberthy knot,
require a sling of 5 mm (Vie in) or 6 mm ('A in) cord joined
together with a double fisherman’s or ring bend. The Penberthy
can be used with rope or cord of any diameter provided that the
rope that you are tying it to is 9 mm (% in) or thicker. It does
not require a closed loop though (page 50). Some of them can
be tied with tape slings. For information on the length of loops
refer to the section Ascending a Fixed Rope (page 139).
44 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

The Original Prusik Knot

It is rumoured that this knot was originally invented by a
violinist. Dr Karl Prusik, for temporarily repairing violin strings.
Quite how true this story is I don’t know, suffice to say that it is
a useful and well-used knot, and an excellent story!
The basic knot is tied with a loop of thin cord around a
thicker rope. The most effective diameter for the loop is 5 mm
(Yu in) or 6 mm {'A in) soft kernmantle. It is quite important to
use fairly soft cord as some of the stiffer cords don’t grip quite
so effectively. It is certainly possible to use thicker cord for the
loop but in order to make it work you may have to put in more
than the basic two turns around the rope. Remember that each
turn you do must go inside the previous one (Photo 16a). It is
possible to tie this knot easily with one hand on a taut rope -
useful for situations when escaping from the system.
The prusik can cause quite a lot of frustration at times as it
tends to tighten up so much in use that it is difficult to release. An
effective way to release it after it has been loaded is shown in
Photo 16b. Simply roll the loop indicated behind the knot and it
will loosen itself. It does not work at all well on wet or icy ropes.
On wet ropes it jams severely and on icy ropes it sometimes does
not grip at all. Any prusik that tends to slip can be improved by
increasing the number of turns around the rope. It must not under
any circumstances be used as an autobloc or safety back-up, for
once it has been loaded you cannot release it without either
cutting it or taking the load off it. It actually works more
efficiently on kernmantle ropes if you use hawser laid rope.
Number Two nylon is most effective.
In the past people have used the prusik to protect themselves
when climbing without a partner. This is done by going around
to the top of the cliff and fixing a rope down the intended route.
The climber then goes down to the bottom, fixes the other end to
an upward-pulling anchor and then attaches on to the rope with
a prusik loop. As the climber ascends, the prusik is moved up,
thereby affording some security. 'Whilst it is quite common
 Prusik Knots

(16) The prusik knot

45
46 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

practice to climb this way you would be advised never to use a

prusik or any other kind of ‘prusik’ knot for this kind of safety.
Once subjected to a shock loading the loop may well slide down
the rope for a short distance and in that movement generate
enough heat to melt or fuse it. Either way it is too dangerous to
contemplate. A mechanical ascending device is more suited to
this task.
It cannot be used effectively when tied in tape.

Useful applications

For ascending a fixed rope

Temporarily securing the rope when escaping from the system

(page 144)

The Klemheist
This ‘prusik’ knot can be tied in cord and has the advantage over
the prusik that it can be tied in tape also. In addition, it can be
undone more easily after it has been loaded.
Photo 17 shows how to tie the knot. The sling is spiralled
around the main rope to create a short loop and a longer loop. It
is important that the longer loop is threaded through the shorter
loop and the shorter is above the longer. Make sure that all of the
turns in the loop lie parallel. Overall it is a much better knot to
use than the basic prusik as it causes fewer problems. If using the
knot in tape you will find that soft tubular tape works most
effectively, though in an emergency the stiffer tapes such as
‘Super Blue’ work quite well.
You must ensure that the tape lies flat throughout the knot
when you tie it. Some distortion always occurs during use but
shouldn’t cause any problems.
You will find that the Klemheist knot is used quite widely
in this book, particularly when we come to discuss glacier travel
Prusik Knots 47

(17) The Klemheist

48 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

and crevasse rescue. It is a more efficient alternative to the

prusik.

Useful applications
Similar to the prusik knot but can also be tied with a tape sling

The Bachmann
A much used knot but one that I feel has certain limitations. It is
effective in use but is prone to distortion and in some cases may
prove defective. Its minor disadvantage is that it requires a
karabiner-not a problem unless you are short of gear. Photo 18a
shows how to tie the knot. The karabiner is often the cause of
failure. Its smooth shiny surface comes into contact with the rope
so does not actually contribute to the gripping properties of the
knot.
It does not work at all on icy ropes!
This is one of a number of knots refen'ed to as autohlocs.
This means that it is possible to use it in a variety of self-rescue
situations as a safety back-up. It will release itself when not
under load but lock automatically when a load is applied. Its uses
in such situations will be become apparent as you progress
through the book.

Useful applications
Same as the prusik (page 44)

As an autobloc

The French Prusik

Of all the ‘prusik’ knots this is by far and away the most useful.
It is sometimes referred to as the ‘Johnnyknot’ or the autobloc.
Both terms are incorrect though I’m sure the procurator of the
former would be be happy for it to remain as the Johnnyknot. The
Prusik Knots 49

(18) The Bachmann (a) and the Penberthy (b)

50 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

latter is incorrect because it is a an autobloc. You will find this

knot widely used throughout this book. Its prowess in perform¬
ing many different tasks is unsurpassed by any other knot. Photo
19a shows how the knot is tied.
The best cord to use is 6 mm {'A in) kernmantle. Make sure
that it is good quality and soft as the knot will work even more
efficiently. Unlike most of the other prusik knots mentioned
this one can easily be released whilst it is under load. For this
reason I don’t recommend it is used as a knot for ascending the
rope. You may inadvertently pull down on it at an inopportune
moment and in doing so could cause youself many problems.
To release the knot while it is under load all you need to do is
pull the knot firmly but smoothly towards the attachment point
(Photo 19b). If for some reason it is difficult to release, a sharp
jerk should do the trick. Be careful though as the weight is
removed quite suddenly.
Always try to clip the two ends of the loop together with a
screwgate krab or two snaplinks back to back (Photo 19). There
have been circumstances in which the loops have unclipped
themselves from a single snaplink.
Do not be tempted to use it as a lowering device, if the rope
starts to run you will not be able to stop it without the knot
melting under the heat of the friction generated.

Useful applications

As an autobloc and safety back-up (page 44)

Penberthy knot
This knot is included for the main reason that it does not require
a loop sling as all the previous knots do. It can be tied in the same
diameter cord as the other knots but has the slight disadvantage
that it is time-consuming to tie and cannot be done with one hand.
Photo 18b shows how the knot is tied. It also works effectively
even when tied with 9 mm (% in) rope.
Prusik Knots 51

(19) The French prusik

52 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

It is one of the few ‘prusik’ knots that never seems to jam up

and that in itself is recommendation enough. However, you will
probably find few applications for it in climbing other than in
situations where you do not have a ‘prusik’ loop.
See the final chapter Other Useful Rope ‘Tricks’ for two
applications.

Useful applications

When using the retrievable T-axe belay (page 213)

When using the retrievable ice screw (page 215)

The Alpine Clutch

Though not really a ‘prusik’ knot of any description, the Alpine
clutch is included here because it fits into the family of autoblocs.
This is a particularly useful autobloc if you find yourself short of
prusik loops. It does however generate a lot of friction and if used
in a hoist this often negates some of the mechanical advantage
gained in a pulley system.
It works most efficiently on oval shaped karabiners. ‘D’
shaped krabs not only are less efficient but also jam frequently.
If for some reason you do not have oval krabs available try to
ensure that you do at least use identical krabs.
To rig the clutch see Photo 20. Clip the rope through both
karabiners and decide which is to be the load rope. Take the dead
rope, twist it over the load rope karabiner and clip it in. Do not
under any circumstances use it as a belaying or abseil device. The
rope only moves freely in one direction; it does not move at all
in the other.

Useful applications

As an alternative autobloc if no prusiks are available

 Prusik Knots

(20) The Alpine clutch

53
54 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

Can also be used for ascending a fixed rope if you only have one
prusik loop available (page 143).

BELAYING

This section covers techniques of belaying - the methods of

safeguarding a climber’s rope whilst he or she is actually
climbing. The term ‘belaying’ is also commonly used to describe
the methods of securing oneself to the mountain. To clarify
matters in the text the latter is dealt with under the separate
heading Tying on to Anchor Points (page 114).

The Belay Plate

This is unquestionably the most commonly used method of
safeguarding a climber’s rope. It is widely used throughout the
world and its popularity is well justified for it is a safe and
reliable method of belaying. The days of shoulder belays and
waist belays are fading fast. Most certainly the former has almost
completely disappeared from the scene. These two methods are
discussed later.
The belay plate is available in many different styles. There
are those that take single 11 mm C/\6 in) rope and those that take
combinations of sizes of double ropes. Belay plates with two
holes, each capable of taking 9 mm (Vg in) or 11 mm (yi6 in)
ropes are by far the most versatile. Plates with springs are also
available. The spring reduces the risk of the plate jamming acci¬
dently during use and serves no other purpose except to ensure
the plate gels tangled with all your other gear when not in use.
When you buy a belay plate it is necessary to fix a short loop
of cord to it. All plates have the facility for this. The length of the
piece of cord that you buy should be about 30 cm (1 ft) long and
4 mm (14 in) or 5 mm (146 in) diameter. One end is threaded
through a small hole in the plate and tied in an overhand knot.
Tie an overhand in the other end and use the loop that is formed
to clip into the belay karabiner. This cord helps to keep the
Belaying 55

(21) The belay plate

56 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

belay plate in place when belaying a second and also secures the
plate to yourself to help prevent loss.
You will find that a large pear-shaped or oval screwgate
karabiner is most useful in conjunction with a belay plate. It is
not necessary to use two karabiners, one for each rope, when
using double rope for climbing.
When using the plate in the normal manner it should be
clipped into the central loop along with all the other anchor tie
offs (Photo 21). You should always ensure that there is enough
room for you to be able to lock off the plate if your partner falls.
Any small or constricted stances may prove quite awkward in
manipulating the plate.
If you are on a hanging stance, that is to say one where there
is no ledge to stand on and all the belayer’s weight must hang off
the anchor points, you may find it awkward to belay someone
climbing below you. You will find it easier to operate the plate
by clipping the live rope through a krab in the anchor so that your
second’s rope actually travels up through the anchor and down
to your belay plate.
The belay plate can also be used on a ‘direct belay’. That is
attached directly to the anchor. In such cases it is very important
that the plate is operated from behind. In this way you will ensure
that it can be locked off correctly. It is not possible to do this
when standing in front of the plate. (See direct belaying page
174.)
You may find yourself in the situation where you need to tie
off the belay plate. This may happen, for example, when escap¬
ing from the system (page 144) whilst there is someone hanging
on the end of the rope whose weight makes it difficult to release
the plate. In this case you should take the controlling rope (ie the
one that locks off the plate) back through the karabiner. You will
need to make sure that no rope slips through your hands whilst
doing this. Once it is threaded through the krab tie at least two
half hitches in front of the plate. This will secure the rope and
allow you to use both hands for the next stage of the escape.
Belaying 37

(22) Tying off the belay plate: threading the rope through
the krab (a) and tying off in front of the plate (b)
58 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(23a) Taking in the rope using a belay plate - stage one

Belaying 59

(23b) Taking in the rope using a belay plate - stage two

60 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(23c) Taking in the rope using a belay plate - stage three

Belaying 61

Tying off the plate in this manner also allows you to untie it
whilst it is still under load.
Another way of tying off the plate temporarily is to simply
tie a couple of half hitches in front of the plate. This is most useful
on a stance where you need to .secure your partner whilst gear is
sorted out or the guide book consulted. Photo 22 shows both
methods clearly.
A third possibility, and one that works better in the latter
situation, is to simply tie an overhand knot in the controlling
rope. When the knot comes up against the plate it will automati¬
cally lock. Do not do this in situations where a load will come on
to the plate because unless you are able to take the load off you
will not be able to get the knot undone again.
Photos 23a, b and c show the sequence of taking in the rope
using a belay plate. This method is applicable to the Lowe belay
and figure of eight device mentioned below.

The Lowe belay tube

The Lowe belay tube comes highly recommended and is a very
efficient device, both for belaying and abseiling. Unlike the plate
it has much less tendency to twist the ropes and can also be used
on quite icy ropes where you may not be able to use a plate. Photo
24 shows how to use the tube in the belay system.
It is normal to use the tube with the wider end facing away
from the connecting karabiner. If, however, you need to generate
a bit more friction, such as in abseiling, you could use it with the
wider end towards the connecting karabiner.

The Figure of Eight Descendeur

The figure of eight descendeur can also be used as a belaying
device. It is less efficient than plates or tubes but nonetheless
perfomis adequately. There are three ways of using it. The first
is to set it up exactly as you would for abseiling. Another is to
thread the rope through the small hole and use it in the same way
62 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(24) The Lowe belay tube

 Belaying

(25) Using a figure of eight descendeur as a belaying device: {from left

63

to as a plate; the traditional way; using the large hole only

64 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

as a plate. The third way is to thread it through the large hole but
not through the little hole. Photo 25 shows all three quite clearly.
The problem with the first is that it tends to be awkward to
work and twists the ropes. It is also very difficult to operate with
double ropes as the individual ropes don’t separate easily -
paying out or taking in one rope at a time is a problem. If using
it as a belay plate it works well but should only really be used
with single ropes. The third method of using it works well if it is
attached directly to the anchor. It is in common usage on climbs
that are well bolted and where the approach is often by abseil so
you would carry a figure of eight descendeur in preference to a
belay plate. This method works well for bringing up a second but
exercise great caution if belaying a leader the same way. You
must have upward pulling anchors that are 100% sound.
The figure of eight descendeur is also commonly used when
top roping a climber from the ground. It is safer to use it on a
direct belay for this purpose rather than attached to the belayer.
Be careful if using figure of eight descendeurs as belaying
devices when attached directly to the harness. They are particu¬
larly awkward to handle.

The Italian Hitch

The Italian hitch can also be used, though again it makes it
awkward to handle double ropes and does of course twist the
ropes very badly. When using the hitch always try to use a large
pear-shaped karabiner as this eases the problems to a significant
extent. See page 20 for relevant notes on the Italian hitch.

Body Belays
There are two types of body belay: the shoulder belay and the
waist belay. The former is almost extinct but is still occasionally
used. The latter, though less commonly seen these days, is fairly
widely used but by comparison to mechanical methods of
belaying they are considered old fashioned.
Belaying 65

The Waist Belay

If you were to show a beginner a body belay and a mechanical

belaying device, such as the belay plate, not only would it take
them a much shorter time to master the plate, it would also be
very much safer to use. Bearing this in mind I consider the waist
belay to be a fairly advanced belaying technique and one that in
unpractised hands is dangerous.
There are some important considerations to take into ac¬
count. Firstly, to have any hope of holding a severe fall, gloves
must be worn. Long sleeves and good padding around the back
are also necessary. This means that on hot, sunny, windless days
you can’t just wear a T-shirt - unless of course you are happy to
run the risk of sustaining terrible rope bums.
Years ago when I worked at Idwal Cottage Youth Hostel,
two girls came in early one afternoon and asked if we could be
of help. One of the girls had her hands tucked under her armpits,
the other could barely walk. As the tale unfolded we discovered
that they had decided to ‘have a go’ at rock climbing and
acquired a rope, but no other gear. They spotted some people
climbing on the Gribin Facet, though of course they didn’t know
its name, and thought they’d go up there. The first girl, the one
with her hands in her armpits, had climbed up, sat on the top and
told her friend to follow. Unfortunately near the top her friend
fell and she was unable to stop the rope from sliding through her
hands. Her friend tumbled all the way to the bottom of the cliff,
but not too fast because she held on to the rope all the way. It is
sufficient to say that the rope bums were pretty horrible.
Secondly, you should always bring the rope over your head
when putting it around your waist. ‘Stepping’ into it often leads
to tangles and if you fail to hold a falling second the rope can be
pulled down around your knees. By looping it over your head the
ropes to the anchor prevent it sliding down below your waist.
When operating the waist belay you will have a ‘live’ rope
and a ‘dead’ or ‘controlling’ rope. The live rope has the other
66 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

climber directly on the end of it and the dead rope goes to the pile
of slack rope you have beside you.
Always twist the dead rope around the arm that holds it and
under no circumstances let go of it. Never twist the live rope
around your arm - any sudden load may snap your arm.
If you are tied to an anchor point via the front of your
harness, make sure that the live rope comes around on the same
side as the rope from the anchor. Photos 26a, b and c show the
technique for taking in the rope safely. Any loading will then
twist you into the anchor rather than out of it which may cause
you to let go of the rope.
When belaying the leader always arrange your stance so that
if the person falls they do not fall in such a way that the rope
comes away from your waist. This means that if you are facing
into the crag you must make sure that the live rope comes out on
the opposite side of your body that the load is likely to come
from. If you are facing out from the crag, the live rope must come
around on the same side that you anticipate the load to come from
and twist your body slightly towards that side. For extra safety
the live rope could be clipped into a karabiner on a strong point
of the harness somewhere near the central loop. Always make
sure that you have sufficient space to be able to lock off the rope
in the correct manner for holding a fall.
If you have to escape from the system (page 144) when
using the waist belay, you can release both hands if you wrap the
controlling rope repeatedly around your leg and finally stand on
it to trap it. This is terribly uncomfortable so make sure that you
work quickly!

The Shoulder Belay

This method of body belaying, illustrated in Photo 27 is most

useful for hauling people up climbs and for quick belays when
moving together. It is important that it is set up as illustrated, with
the live rope coming from underneath the armpit. If it comes over
Belaying 67

(26a) Taking in the rope using a waist belay - stage one

68 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(26b) Taking in the rope using a waist belay - stage two

Belaying 69

(26c) Taking in the rope using a waist belay - stage three

Then return to (a) and repeat the sequence
70 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(27) The shoulder belay

Lowering 71

your shoulder any loading on it will tip you forward and may pull
the rope off. You need to be well braced, preferably leaning
against the rock, with the leg on the same side as the live rope
braced slightly forward. You must not use this method for
belaying a leader.

LOWERING

Most of the times you go down on a rope will either be by

climbing down or by abseil. There could, however, be the odd
occasion where you need to be lowered down by your partner.
Such an occasion could be as part of a rescue or perhaps when
you are descending but are a little unsure of what lies ahead. If
you are being lowered you can go down to see what’s ahead and,
should you discover that the route is impassable your partner can
belay you while you climb back up without having to change the
belay system at all.
The device that you use for lowering could be a figure of
eight, a belay plate, karabiner brake, Italian hitch or any other
suitable method. For notes on these please refer to the appropri¬
ate part of the book.
Whichever device or knot you choose to use, it is worth
putting on a French prusik safety back-up. This is attached to the
live rope and thence to the anchor. Putting this on allows you to
rest and take both hands off the controlling rope if you need to,
though if you intend leaving the lower for some time you should
tie the device off by an appropriate method (Photo 28).
To convert a lower into a belay to bring a climber back up
as in the situation quoted, all you need to do is pull the rope
through the lowering device instead of letting it out. You don’t
even need to take the French prusik safety back-up off.

Passing a Knot
If, on a rescue for example, you need to join two ropes together
you can pass the knot through a lowering device fairly simply.
72 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(28) The French prusik being used as a safety back-up on a lower

Lowering 73

The technique for this is essentially the same as that de¬

scribed for abseiling past a knot (page 135 and Photo 61). With
the safety back-up already on, allow the joining knot to come
about 30 cm (1 ft) from the lowering device. This must coincide
with all the load coming on to the safety back up. Take the rope
out of the device and put the rope back in with the knot below
and having theoretically passed through the device. Make sure
that the knot is hard up against the device and gradually lower
the load back on by gently releasing the autobloc a little at a
time. Once the load is back on, release the autobloc to allow the
knot to pass by and then put it back on again. Make sure that
the autobloc is long enough to allow the load to come back on
to the device after passing the knot.
Another method of passing the knot is illustrated in
Photos 29a and b. The system is identical to that previously
described except that a Mariner’s knot and prusik is used in
place of the French prusik. Allow the joining knot to come
30 cm (1 ft) from the lowering device, put on the prusik and then
tie the Mariner’s knot, take the load on the prusik, pass the knot
and gradually release the Mariner by allowing it to untwist itself
slowly. Please note that for the Mariner’s knot to work
efficiently you must have quite a long prusik loop.

Cowstail
A cowstail is a short attachment from the harness that can be used
to clip into an anchor point without having to use the rope to tie
in. It must be attached to a part of the harness that will safely
support your weight without relying on the rope.
It is possible to buy pre-stitched slings that have a number
of different loops to which you can attach yourself. These are
sometimes called ‘snake’ slings. An item of equipment such as
this is indispensable in self-rescue situations. If however, you
are not so fortunate to own a snake sling, one can easily be
improvised from a tape sling or quick draws.
Useful Knots and Basic Techniques
74
(29) Passing a knot through a lowering device using the Mariner’s knot
Lowering 15

(30) A larksfoot
76 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

Larksfoot
This is the term used to describe a method of securing a sling to
an anchor (Photo 30). It is quick and convenient to do but in some
instances, such as extending wire runners, it is very dangerous to
use. 1 include it here because I mention its use in other situations
later in this book. It is most useful when ascending a fixed rope
or ‘prusiking’ (page 139) to secure the foot loop.

THE HANGING HOIST

This technique, as with many others in the book, is described as

an individual exercise that forms a part of a larger operation. If
you have a victim who is hanging on the end of a rope and you
wish to release the rope from their harness, you have a number
of options.
The first option to consider is to get the victim to stand on
a ledge or foothold nearby and take enough weight off the rope
to allow you to untie it. Remember though that you should attach
the victim into the new rope or anchor point before untying the
original rope.
If the victim is unable to help you in any way or is hanging
free, the second option, having already clipped the victim into
the new tie-on or anchor, is to simply cut the rope near the
original tie-on. Be very careful if you choose this option, for two
reasons. Firstly, there will be a lot of ropes and general melee
around you and the victim so be sure that you cut the right rope.
Secondly, when a rope is under tension a sharp knife will cut it
cleanly and surprisingly easily, so be careful not to slip with the
knife and cut other ropes as well.
The third option available to you is more complicated than
the previous two, but is the one you are most likely to have to use.
Photo 31 shows the basic set-up for this technique. Proceed as
follows: abseil down until your feet are level with the victim’s
chest and lock off so you don’t go any further. Put a prusik loop
(a short one) on the victim’s rope and clip in a krab. Pass a long
The Hanging Hoist 77

(31) The hanging hoist

78 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

sling through the krab and clip one end of it to the victim’s
harness - not into the central loop. If you put your foot into the
other end of the sling and pull the victim up with your arms, at
the same time pushing down hard with your leg, the victim will
move up surprisingly easily and their weight will come off the
end of the rope. You must find some way to keep the victim’s
weight off the old end of rope whilst you untie it. This could be
done by putting a French prusik on the victim’s new rope (which
will already be tied in) and attaching it to another prusik on your
own rope or fixing it to your person. This temporarily holds the
victim whilst you untie the old rope and you can then lower him
or her on to the new rope by releasing the French prusik.
Alternatively, if you have an assistant at the top of the new rope
they can take in the rope tightly as you effect the hanging hoist
and when you release the load from the foot sling the victim
drops on to the new rope.
Remember that whichever option you choose you must
always attach the victim to the new rope or anchor before untying
the original rope.

COILING THE ROPE

The ‘traditional ’ way of coiling a rope is illustrated in Photos 32.

Unfortunately [Link] modern ropes do not comply very well with
this method. Unless you deliberately try to take the twists out of
the rope it will not lie flat and neatly coiled as illustrated.
However, forcing the twists out of the rope can do harm to the
long-term durability and handling properties of the rope. It is
much better to allow the rope to twist as it wants to than to make
it do something that’s not good for it. A better method is
illustrated in Photos 33. This is known as ‘lap coiling’ and it is
much better for the rope. The sequence shows how to coil a rope
this way and how to finish the coiling off. The spare rope left
after coiling can be used to tie the rope to your back, leaving your
hands free to hold on to the rock.
Coiling the Rope 79

(32) Coiling a rope in the traditional way

80 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(33) Lap coiling

Improvised Harnesses 81

IMPROVISED HARNESSES

The vast majority of modern-day climbers use a purpose-made

harness of one kind or another: a sit harness, simple waist belt or
full body harness. Nevertheless, you may find yourself in a
situation one day that requires an improvised harness. A typical
example is if you are climbing with a party that only have waist
belts and you decide to do a bit of abseiling with them. Another
occasion might be in glacier travel when you only have a sit
harness and feel a chest harness combined with a sit harness
would be safer.
It is well worth bringing to your attention here that it is not
possible for anyone to hang on the end of a rope by the waist for
more than a few minutes without causing great discomfort,
asphyxiation after about ten minutes and death within twenty
minutes. You should, therefore, never lower or abseil off a direct
waist tie.
A simple method of relieving the weight off a waist tie is to
clip a long sling on to the main climbing rope with a karabiner,
slide it down until it is up against the waist tie and stand in it. This
is of course only a temporary solution to the problem and a more
comfortable harness should be rigged as soon as possible.

Sit Slings
The Dulfer seat is probably the most commonly used improvised
sit sling. It requires a 2.4 m (8 ft) sling for the average-sized
person.
Pass the sling behind the back but do not step into it at all.
The knot or sewn Join should be positioned in the middle of the
back. Pull a loop either side of your body and one up between
your legs. Clip all three loops together at the front with a large
screwgate karabiner (Photo 34a). For extra security the three
loops could be clipped into the waist tie or belt. On small people
the tape can be tucked up through the waist belt and turned
around a few times to take up the slack. There is no safety or
82 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

(34) A Dulfer seat (a) and Parisienne baudrier (b) connected

to make an improvised full body harness
Improvised Harnesses 83
84 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

comfort in a Dulfer sling that is continually falling around the

knees.
If for some reason your sling is not long enough to go around
the person, a simple and effective sit sling can be arranged by
twisting the sling once to form a figure of eight. Step one leg into
each loop and bring the centre up to clip into the waist belt or tie.
Any slack can be taken up and tied in a knot on one side.
The Dulfer seat is really only of use provided that it is under
constant tension. It’s not worth using it as an alternative to a
proper sit harness for general mountaineering. It slips down
around the legs and is generally very awkward. An interesting
and more comfortable, longer lasting sit harness can be con¬
structed with a 4-4.5 m (13-141/2 ft) length of tape. The wider
the tape the more comfortable the harness. Photos 35a and b
show how to rig this up. The ends are joined together using the
tape knot. Whilst it is longer lasting than the Dulfer it is not
comfortable to hang in for a long time as the leg loops squeeze
and cut into the thighs.
A third improvisation is illustrated in Photo 36. This re¬
quires two short slings (120 cm (4 ft)). Tie an overhand knot
about two-thirds of the way along each sling and step one leg
into each of the larger loops. Thread the waist belt through the
two shorter loops of the slings or clip them to a krab on the belt
and make sure that when you tie on you thread the rope
through both slings and the waist bell. If you do not have a
waist belt you could use a third sling around the waist instead
or even the end of the rope.

Chest Harnesses
In Britain climbers rarely have cause to resort to wearing a chest
harness. Perhaps the only time that you would certainly use one
is in an emergency situation involving the lowering of a victim
(see Assisted Evacuation page 164). In such cases a chest
harness makes it more comfortable for the victim and indeed
may also make it more comfortable for the rescuer.
Improvised Harnesses 85

(36) A sit harness made from two short slings

connected to the waist belt for security
86 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

In Alpine regions, however, where a fall into a crevasse may

result in a climber hanging free, some kind of chest support is
essential. The reasons for this are quite simple - the centre of
gravity of the human frame is at the sternum and wearing a
rucksack makes the body top-heavy. The more weight in a
rucksack the more top-heavy the climber is. The attachment
point of a sit harness is very much lower than the centre of gravity
so that in a fall into space, particularly, the climber is likely to tip
upside down and may even fall out of the harness. There are ways
of gaining chest support by the manner in which the rope is tied
to the climber (see Moving Together page 184). However satis¬
factory these methods may seem, they are never as convenient as
a properly rigged chest harness, improvised or otherwise.

Parisienne Baudrier

The simplest but most effective chest harness to improvise is the

Parisienne baudrier. It requires a 2.4 m (8 ft) sling of at least
2.5 cm (1 in) wide tape. If you are able to get 5 cm tape the over¬
all harness will be more comfortable to wear.
To tie the harness, pass one arm through the sling and bring
the rest of the sling under the opposite armpit. Tie a sheet bend
in the manner illustrated in Photo 4. It is very important to ensure
that you do not pass the end of the sling through the loop that goes
over the shoulder. If you do the resulting knot will be a slip knot
and any load will only tighten the sling around the body causing
eventual asphyxiation and possibly death. The harness should be
snug but not tight enough to cause restricted movement. After
tying the knot there should be at least a large enough loop to clip
a karabiner in (Photo 34b).
To be absolutely truthful, there are few other improvised
chest harnesses that are as effective. Crossed sling baudriers and
others that may have been suggested in the past make poor and
dangerous alternatives.
The most likely problem that you will encounter with the
Figure of eight
knot
Improvised Harnesses

(37) Two ways of connecting a sit harness to an improvised chest harness

87
88 Useful Knots and Basic Techniques

Parisienne baudrier is that the sling may not be long enough to

go around the chest. It is a simple matter to rectify this by adding
another shorter sling on to the part of the sling that comes under
the armpit. This will allow extra tape for tying the sheet bend.

Improvised Body Harness

The Dulfer seat or any of the other improvised sit harnesses and
Parisienne baudrier can be connected together to make a full
body harness. There are a number of ways of doing this, the
choice of method depending on the situation you find yourself in
and the equipment available to you. If you have a long enough
loop after tying the sheet bend on the Parisienne baudrier, clip
the loop into the Dulfer seat karabiner thus connecting the two
together. Photos 37a and b show ways to connect a purpose-
made sit harness to an improvised chest harness and two differ¬
ent methods of attaching the rope. Similar methods can be
employed for an improvised sit harness.

DOUBLE ROPE TECHNIQUE

The use of two ropes in most climbing scenarios allows greater

flexibility in the protection of both leader and second, and also
in dealing with emergencies or retreating from the mountain.
Whilst tangles inevitably occur (no matter how experienced the
climbers), by adopting a fairly logical and thoughtful approach
such annoyances can be kept to a minimum.
The choice of diameter of rope must be left to the individual.
Sometimes two 8.8 mm {V\(, in) ropes, or even thinner, may be
sufficient. At other times combinations of thick and thin may fit
the bill. Rarely, however, will two 11 mm (7i6 in) ropes be neces¬
sary. Remember that there are certain standards and recom¬
mendations made by the international safety body, the UIAA,
concerning the different uses to which a rope may be put.
When using double ropes for climbing, try to make sure that
you begin the day with the ropes free of any tangles, twists or
Double Rope Technique 89

kinks. When placing running belays on a climb, try to keep one

rope for runners to your left and the other for runners to your
right. Often this will mean looking carefully at the route prior to
setting off and doing a bit of careful planning. On stances, try to
run both ropes through to check for tangles before setting off
again. Run them through individually if possible.
When using a belay plate to safeguard another climber, both
ropes can be clipped into the same karabiner. Attaching to
multiple anchor points is very much simpler - use one rope for
each anchor.
90

Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

In this chapter I propose to discuss mainly the methods that can
be employed to tie on to various types of anchor. It is not really
within the remit of this book to discuss at length the methods of
placement of anchors; however I think that there are one or two
aspects that merit discussion.

ANCHORS ON ROCK

Anchors on or in rock can be fashioned many different ways.

From simple slings to bolts; from Friends to nuts; from pitons to
trees. Anything that is secure enough to hold the party to the
mountain will suffice, provided that it is ethically acceptable of
course.
However, when you create an anchor on rock, or snow and
ice for that matter, consider firstly what you require of that
anchor. It goes without saying that it must be able to hold
everyone to the mountain, but consider also the direction that the
load may be coming from. A sling draped over a small spike at
your feet will not hold an upward pulling force such as that
experienced when holding a leader fall. Consider also how much
force you expect to come on to an anchor. It’s no good expecting
an RP size 0 to hold the weight of two climbers during an assisted
evacuation. So often accidents occur as a result of the party
having paid little attention to their own safety when rigging up
anchors. Tragically, some end in death.

Nuts or Chocks
These come in an enormous variety of shapes and sizes these
days - too many to mention individually.
When placing any nut in a crack, do so with careful thought.
It’s all very well to say that here of course - when you ’re hanging
on by fingertips halfway up an overhanging wall somewhere, it’s
a whole different ball game. Make sure that there is plenty of
Anchors on Rock 91

(38) Nuts placed in opposition

to each other (a). Such a set¬
up is not safe unless both nuts
are well placed. The correct
way to extend wire runners (b)
92 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

rock around the nut so that any load will tighten it in to the crack.
Make sure too that extracting it will be a simple matter. When
used as running belays you will also have to make sure that they
are well seated so that the rope running through a karabiner does
not lift the nut out.
Any small nuts should ideally be threaded with wire. Any
nuts that take cord thinner than 7 mm (14 in) will be consider¬
ably less strong than the same nut threaded with wire. Wire
nuts will often need to be extended to reduce leverage and the
possibility that they might eome out at an inopportune
moment. Always extend wire runners by conneeting the exten¬
sion to the wire with a karabiner. Conneeting with a sling
directly around the wire is unaeeeptably dangerous (Photo
38b). Y ou may of course have to extend any running belay from
time to time and the same theory applies.
Nuts in opposition to each other ean sometimes provide a
satisfactory anchor or runner where otherwise you would have
nothing. When rigging such an anchor you must be absolutely
certain that the forces involved in loading will not pull the nuts
out of the crack (Photo 38a). If one nut fails, the other is almost
certain to fail too.
Nut placement is something of a science, study it carefully
and learn well.

Slings
To use a sling is one of the oldest methods of anchoring used in
climbing. It is well worth considering buying pre-stitched slings.
They are much more convenient than the knotted variety. Unlike
a knot the stitching cannot work loose or slip through itself.
However there may be the odd occasion where a knotted sling
would be of use and it is certainly worth carrying a couple when
mountaineering.
Slings come in a variety of sizes from quick draws through
to 2.4 m (8 ft) slings and from lightweight tubular tape to
heavier super tape. Slings ean also be made out of rope.
Anchors on Rock 93

(39a) A sling stretched too

tightly over a block

(39b) A much safer

anchor
94 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

though they are seen much less commonly these days. There are
a few special considerations to take into account. The most im¬
portant one worth mentioning is that if using a sling draped over
a spike or flake or threaded around a rock or tree, you must make
sure that it is not stretched too tightly around the object. A sling
placed such is considerably weaker than one that has some slack
in it (Photos 39a and b). Make sure that there are no sharp edges
to cut into the material.

Friends
The invention of Friends and, more recently, other devices along
the same lines has revolutionized protection for climbers. A
well-placed Friend is as strong and reliable as a well placed nut
or sling around a spike. Like all gear they take a bit of practice
to get used to. Take care not to cram the cams into a crack as they
can be difficult, if not impossible, to remove.

Pitons
Pitons are not commonly used in the UK these days. The old
expression ‘that a man who would use a piton on British rock
would shoot foxes’ has kept their use to a minimum. However,
they are in popular usage in winter climbing and in Alpine
mountaineering.
One would most commonly encounter a piton in an ‘in situ’
position on the mountain. If that be the case you must establish
that it looks strong enough to be used safely. Sometimes pitons
have been in situ for a good many years and though they may
appear outwardly strong, underneath all sorts of corrosion may
have taken place. Some years ago I was climbing the East Wall
Girdle on the side of the Idwal Slabs. On that route there was a
semi-hanging belay, the main anchor being an in situ piton.
There was already a climber on the stance and so there was no
room for me. After a short wait he began to vacate the stance and
I moved into position. I thought that it would be prudent to check
Anchors on Snow 95

out the piton anchor so put in a sling and krab and pulled on it
pretty violently. The head snapped off completely. The previous
incumbents of the stance had been tied solely to that piton.
When placing pitons choose a crack into which at least the first
quarter of the piton can be placed by hand. Having done that,
hammer it in until it makes a high ringing,sound. Any placement
that makes a dull thudding sound is usually less secure and a
fatter but shorter peg may be needed. If the piton reaches a point
where it refuses to go any further, do not persist in hammering
it to death but tie it off in a similar manner to that illustrated in
Photo 49b page 112. Make sure that you tie it off as close to the
rock as possible to reduce the leverage.

ANCHORS ON SNOW

Generally speaking always try to use rock anchors as they are

much more reliable. There will, however, be occasions when it
simply will not be possible to select a rock anchor. In such cases
a variety of snow anchors are available. On a cautionary note you
should remember that snow is not as predictable in quality as
rock. A seemingly sound anchor may well fail when put to the
test. Having said that, if you are able to arrange an anchor in good
compact snow and it is set up correctly, there is no reason why
it shouldn’t hold a substantial load.

Ice Axe Anchor

In its simplest form an ice axe anchor can be arranged by driving
the axe vertically into the snow. It is necessary to have a
consistently sound snow pack for this to work efficiently. There
should not be any weak underlying layers in the snow which may
cause failure under load. Occasionally it may not be possible to
get the ice axe the whole length of the shaft, in which case it
should be tied off at the snow to reduce leverage.
If the snow is not so compact it may be better to use a buried
ice axe anchor. The horizontally buried axe illustrated in Photo
96 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

(40) A horizontally buried ice

axe in a T-slot left.
Detail of the horizontally
buried axe below.
The sling is clove hitched
around the shaft
Anchors on Snow 97

40 makes a fairly effective anchor in reasonably compact snow.

It is necessary to cut down fairly deeply into the snow pack and
to cut a small trench to accommodate the sling attachment point.
When you are cutting out the slot for the axe take great care not
to disturb the snow in front of the anchor. This is integral to the
reliability of the anchor.
When you attach a sling to the shaft of the ice axe, do so
before you put the axe in and attach it about two-thirds of the way
along from the spike to the head and make sure you place the pick
down into the snow.
Photo 41a shows a much stronger method of making an
anchor but it is of course one that requires two axes. This method
is called the T-axe for obvious reasons. Having cut out the slot
for your horizontal axe (still bearing in mind the above consid¬
erations), you simply take the second ice axe and drive it in
slightly back from the vertical, behind the horizontal axe. The
sling should go on first of course and should be clove hitched
around the shaft. Ideally the vertical axe should be driven right
to the head but if this is not possible it can be tied off at the level
of the horizontal axe. The sling should come over the top of the
horizontal axe so that any loading helps to hold it in place.
Various combinations, such as the horizontal behind the
vertical, are possible (Photo 41b). Note that in all cases the
vertical axe is placed close to the head of the horizontal axe rather
than centrally.
If you are using two tools and one is shorter than the other
it is generally better to place the shorter one as the horizontal axe.
Once the anchor is set up and in position it is sometimes
necessary to fill in the slot with snow and stamp it down firmly
to make sure that the gear remains buried.
A large stance should be cut downhill of the anchor and you
must sit down to belay. You may have to get well below the
anchor for it to work effectively.
98 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

(41) A T-axe anchor with a vertical axe behind (a) and a T-axe anchor with
vertical axe in front (b). In both cases the sling is attached to the rear axe
Anchors on Snow 99

Other Buried Items!

It is possible to secure yourself to almost anything buried in a slot
or trench in the snow. Though highly unlikely I have heard
people say that it is possible to anchor to a buried glove! A
rucksack is certainly a feasible option. Make sure that you take
out any gear that you need before you bury it though. A sling can
be clove hitched around the body of the sack and to create extra
length additional slings can be added. The sling is then run out
of the T-slot and you attach yourself to this point. As with buried
axes be careful not to disturb the snow in front of the slot. You
should also stomp some snow over the top and bury the rucksack
completely.

The Deadman Anchor

The Deadman is a spade-shaped plate made of alloy and has a
wire fixing to which all anchor attachments are made. A smaller
version, the Deadboy, is available. It is a popular type of snow
anchor among British climbers but not so throughout the rest of
the world. Placed correctly they provide solid, reliable anchors.
Unfortunately, placement is so critical that they often fail under
the lightest of loadings. In addition they are the most awkward
item of climbing equipment to carry that has ever been invented.
To place the Deadman as an anchor you should proceed as
follows. Cut a slot across the slope; this should be quite deep,
depending on the quality of snow. The poorer the snow, the
deeper the slot. You must now cut a second slot down the hill at
90 degrees to the first. This is to accommodate the wire strop.
Take an imaginary line at 90 degrees to the angle of the slope
and bisect it with the Deadman. Tilt the Deadman a little closer
to the upper slope and then hammer it into the snow until it is at
least 30 cm (1 ft) below the bottom of the trench. It is important
that you maintain the angle of 40 degrees as you hammer it in.
Any other angle may cause the anchor to fail under load.
Once in position you must tie yourself into the strop. Any of
100 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

the methods described in Tying on to Anchors (page 114) is

suitable. You must, however, remember to stay well below the
slot that the Deadman was placed in originally. This may mean
that you have to go down the hill for 3 (12 ft) or even 5 m (20 ft).
The reason for this is that the angle between the wire and the
plate should not exceed 50 degrees. You should cut out a deep
hole and sit in it to belay. Make sure that you also have some¬
thing to brace your feet against.
It is hardly surprising when you consider all the critical
factors of placement, that the Deadman plate is not popular.

Snow Stake
A method of fashioning an anchor in snow that is used widely in
New Zealand. It is becoming more common worldwide now.
Basically this is a piece of ‘angle iron’ but made of alloy and with
a point at one end and holes for attachment at the other. The stake
is driven slightly back from the vertical with the point of the ‘V’
shape facing the direction of pull. It can also be placed horizon¬
tally in a T-slot.

The Snow Bollard

Surprisingly enough, the snow bollard can be a very effective
anchor. They are most commonly used as abseil anchors in
situations where there is nothing else available and you wish to
leave no equipment behind. They can be used equally well of
course, as anchors from which to belay (Photo 42).
The snow bollard is prepared by cutting a teardrop shape in
the snow with the point of the teardrop pointing towards where
the load is expected to come from. The trench that is cut around
the shape should be cut much deeper at the top than at the bottom.
It should also be undercut slightly to enable the rope to sit more
securely. The widest diameter of the bollard is determined by the
quality of the snow that it is cut into. Basically the poorer the
quality of snow, the wider the bollard.
Anchors on Snow 101

(42) A snow bollard. Note that the anchor has been reinforced
with an ice axe and that the belayer sits well below the anchor
102 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

(43) Abseiling over a bergschrund. A bollard was used as an anchor

Anchors on Snow 103

The rope, when placed around the bollard, tends to work a

bit like a cheese wire and if the snow is not especially solid it will
quite simply pull through. To alleviate the problem slightly, the
back of the bollard can be padded with a rucksack, ice axe or, if
you are using it to retreat from, anything that you are prepared to
leave behind. If you do have to use a very large snow bollard to
retreat from, you will probably find that the amount of friction
generated by the rope is enough to prevent you from being able
to recover the ropes after abseiling. To alleviate the problem to
a certain extent, quickly see-saw the rope back and forth around
the bollard just before you set off. This creates an icy groove
which the rope will slide into more easily.
You will almost always have to use the rope directly around
the anchor to secure yourself, so use any of the methods appro¬
priate in the section Tying on to Anchors (page 114). As with the
Deadman you must cut your stance well below the anchor and sit
down to belay.

Foot Belays
These techniques are particularly effective for safeguarding
someone climbing up from below or someone descending. They
can also be usefully employed in glacier travel for safeguarding
someone who is making an exploratory manoeuvre among
crevasses.
The New Zealand boot axe belay is effective in good hard
snow. Photo 44 shows the technique being used. Note that the
pick of the axe points forward and one hand remains pushing it
into the snow. Friction, which enables you to take the strain, is
generated by increasing the amount of rope in contact with the
ankle. Do not be tempted to wrap the rope around the ankle to
increase the friction. Some weight should remain on the leg that
braces against the axe.
A variation of this technique is to use the rope in the manner
illustrated in Photo 45a. Here the loaded rope is passed under¬
neath the boot and then around the ankle to create friction. To
Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

, Increase^
friction
104
(44) The New Zealand boot axe belay
Anchors on Snow 105

(45a) The boot belay. Keep all your weight on the loaded foot.
Increase the friction by wrapping the rope around the ankle.

(45b) The boot belay. An ice axe is added for extra security
 106 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

begin with you have to make a small platform for your foot and
cut a small slot for the rope to pass through. The platform can be
stomped out but the slot needs to be cut. In soft snow stomp down
until you have a firm platform. Make sure that you keep some
weight on the leg that has the rope wrapped around it as this will
help to hold your foot in place whilst you are safeguarding
someone. It is usually sufficient to use just the foot but an ice axe
can be inserted if you need extra security (Photo 45b). On the
whole this is a safer and more effective variation of the New
Zealand foot brake.
A third method, popularly called the ‘stomper belay’, is
effective in a surprising number of instances but will be found
most useful for safeguarding a partner on easy-angled terrain;
when probing for crevasses for example. The ice axe is driven
vertically into the snow and a karabiner is clipped through the
hole in the head. The rope to your partner passes through this
krab and is safeguarded using a shoulder belay whilst standing
on the head of the axe. Make sure that you stand well braced to
take a load as it would be catastrophic if the rope were to slip off
your shoulder (Photo 46). If you want to use this method on
steeper slopes, the shoulder belay makes it quite unstable.
Instead, you could belay the rope off your harness using a belay
plate or Italian hitch.
It is a popular myth that some of the techniques described
here can be employed to save a falling partner in an emergency
when moving together. The New Zealand foot brake we are told,
for instance, is used most effectively to stop someone by throw¬
ing all the coils away and driving the axe into the snow with the
rope wrapped around it (as illustrated in Photo 44) and to
gradually slow the falling climber by increasing the friction on
the belay. Not only is this dangerous, it is also impossible to
achieve except in situations where it is deliberately set up as a
demonstration. Apart from anything else, by discarding the coils
you are giving your falling partner more rope with which to
gather momentum which immediately decreases the chances of
 Anchors on Snow
107

(46) The stomper belay (the snow has been cut away to show the technique more clearly)
Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors
108

(47) Two methods of making an anchor from skis. They can also be buried horizontally.
Try to place some padding around the ski edges before putting on the sling
Ice Anchors 109

holding the fall. The safest way and the best chance of holding
a falling climber is to move on a short rope with few coils and be
ready to correct a slip before it becomes a fall. On ridges the old
saying ‘if you fall into France I’ll jump into Italy’ is the most
effective way to stop a fall. It does require quick reactions and
plenty of ‘bottle’ however. See [Link] page 184.

Skis
Though it may seem somewhat out of place to discuss ski
anchors here, many of the the rope techniques described in this
book are applicable to ski touring.
There are three main types of ski anchors. Photos 47a and
b shows two of the types. Note that in both methods the skis are
tilted back slightly from the vertical. This makes them mechani¬
cally more sound and able to take a load more efficiently. In the
example where the skis are parallel, the soles face outwards
towards the load and in the crossed ski anchor the soles face each
other. In both cases you should make an attempt to put some kind
of padding over the sharp edges of the skis. In snow of a poor,
unconsolidated nature or very soft snow, the skis can be buried
horizontally in much the same way as other buried items. The
attachment sling goes around the centre of the bindings and the
skis are buried together sole to sole.

ICE ANCHORS

The most reliable type of anchor to use in good ice is the ice
screw. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. There are
basically two types. The drive-in screw-out and the screw-in
screw-out.
The drive-in screw-out variety are quicker to arrange than
the second type and for this reason are more convenient to place
as running belays. However, they have a tendency to shatter hard
or brittle ice and cause what’s known as ‘dinner plating’ - a
disconcerting occurrence where the ice breaks away in big
110 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

(48) Placing an ice screw. Start off

with a small hole made with the pick
then hammer gently and turn at the
same time (a). Once the screw begins
to bite, use the pick of an axe or
hammer or a second screw to [Link]
the leverage (b). Make sure it goes in
to the hilt

b
Ice Anchors 111

chunks around the screw. The drive-in screw-out tubular variety

are much less likely to cause this as they displace the ice up the
tube.
Screw-in screw-out ice screws are a little slower to place
and often require both hands to place properly. It is necessary to
make a small hole to start the screw off. They are placed by
turning and tapping at the same time until you feel it bite. Once
it has bitten you can then use the pick of the ice axe or another
screw to continue turning (Photos 48a and b). There are some
makes of screw-in screw-out that are possible to fix in by turning
with the hand nearly all the way. These types are distinguishable
by the three or four cutting teeth at the end. Titanium screws are
particularly easy to place by hand.
You must remember to clear the ice out of all tubular screws
as soon as you take them out, for if the temperature is below
freezing the ice will stay locked inside the tube and you won’t be
able to use the screw until it has melted out.
Whenever you anchor with ice screws you must try to use
at least two and make sure that they are placed at least 45 cm
(18 in) apart (Photo 49a) so that one screw does not weaken the
ice around another. If, when you are placing a screw, it reaches a
point where it will not go in any further, the chances are that you
will have hit rock. Don’t try to force it because you may push the
ice off the face or bend the screw. Any ice screw that cannot be
inserted right up to the eye should be tied off with a clove hitch
on the screw right up against the ice (Photo 49b).
Sometimes in hot or sunny weather, particularly when
practising techniques on a glacier, ice screws conduct heat and
can melt out. Try to cover them over with ice or some other
suitable item of kit and this will slow the process down.

Ice Bollard
The same principles apply here as they do to the snow bollard,
though of course an ice bollard does not have to be quite so large
as a snow bollard. They are quite time-consuming to cut so it is
112 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

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113
114 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

always better to try to look for a suitable feature to fashion one

out of. This will cut the work down considerably. As they don’t
have to be quite so large it is sometimes possible to anchor to
them via a sling around the bollard. You must ensure that there
is a good lip at the back to hook the rope or sling under (Photo
50a).

Ice Thread
An effective ice thread can be achieved by making two holes in
the ice with an ice screw. The holes should begin at least 25 cm
(10 in) apart and meet deep in the ice. The problem is of course
to get the holes to meet. A sling, preferably a piece of rope
because it’s easier to thread, is then threaded through and the
ends tied with either a double fisherman’s or a ring bend. Photo
50b shows the finished product to prove that it can be done!
It is also possible to thread icicles, but only use really thick
ones and even then be wary of their strength. Always put the
sling around the lower part of the icicle. If using them as an
anchor from which to belay you should always back them up
with an ice screw or any other anchor.

Ice Tools
You can anchor yourself to an ice tool or both tools placed in the
ice. You must make sure that the placements are as good as you
can possibly achieve and also that the wrist loops are in a good,
strong condition. When using two tools, try to bring both wrist
loops to one central point and clip the two together with a single
karabiner. Try to back them up with a second type of anchor,
such as an ice screw for extra security.

METHODS OF TYING IN TO ANCHORS

Having described a wide variety of methods of creating anchors

on the mountain, this next section looks at the options available
Methods of Tying in to Anchors 115

for securing yourself in order to belay a companion.

The methods can be split in to the following categories:
1. The rope directly around the anchor or anchors
2. The rope attached to the anchor or anchors with a karabiner
3. The rope into multiple anchors brought to one central point
4. The anchor directly into the harness
We will consider each separately. Remember all the time that
without exception you should always be fixed tightly to your
anchor and be standing or sitting in a position that anticipates the
direction of loading.
If you allow slack in the tie off to the anchor you will be
jerked forward until your weight comes on to the anchor and if
you are off to one side of the anticipated direction of loading, you
will be pulled into line if someone falls off. A combination of the
two basic errors is often disastrous. Think carefully - it is an
important aspect of the safety chain.

1. The Rope Direct

The rope can be looped directly over a block or spike of rock and
the end secured to the harness with a figure of eight knot tied
through the central loop (Photo 51 a). The rope could be secured
equally well using a clove hitch into a karabiner or a figure of
eight knot tied into a bight of rope and clipped via a karabiner
into the central loop or tie on point. If you have more than one
anchor point to tie into you must take the slack rope and repeat
the process.
Using the rope to tie directly into anchors does take up a fair
length of the rope and so is not commonly done. It is most useful
in situations where you have run out of gear or the block or flake
you want to tie around is too large for a sling.
If you are tied on with the rope directly around your waist
you tie off from the anchor into the rope that goes around your
waist.
Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors
116

(5 i) A figure of eight tied back from the anchor to the central loop (a)
and a figure of eight tied directly in to the anchor (b)
Methods of Tying in to Anchors 117

(52) Tying in to anchors - with clove hitches back to the central loop
118 Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors

2. The Rope through Karabiners on the Anchors

There is very little difference between this and the previous
heading. However, there are one or two subtle differences that
make it much easier and more versatile.
The simplest way to secure yourself to the anchor is with a
figure of eight knot tied in a bight of the rope and clipped in to
a screwgate karabiner on the anchor (Photo 51b). You could
equally as well use a clove hitch directly into the krab. The
drawback with this method is that if you have to stand out of
arm ’ s reach of your anchor, it can be difficult to gauge the correct
length of the attachment in order to get tight to the anchor. My
recommendation, therefore, is to only attach yourself in this way
if you are within arm’s reach of your anchor point. You will also
find it inconvenient to attach to multiple anchors.
If you do have to move out of arm’s reach of your anchor or
anchor points, the system illustrated in Photo 52 will be found
significantly more convenient. Take the main climbing rope and
clip it into the first of the anchor krabs. Don’t tie a knot, just pass
it through the krab. Screw up the gate. Take the rope back to a
large pear-shaped krab which is attached to the central loop and
secure it with a clove hitch or figure of eight. The clove hitch is
more easily adjustable. To tie into the second anchor point
simply repeat the same process. You could go on ad infinitum
like this but obviously there comes a point where it would be
overkill.
If both anchors are a long way from the stance, take the rope
and clip it in to the first anchor. Then run it through the krab on
the central loop, from there take it through the second anchor
point krab. You now have a sort of ‘M’ shape of ropes which act
like a pulley system. Use the friction generated to lower yourself
back down to the stance whereupon you secure the rope that runs
through the central loop krab and the rope that ultimately goes to
your partner. It may of course happen that the second anchor
point is within arm's reach. In this case you can tie into it directly
with a clove hitch or figure of eight (Photo 53).
Methods of Tying in to Anchors 119

(53) Tying in to anchors ~ the main one is clove hitched to

the central loop and the second direct to the anchor
Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors
120
(54) Two alternatives to a screwgate karabiner
Methods of Tying in to Anchors 121

A word or two here about the use of screwgate karabiners on

anchors. Whenever you attach a rope to your harness or central
loop I recommend that you use a screwgate karabiner. I also
recommend that you use one for your main anchor attachment.
Any secondary anchors could be connected with a snaplink
provided that you assure yourself that it is safe to do so. Climbers
tend not to carry enormous numbers of screwgate krabs so if you
do find yourself requiring the reassurance of a screwgate, and
you don’t have one to hand, rig up two snaplinks back to back or
gates opposite as illustrated in Photo 54.

3. Multiple Anchors to One Central Point

Occasionally it may be convenient to bring two or more anchors
to one central point of attachment. This can be done in a number
of ways. One thing that you must remember though whenever
you connect into multiple anchors is that if one anchor were to
fail the load must come on to the secondary ones without any
shock loading. Two anchor points can be brought together into
one point if it so happens that the slings are of equal length. If
they are not equal it may be possible to shorten them by tying a
knot in the longest or extending the shortest.
There are three methods of using a single sling to bring
anchors to a central point:
Photo 55a shows clove hitches tied at the anchor krab and
the attachment point. The shock loading should one anchor fail
will be negligible. It is possible to use this without the clove hitch
at the central attachment point but you need to be certain that
both the anchors are equally sound. This gives the advantage of
being able to change your position on the stance yet maintain an
equal loading on both anchors.
Photo 55b shows two anchor points brought together with
a sling tied at the central attachment point with an overhand knot.
If you don't tie an overhand knot and simply clip in to the doubled
sling between the two anchors, you have a very dangerous and
incorrect way of tying into two anchors, yet one that is com-
Snow, Rock and Ice Anchors
122

(55) Two anchors brought to a central point of attachment: using a sling secured with clove hitches (a);
a sling tied with an overhand knot (b); and a sling with a twist in it (c)
Methods of Tying in to Anchors 123

nionly seen. It will be immediately obvious that should one

anchor fail the whole system will come undone. One often sees
bolts connected in this manner, particularly on pre-rigged climbs
or abseil descents. You should always rearrange the anchor more
safely. What price for a life?
Photo 55c shows two anchor point.s brought to a central
point with a twist in the sling. This is quick to rig but if one anchor
fails you cannot avoid a shock loading on the other. Be sure that
both anchors are equally sound.

4. Clipping in Directly to the Anchor

There is very little to be said about this method except that it is
obviously very convenient should the occasion arise. You must
of course be sure that the attachment is the correct length. I would
also not recommend you to be too close to the anchor. For
instance it would not really be practical to clip yourself in
directly to a wire runner or the eye of a peg or ice screw. Let
common sense prevail!
 124

Abseiling
FIGURE OF EIGHT DESCENDEUR

Many people carry a figure of eight descendeur with them on all

climbs. It is not a vital piece of kit by any means because many
alternatives do exist. My feeling is that unless an item of kit has
more than one function then it is probably not worth carrying.
While it is true that the figure of eight can be used both for
abseiling and belaying, its level of performance in the latter is a
little limited. However, if you know that you have to do a lot of
abseiling on your day out it may be worth taking one along.
A problem that sometimes occurs when doing multiple
abseils is that the descendeur becomes too hot too handle. I’m
sure that many climbers have been caught unawares a few times
on hot sunny days. There’s nothing that brings one back to reality
quite like a scalding hot figure of eight dropping on to bare legs
after pulling the rope through at the end of an abseil! Although
it does become very hot there should be no danger of it melting
the rope. It is generally accepted that the bulk of aluminium
should dissipate the heat more efficiently than other abseiling
devices.
Essentially the figure of eight is a fairly foolproof device for
[Link]. There is however one point that is worthy of consid¬
eration (Photo 56). If you set up the device as shown in (a) it may
happen that while you are negotiating a lip of an overhang or roof
the descendeur becomes trapped against the lip and the rope
flicks up over the device and the whole thing jams up (b). If this
happens and you are unable to take the weight off the rope
because you are hanging free, you may have a major epic on your
hands. To avoid this situation occurring set it up as shown in (c).
There are some devices available that have horns on the large
ring which serve to prevent the larksfooting problem and so you
don’t have to be quite so careful in rigging them up.
Figure of Eight Descendeur 125

(56) The figure of eight descendeur

126 Abseiling

(57) (b) and (c) show a way of locking off the figure of eight
Figure of Eight Descendeur 127

It is also possible to use the small hole of the figure of eight

in the same way as the large one. Once again be particularly
careful to ensure that the rope can’t flick over the top (Photo
57a). This is a particularly useful method if you are abseiling on
a single 9 mm (Mt in) rope.
Though unlikely with a figure of eight, you may find that
there is not enough friction to control the speed of descent.
Should this be the case simply take the controlling rope under
your thigh and control the speed of descent by wrapping the rope
around your leg (Photo 58a). This method works for other
'mechanical' methods of abseiling too.
The most effective way to lock off a figure of eight, or
indeed any other form of mechanical abseil device, is by re¬
peated turns of the controlling rope around the thigh or one turn
around your waist. The turn around the waist is perhaps a little
more efficient and safe. Turns around the thigh tend to fall down
and may come completely undone. This cannot happen with the
turn around the waist. Furthermore it is possible to leave the rope
around your waist and feed it out gradually if you want to
descend a little at a time. This will be found particularly useful
in self-rescue situations (Photo 58b). Both these methods apply
to most ‘mechanical’ methods of abseiling. A third way to lock
off the figure of eight is illustrated in Photos 57b and c. This is
very secure but sometimes difficult to arrange if you are unable
to get just a little bit of weight off the rope.

THE BELAY PLATE

Belay plates can also be used for abseiling. Unfortunately they

have a tendency to twist the ropes quite badly and can jam up at
inconvenient times. Of greater significance, though, is the fact
that some ropes will slide through the plate more smoothly than
others. This problem can also occur if abseiling on ropes of
different thicknesses. This presents a serious problem if you are
abseiling on double ropes threaded around an anchor in order to
128 Abseiling

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Karabiner Brakes 129

recover them afterwards. If one rope does not run as smoothly as

the other it creates a certain amount of creep around the anchor
and may cause the ends to become unequal in length. As you
might imagine, if this occurs high on a cliff during the descent it
could present a very serious situation. For ‘smoother’ abseiling
you should connect the plate to the harness with double krabs.
A general point about abseiling worth making here is that
there is always noticeably more effective friction at the start of
an abseil than there is further down. On a long steep abseil you
may find it difficult to get moving at first and have to actually
push the rope through the device. Nearer the end of the descent
it may be all that you can do to hang on to the rope. Though not
always practical you should consider using leather gloves for
abseiling.

THE ITALIAN HITCH

This is a suitable method of abseiling but subject to the limita¬

tions discussed on page 22.

KARABINER BRAKES

Probably the most versatile abseil device. Setting up a karabiner

brake requires no more equipment than the climber would
normally carry. Though it is preferable and safer to set up with
screwgate krabs it can also be set up using snaplinks. With
practice it is possible to set the brake up to generate as much or
as little friction as is required.
There are a number of different ways to set up a krab brake.
Whichever set-up you use it is important to ensure that under no
circumstances will the rope rub on the gate of a krab and cause
it to open accidentally. Photo 59 shows a straightforward way to
set up the brake and also a simple yet very effective way of
increasing the friction and ultimately the control- It is very easy
to overkill on the friction to such an extent that you may be
Abseiling
130
(59) The karabiner brake: a simple two bar brake (a) and a way of creating slightly more friction (b)
Karabiner Brakes 131

unable to move! This is particularly the case if using double

11 mm (yif, in) ropes. In ‘normal’ circumstances the number of
krabs used in the set-up illustrated is sufficient. The only time
one may need more friction is after Christmas lunch or when
lowering two people such as in improvised rescue.
It is really only worth using karabiner brakes with double
rope. It requires a great many krabs to set up enough friction with
a single rope. A word of warning - the krab brake is quite
complicated to set up and can be set up dangerously, so be sure
you practise it well before putting it to the test in a real situation.
You would be well advised to use similar krabs throughout the
brake as this makes operation much smoother. Make sure that the
krab that supports the bar krabs is fairly large. If it is much
smaller than the bar krabs the brake can slip off if, for some
reason, you take your weight off the rope. They don’t become
completely detached but will give you a nasty shock when you
put your weight back on the abseil rope. There have been many
climbers who have discovered the folly of pulling the rope
through the brake at the end of the abseil only to find the brake
bar krabs go tumbling away - fun on sea cliffs. It is worth
considering that if you do use karabiner brakes each time you
abseil, modern lightweight karabiners are prone to damage by
dirty or gritty ropes. This can cause an excessive amount of wear
on the krab, weakening it to no small degree.

PITON BAR BRAKES

This simple but effective device can be set up using a karabiner

and an angle piton. It is very quick to set up and it is possible to
generate more friction by adding a karabiner in the same way as
that used on a karabiner brake (Photo 60). Be careful to ensure
that the piton has no rough edges that may damage the rope. This
method of abseiling would be most appropriate to winter or
Alpine climbing where one would normally carry a few pitons.
Abseiling
132
(60) Other brakes: piton bar brake (a) and an ice screw bar brake (b)
The Abseil Rack 133

THE ABSEIL RACK

A large and cumbersome device more appropriate to caving than

climbing but nevertheless one that merits consideration in situ¬
ations of Outdoor Centre ‘production line’ abseiling. It is less
destructive to ropes and one can generate as much or as little
friction as required by adjusting the distance between the bars
and the number of bars used.

'CLASSIC METHODS OE ABSEILING

There are a number of methods of'classic' abseiling, all of which

require the rope to be wrapped around some part of the body in
order to create enough friction to control the speed of descent.
My feeling is that all of these methods should only be used in
emergencies - situations where no technical equipment other
than a rope is available.
The proper classic abseil is rigged by standing astride the
ropes facing the anchor point. Reach down with your right hand
and bring the rope up behind your right thigh, across your chest,
over your left shoulder and back into your right hand. The
friction is controlled by bringing the right hand round your front
for more friction and away from you for less.
Another form of classic abseil is to make up a Dulfer seat
harness and take the abseil rope up through the karabiner, over
the left shoulder and across the back into the right hand. This
generates little friction and is also dangerous as clothing can get
trapped in the karabiner.
Note: if you are left-handed please read left for right and
right for left.
You should not really use any of these methods of abseiling
on a single rope and neither can you use the safety back-up
method of holding the end of the rope to stop someone in
difficulty (see Abseil Safety below).
When using the ‘proper' classic abseil you will find it more
134 Abseiling

comfortable to twist sideways and lead with the right foot (left
for left-handers). This is particularly important when stepping
down over obstacles as leading with the other foot may cause the
rope to ride up around the knee, causing you to flip upside down.

ABSEIL SAFETY

Sadly, there have been some tragic abseiling accidents over the
years. Some may reasonably be attributed to fate while others to
errors of judgement. Truth to tell, abseiling is a very simple and
straightforward exercise but it is this simplicity that leads to a
complacent attitude and accidents.
Always check the abseil anchor thoroughly. Don’t trust old
decayed slings or in situ pegs or nuts if you are the slightest bit
suspicious of them. It is cheaper to sacrifice a bit of gear rather
than a life.
Simple safety precautions like tying a knot in the end of the
ropes if you know or aren’t sure that they reach the ground. It is
also possible to rig a very simple ‘safety back-up’ system while
abseiling. This is best effected by putting a French prusik
(page 48) on the ropes above the abseil device. The prusik is
then attached to the harness with a sling. As you abseil you
simply keep one hand on the rope above the French prusik and
slide it down with you. If you let go of it for whatever reason it
should jam and halt further descent. It is vitally important to
ensure that when the load is applied to the prusik that it does not
stretch out of arm’s reach. If it does then you will find it very
difficult to release it again. The best gauge for the length of the
attachment is for the prusik to be a slightly bent arm's length
away from you when the sling comes tight. I would not recom¬
mend the use of any other prusik knot for this purpose. Many of
them would jam solid and the only way to release it would be to
cut it with a knife. The French prusik is the only one that can still
be relied upon to be released even under load.
Another form of abseil safety is to hold the the bottom of the
Abseil Safety 135

abseil ropes whilst someone is descending. If the abseiler loses

control during the descent the person at the bottom should pull
the rope very hard. This will halt any further descent until the
tension is [Link]. I have seen this used to great effect on a
number of occasions which would have otherwise resulted in
serious injury. Please note that ‘classic’ methods of abseiling do
not respond to this method of safety. Indeed it would be down¬
right dangerous to even contemplate this.
If you are the first person down the abseil and you have
perhaps had to pendule or move slightly to the side of the natural
hang of the ropes, it may be worth considering fixing the ropes
to the anchor for safety and to make life easier for the next person
to descend.
To facilitate the separation and recovery of abseil ropes it is
often worthwhile to clip a short sling and krab on to one of the
ropes and the other end of the sling to your harness. If you do this
at the beginning of the descent it will keep the ropes separated all
the way to the bottom. Furthermore if you put it on the rope that
you have to pull to retrieve the abseil ropes, it serves as a
reminder of the correct rope to pull. It is becoming quite common
practice to use a figure of eight knot for joining two ropes
together for abseiling. Through long habit the thought is slightly
off-putting but there is a tremendous advantage. If you join the
two ropes in this way when you come to retrieve the ropes after
the abseil the knot presents a flat profile to the edge that it may
be dragged over. There is therefore much less chance that the
knot could jam during retrieval.
If you are unfortunate enough to get your ropes jammed, be
particularly careful how you go about freeing them. Don’t ever
for instance, attempt to climb up a single jammed rope if it is
avoidable. It may not be as jammed as it first appears.

ABSEILING PAST A KNOT

There are really very few occasions when it is necessary to join

136 Abseiling

ropes together to add to the length it is possible to abseil.

However, for the odd occasion where it may be necessary to
abseil past a knot it is certainly a useful thing to know about.
It is possible to abseil straight over a knot in a single 9 mm
(14 in) rope, if you are using a figure of eight descendeur. If you
are hanging free it can be difficult to feed the knot through the
device but this problem can be overcome to a certain extent by
having long ‘tails’ on the joining knot which lead the knot into
the device more evenly. I would venture to suggest that you
only abseil on single 9 mm (14 in) rope as a last resort because
there is very little friction and it can be difficult to hold such a
thin rope.
If using a karabiner brake or a belay plate the situation is
very different as the knot won’t pass through the device. If there
is a convenient ledge which coincides with the knot then simply
abseil to the ledge, put in some protection for yourself whilst you
take the rope out of the device and reconnect it below the knot.
Abseiling past a knot while hanging free or with no conven¬
ient ledge to stand on presents different problems. These are by
no means complicated or insurmountable but will require prac¬
tice in a safe and controlled situation.
If you know that you have to abseil past a knot before you
set off, rig a safety back up French prusik as previously de¬
scribed. It is important to connect the French prusik to the
harness with its own screwgate karabiner and in such a way that
the abseil device can easily be removed whilst hanging from the
French prusik.
Abseil down until the joining knot is 25-30 cm (10-12 in)
away from the device (Photo 61a). This much coincide with
your full weight coming on to the French prusik. Take the
abseil rope out of the device and put it back on below the knot
(Photo 61b), then make sure that the joining knot sits up
against the device. Lock off the device securely: reach up and
put one hand on the rope above the French prusik. By pulling
down smoothly but firmly on top of the prusik it will release
 Abseiling past a Knot

(61) Abseiling past a knot

137
138 Abseiling

and your weight will come back on to the abseil device. Once
your weight is back on the device disconnect and release the
French prusik. Unless you have a second knot to pass, it is
probably not worth putting it back on, though you may want it
for a safety back-up. Using this system it is possible to abseil
past a knot in less than 30 seconds, not the usual 30 minutes as
is often seen!
Please note that proper preparation is vital to smoothness
and safety. The length of the French prusik and the distance
you stop above the know are both crucial. On no account
should you let the prusik go out of arm’s reach and neither
should you allow the knot to come closer than 25 cm (10 in)
before your full weight is taken on the prusik. This system can
also be used if you are lowering someone on two ropes joined
together and need to pass the knot through the lowering device.
The same principles of safety and technique apply, though it
would be true to say that the length of the French prusik is not
quite so critical (see page 73) - provided it is not too short!
 139

Ascending a Fixed Rope

There are few occasions in normal day to day climbing that
require the ability to ascend a fixed rope. Situations where you
might have to do so include emergency situations such as during
the rescue of an injured climber or escaping from a crevasse; on
a ‘Big Wall’ route where the second often climbs the rope for
speed or for seconding artificial climbs. A mechanical ascending
device is also used as a method of safeguarding yourself on long
mountaineering routes where fixed ropes are left in place to
assist with rapid ascent and descent of the mountain. Though in
that situation the rope rarely bears the full weight of the climber.
The techniques can be broadly categorized into methods
that employ a mechanical device, such as a Jumar and those that
rely on loops of cord, such as the prusik knot, wrapped around
the rope. By coincidence the two techniques are popularly called
‘ Jumaring’ (using any mechanical device) and ‘Prusiking’ (when
using a knotted loop). The first category is by far the most
efficient and the second although less so is the best that can be
done in an emergency situation.
Whichever you choose to use the basic technique of ascent
is the same. A long sling or loop is used for the foot and a shorter
one attached to the harness. These two slings or loops are more
than adequate and there is no need to resort to using three loops
as people have done in years gone by. The sit harness loop is
connected above the foot loop. It is possible to do it the other way
around but the margins of safety are less and it is more awkward
to work. The ideal length of each loop can only be determined by
practice and is ultimately dependent on the size and agility of the
individual.
As a rough guide to the length of the sit harness loop, put a
prusik knot on the rope and attach it to the harness via a
karabiner. The prusik knot itself should be at about forehead-
level when you are hanging in your harness and the loop is tight.
The length of the foot loop is best determined by hanging from
140 Ascending a Fixed Rope

the sit loop with a prusik knot on the rope. Put your foot in the
bottom of the loop and bend your leg to the point where you feel
you could most comfortably stand up from (Photo 62). The ef¬
ficiency with which you prusik is measured by the amount of
height you gain when you stand up straight in the foot loop each
time. If you can bend your leg behind your ear anc( still stand up
on it then you will probably have reached the maximum effi¬
ciency. The same principles apply to determining the length of
sling for a mechanical device.
Movement up the rope is effected by standing straight
legged in the foot loop and moving the sit loop up. It is an
energetic and quite tiring process to ascend a rope in such a
manner, so be prepared to huff and puff a bit. It is very important
to try to conserve energy, particularly if you have a long way to
go. When you try to stand in the foot loop, make sure that you do
so by pushing with your leg directly underneath you. Have the
rope running up your chest all the time. Try to avoid hanging out
backwards and having to pull yourself up with your arms. You
will also find it easier if your foot loop is larksfooted around your
foot to prevent it slipping out. If one leg gets tired of doing all the
work simply swap feet or even use both feet in the loop.
If you have a chest harness on it is worth considering
clipping the rope through a karabiner attached to the chest
harness. This helps to keep you close in to the rope. You can also
clip in the foot loop to the harness though unless you are using
a system where the foot loop is fixed above the sit loop, this can
be more trouble than it is worth.
For reasons of safety it is advisable that you consider tying
a figure of eight knot at 5 m (15 ft) intervals as an extra back up.
This knot can then be clipped into the eentral loop of your har¬
ness so that if for some reason the prusiks or devices should fail
you do at least have something to stop you falling off the rope.
If you have a large or heavy rucksack on your back it is well
worth taking it off and putting it on the rope below you. This acts
as a weight to hold the ropes taut and actually makes it easier to
move the loops or devices up the rope.
 Ascending a Fixed Rope

(62) Ascending a fixed rope: using prusik loops (a) and mechanical devices (b)
141
Ascending a Fixed Rope
142
(63) The foot hitch for ascending a fixed rope
Improvised Ascent Methods 143

For relevant knots to use for prusiking refer to the section on

‘prusik’ knots (page 44).

IMPROVISED ASCENT METHODS

If you find yourself with only one prusik loop it is quite possible
to improvise in a number of ways and the following methods
work well.
Put the prusik on the rope and attach it to your sit harness.
Sit back in it and lift your foot to the point from where you can
most comfortably stand up. Wrap the rope a few times around
your foot, hold the slack and loaded ropes together and stand up.
Still standing, move the sit loop up until it is tight, sit back and
repeat the procedure. Photo 63 shows a foot hitch alternative to
the wrap around the foot. Make sure that you tie a figure of eight
in the rope every 2 m (6 ft) or so and clip it back into the harness
as a safety back-up.
A second method which is less tiring but potentially quite
dangerous is to use a belay plate and prusik. The belay plate is
attached to the harness and the prusik used as a foot loop above
the belay plate. Slide the foot loop up as high as possible and
stand up. At the same time, pull the rope through the plate. When
standing at your maximum height, lock off the plate and sit back
in your harness. Beware! If you let go of the controlling rope of
the belay plate you will head earthwards very quickly. With that
in mind, tie off back to the harness with a figure of eight knot
more frequently than the other methods described. You could
use the Alpine clutch in place of the belay plate. This is very
much safer because you can arrange it so that you are only able
to pull the rope through as you stand up. If you let go of it, it
should jam up. The only disadvantage with this is that if, for
some reason, you need to go back down the rope, it isn’t possible
without having to rearrange the whole set up.
144

Escaping from the System

This is the term used to describe the technique of releasing
oneself from the belay system and end of rope whilst ensuring
the security of the climber you are responsible for, usually with
their full weight hanging on the rope.
The reasons for having to ‘escape’ are too numerous to
mention them all but an example might be that you are belaying
your partner when a large rock is dislodged by a party above and
renders him or her unconscious. Another typical example would
be on a glacier where a member of the party falls into a crevasse.
Whatever the reason for having to escape and help your partner
you must initially overcome the problem of having their full
weight hanging from you and being tied in to the anchors.
In the first instance it is important to establish the need to
escape while the person is hanging on the rope. It may be
possible to lower the victim down to a ledge or even to the ground
before you escape. If that be the case many of your problems are
instantly solved. And don’t isolate yourself in your predicament,
there may be other people around who are more than willing to
assist.

THE BASIC PROCEDURE

Whether practising or doing it for real, make sure that you can
see a way out of the situation the whole time - always think ‘ what
will happen if...?’ Work logically and safely, and try to keep
things as simple, as tidy and as straightforward as possible.
The sequence of photographs shows how to escape from the
system most efficiently in the easiest of all situations - one
anchor point within arm’s reach (Photos 64, 65 and 66).
Proceed as follows. Tie off the belay plate; put a French
prusik on the load rope and clip it back into the anchor (extend
it with slings if it is not long enough). Slide the prusik forward
until it is under tension but make sure that it remains within arm’s
The Basic Procedure 145

(64) Escaping from the system - stage one

146 Escaping from the System

(65) Escaping from the system - stage two

The Basic Procedure 147

(66) Escaping from the system - stage three

148 Escaping from the System

reach. Release the belay plate and gradually lower the weight on
to the French prusik. All the weight should now be directly on the
anchor point. Take the rope out of the belay plate and fix it back
to the anchor with a figure of eight knot and separate krab (ensure
that there is a little slack in the rope to allow for slippage and to
facilitate unclipping later on). Untie yourself from the anchor
making sure you clip into an alternative anchor for your own
safety. Mind you don’t drop your belay plate! Finally consider
backing up your anchor as necessary.
It is worth noting that with some harnesses, mainly ones
with a separate belt and leg loops, it is possible to escape by
simply tying off the belay plate, undoing the harness and pulling
it through the central loop. Some of these two-piece harnesses
have little tabs through which the manufacturer recommends
you to thread the rope when tying on. These tabs are purely to
stop the rope sliding around in the harness but are not absolutely
necessary and are certainly not load-bearing. If you do thread the
rope through the tabs you will need to go through the longer
process of escaping the system.
Having escaped, you are now free to move around at your
leisure. You may have to descend to the person hanging on the
other end of the rope, in which case use all the spare rope to abseil
down on. If you are happy to abseil off the same anchor that your
victim is hanging on then simply abseil off the rope on the other
side of the figure of eight knot in Photo 66. If you are not happy
to do this then you should rig another anchor for your abseil. For
safety you should tie a knot in the end of the rope and use a French
prusik safety back-up.

DEALING WITH PROBLEMS

Inevitably problems will crop up. The most likely one to occur
is that you are unable to reach the anchor point from your stance
when doing the escape and before you can escape you must
create a ‘new anchor point’. To do this tie a prusik loop or a
Dealing with Problems 149

klemheist in a tape sling around both ropes going back to the

anchor. Whichever knot you decide to use put in as many turns
as you can. Do this as far back as you can comfortably reach
(Photo 67) and clip in a karabiner. You now use this krab as your
new anchor point and escape in the same way as described
previously. It is very important that, once you have untied from
the end of the rope, you tie knots that will prevent the new anchor
from sliding off the end (Photo 68).
You may find yourself with two or even three anchors, each
tied into separately with the rope. If it is possible, link all or a
selection of the ropes together when tying the klemheist or
prusik as described and use this as your new anchor. If this is not
possible then you must put a klemheist or a prusik around each
of the anchor ropes and link them together until they form one
central anchor point. Remember that once you have escaped you
will be in a position to back everything up as you see necessary.
It is of course terribly easy to get yourself into an awful
tangle when escaping so you should practise in a controlled
situation as much as possible before having to put it to the real
test. It is a good idea to present yourself with situations to deal
with on low-level practice crags - you can make them as simple
or as ludicrously difficult as you like! For instance, if you are
using a single rope and the victim is more than half the rope’s
length below you you will not have enough rope to reach him or
her by abseil. In this case you must abseil down as far as you can
and then transfer yourself on to the victim’s rope and continue
down by prusiking.
If you are climbing on double ropes or you have a spare rope,
as you may do when travelling across a glacier, you would be
advised to only tie off one rope when doing your escape.
Although the other end may be tied into the victim, you will at
least be able to use the full length as there will not be any tension
in it. Once you get to the victim you can untie him or her from
it completely thus giving yourself greater flexibility in coping
with the situation.
150 Escaping from the System

(67) Escaping the system when the anchor point is out of reach - stage one
Dealing with Problems 151

(68) Escaping the system when the anchor point is out of reach - stage two
152 Escaping from the System

There are almost certain to be running belays on the rope

between you and the victim. You must decide what to do with
them - leave them in or take them out - as you descend. So much
depends on the situation that it is impossible to suggest a
standard procedure. However, if by removing a running belay
you are likely to cause the victim to move from their position, I
would suggest that you leave it in.

AFTER THE ESCAPE

Having escaped and gone down to your victim you may have to
administer first aid and also rig him or her in some kind of full
body harness for comfort. You must then decide what to do from
this point onwards. What you do is obviously dependent on
innumerable factors but your choice can be limited to four main
courses of action:

1. Return to the stance and lower the victim to the ground

either in one go or in stages

2. Return to the stance and hoist the victim to the same

stance or to safety

3. Leave the victim in situ while you go for help

4. Evacuate yourself and the victim simultaneously (as¬

sisted evacuation)

Lowering the Victim

Once you have decided to lower the victim we will assume that
you have regained the stance and everything is set up and ready
to go as in Photos 66 or 68. To convert the system to a lower,
unclip the figure of eight and put the rope in an appropriate
lowering device. Hold the controlling rope in one hand and with
the other release the Erench prusik. The load should come on to
After the Escape 153

lowering device as gradually as possible. Continue lowering

with one hand keeping the French prusik, now an autobloc,
released with the other. If you want to stop lowering and let go
of the ropes for any reason the load should be taken by the
autobloc. If you need to leave the system unattended for any
length of timp you should tie off the belay device in the appro¬
priate manner.
If you can lower the victim to the ground in one go you are
fortunate and should do so! To get yourself down you should tie
off the lowering rope as soon as the victim reaches the ground.
Have a little slack in the rope so that you can abseil down. It is
really not worth messing around trying to retrieve rope and gear
unless you need it to continue to civilization. You can always
come back and collect it later - it might still be there! If you do
not have enough rope to reach the ground in one lower then you
must obviously do it in stages. This will be limited to a maximum
of 22-25 m (70-80 ft) if you are climbing on a single rope and so
can be very time consuming indeed.
The lower of each stage is fairly straightforward if you can
trust your victim to rig a safe anchor for him or herself at the end
of each lower. Proceed as follows. Lower the victim to a
convenient stopping place or just under the halfway mark on the
rope. Get them to rig an anchor and clip in securely. They must
not untie from the end of the rope. Take the rope out of the
lowering device and pass it through the abseil anchor and abseil
on the double rope so that you can recover it once you reach the
victim. Remember that at all times you must look to your own
safety as well as that of the victim. On the abseil it is worth using
a safety back-up.
Now let us consider what to do if you do not trust the victim
or the victim is unable to rig a safe anchor at the end of each
lower. Take the rope out of the the lowering device but leave the
victim protected by the autobloc which remains attached to the
anchor. Clip the rope through a krab on the anchor and throw the
remaining slack, with a knot tied in the end, down the cliff. Put
154 Escaping from the System

an abseiling device, preferably a belay plate, on the doubled rope

for yourself and a safety back up. Untie the original autobloc
which was left on to proteet the victim and set off down. As you
abseil the vietim is protected by the fact that their rope passes
around the abseil anchor, through your safety back-up and
through the abseil device. The use of the belay plate makes this
a safer device to use. In theory, if the victim were to roll off the
ledge he or she should not fall too far. Once you reach the victim
you should of course put in an anchor and before doing anything
else elip yourselves into it. Retrieve your ropes and the proee-
dure can be repeated all the way down the cliff or until you reach
safety.
There are of course all sorts of variations to the techniques
but having practised and mastered the basics you will soon learn
what they are. Remember it is important to keep things as simple
and as straightforward as possible.

HOISTING

There are two basic types of hoist used in rescue situations: the
assisted hoist and the unassisted hoist. Before undertaking a
hoist in a rescue situation you should be absolutely certain that
this is what you need to do. If your victim is a ‘dead’ weight on
the end of the rope it is often impossible for one person to hoist
efficiently.

Assisted Hoist
This hoist is by far the simplest to rig up and the most effective
in use. It is particularly useful in a situation where your seeond
is unable to climb a section of the route or has fallen off to one
side and eannot get back on again. It can however be difficult for
the victim to assist if he or she is hanging in space. It ean be
rigged very quickly and does not even require you to eseape from
the system if you are using any belaying device other than a body
belay.
Hoisting 155

Proceed as follows. Tie off the belay device. Put an autobloc

on the load rope and clip it back into the central loop on your
harness. Make this attachment quite short, certainly no more
than 30 cm (1 ft) from the device as you do not want it to slide
down the rope and out of arm's reach. The load should now be
predominantly on the anchor. Take up some slack rope and
throw a loop with a krab clipped in to it down to the victim. Tell
the victim to clip the krab into the central loop bf their harness.
Make sure that the rope is not twisted. Untie the belay plate and
lower the victim’s weight on to the autobloc.
You are now ready to hoist. The victim should pull on the
rope that travels towards him or her. This is easy to establish -
neither the victim nor the rescuer pulls on the rope that is tied to
the victim and has the autobloc on it (load rope) and of the
remaining two one of them comes down to the victim and the
other back up to the belayer (Photo 69). Both the rescuer and the
victim pull simultaneously and if the victim can walk up the crag
or the slope it can be a simple matter to hoistlhem up. Should
either of you need to rest at any time simply lower the weight on
to the autobloc and let go with all hands. This is an ideal way to
get over the crux moves of the climb!
Once you have hoisted far enough you will need to get back
into the belaying mode again. This is simple enough to achieve
but just remember to safeguard the victim before you sort
everything out. This can be done most effectively by tying off the
belay device.
Problems can occur with the system, especially if your
victim is more than a third of the rope’s length below you as the
system requires three lengths of rope between rescuer and
victim. Its use is also limited to situations where you are able to
get a loop to the victim in the first instance. Communication is
very important particularly if the victim does not understand
how the system works. You must be able to converse without
fear of the instructions being misinterpreted.
156 Escaping from the System

(69) The assisted hoist

Hoisting 157

Unassisted Hoists
If you are unfortunate enough to find yourself in a situation
where you have no option but to hoist your victim to a safe place
then you are going to require patience, muscle power, plenty of
space and lots of time. It would also be to your advantage to have
a few pulleys around. This is possible in glacial travel but
unlikely in a crag climbing situation. Do not underestimate the
difficulties involved in hoisting someone without assistance.
What is essentially a simple system to set up is extraordinarily
difficult to effect.
There are a number of ways of hoisting. It might even be
possible, if you’re very strong and the victim light, to hoist by
simply pulling your victim up hand over hand. If you do do this
be sure to have some kind of safety back-up for when you need
to rest or if you let go of the rope. A safer way of pulling someone
up directly is shown in Photo 70. A prusik is attached to the load
rope and then to the rescuer ’ s harness, but keep it quite short. The
load rope is then passed through an Italian hitch at the anchor and
an autobloc to the load rope. The rescuer slides the prusik down
the load rope as far as it will go and uses the powerful leg muscles
to do the pulling while at the same time pulling the rope through
the Italian hitch. To gain a rest the load is taken by the autobloc.
This system is only effective if the rescuer has the strength to lift
the victim but adaptations of the technique can be used in
‘pulley’ hoists, as will be seen later.
A brief word here about the mechanical advantage of the
different systems. The hoisting systems we use in improvised
rescue do not generally use pulleys at each turn of the rope so that
a rope running over a single karabiner often creates so much
friction that it negates the mechanical advantage gained. One
rapidly approaches the point in attempting to increase mechani¬
cal advantage where there are so many ‘pulleys’ in the system
that it is impossible to pull the rope through! By doubling up the
karabiners at each turn you reduce the angle that the rope goes
through and also the friction generated. Using lightweight
158 Escaping from the System

French
prusik

To rescuer’s
harness

Victim
(70) The direct hoist
Hoisting 159

Autobloc

(71) The basic Z pulley

160 Escaping from the System

pulleys designed specifically for mountaineering reduces the

friction generated and increases the effects of mechanical advan¬
tage. But it’s another item of gear to carry.
An additional point worth mentioning is that in using
climbing ropes much of the energy expended pulling someone
up is used in taking the stretch out of the rope.
There are so many factors that go against hoisting that it is
important to establish that it is really necessary before you begin.

The Z Pulley System

The Z pulley system or the ‘two in one hoist’ as it is sometimes
called is a good basic hoist to begin with and works well if there
are plenty of helpers and plenty of room to manoeuvre.
Let us assume that you are on a stance and have decided to
hoist. The set up is similar to that in Photo 66 or 68 having just
escaped from the system. Take a spare prusik loop and put it on
the load rope as far down as you can safely reach. Untie the figure
of eight knot and pass it through a new karabiner or a pulley on
the anchor, and then down through the prusik you have just put
on (Photo 71). It is to your advantage to make this latter prusik
connection as short as possible.
All the victim’s weight should be hanging on the original
French prusik which is now transformed into an autobloc. To
hoist the victim you should pull on the rope that comes up from
the prusik loop. Photo 71 shows direction of rope travel and
where to pull. If the victim is able to ‘walk’ up the cliff then you
should ask them to do so. You will probably find that it is only
possible to move the victim a little at a time and so in between
pulls rest by lowering the weight on to the autobloc. Eventually
the prusik knot will come up to meet the autobloc. At this point
take the load on the autobloc and slide the prusik back down as
far as you can safely reach. Repeat the procedure until you are
completely exhausted or the victim is where you want him or her
to be.
If you have enough space then you can attach the pulling
Hoisting 161

rope to your harness with a belay plate or Italian hitch and use
your leg muscles to pull rather than your amis. This is much less
tiring. Pulling is effected by locking off the device and pulling
in that position. Once you reach the limit of pull lower the victim
on to the autobloc and move back down to the edge taking the
slack rope in as you go.

Improved Z Pulley

To be truthful, the system previously described is very difficult

to put into practice in a less than perfect situation, particularly
when you have no other assistance. It is possible to improve the
system slightly by a number of variants and I have found the
following to be satisfactory.
Leave the system set up as before and on the pulling rope
place a short prusik loop and karabiner. Tie the other end of the
climbing rope into the anchor with a figure of eight knot. Bring
some of the rope down to the new prusik and clip it through the
krab (Photo 72a). You now have a new pulling rope and should
find the whole set up much easier to pull yet you have only
introduced one extra point of friction. If space is limited and it is
easier for you to pull the rope downwards rather than up, rig up
the new system .so that the end of the rope clips in to the second
prusik and you pull through the karabiner on the anchor (Photo
72b).
This system is much more efficient than the basic hoist, the
only disadvantage being that you have to move the prusiks down
the rope more frequently. However, the extra ease of pulling far
outweighs this.

The Yosemite Lift

This type of hoist was originally developed for sack hauling on
the Big Walls of Yosemite in California, USA. It is still a widely
used system for that purpose but has little to recommend it for
hoisting people. It works most efficiently when the anchor points
Escaping from the System

Autobloc
162

(72) The improved Z pulley

Hoisting 163

(73) The Yosemite lift

164 Escaping from the System

are above you.

When climbing multi-day climbs such as those found in
Yosemite, it is quite likely that you will have mechanical
ascending devices with you and these can be used in place of
prusik loops to make life a little easier. Photo 73 shows the basic
set up. It is well worth carrying the pulley for just this purpose
if you go on a climb knowing that you will have to sack haul.
The autobloc is provided by a mechanical device placed
upside down on the load rope. The load rope is then passed
through a pulley in the anchor and a second mechanical device
placed the right way up, with a short foot loop attached, on the
pulling rope. As you push down on the pulling rope with your
foot you should try to pull up the load rope with the other hand.

ASSISTED EVACUATION

One day you may find yourself in a situation where you have no
option but to evacuate both yourself and an injured victim who
is unable to assist in any useful way. The ‘traditional’ way to do
this has been to use an improvised rope Tragsitz. In truth, to the
climber or mountaineer with limited resources it is not a feasible
system of evacuation. There are a number of reasons for this, not
least that it requires an extra rope, which is in itself an unlikely
luxury. It is very difficult indeed to get someone on your back if
you do not have anyone else to help you; it requires a good large
ledge to work from each time; if any problems arise they are
difficult to deal with; if the victim requires medical attention
during the descent you have to stop, get him off your back, then
back on... It is hardly a practical method.
The system I prefer to use is basically one in which both the
rescuer and the victim abseil together from the same device, with
the rescuer doing all the controlling. In this position the rescuer
is allowed full flexibility and can carry the victim in the position
that is most practical and comfortable. It is even possible to
change positions as often as you wish on the way down. You can
Assisted Evacuation 165

have the victim in front of you, by your side walking down with
you, behind you, across your lap, between your legs or even
below you. There are no hard and fast rules to apply to what
position the victim should be in, and so much has to be left to the
judgement of the rescuer. The following guidelines may be of
some help in deciding as to which position is most suitable.

1. Very steep cliff/unconscious victim - across the rescuer’s

lap or hanging below. If you choose to have the victim
hanging below, you must be very careful to ensure that
you don’t cause any further injury with your feet (Photo
74).

2. Slabby terrain/unconscious victim - between the rescuers

legs with the victim’s legs pointing out from the crag
(Photo 75).

3. Any terrain/walking victim - side by side (Photo 76).

Whichever of the possible positions you decide to use the

method of rigging the system is essentially the same. There is
only one important variable to consider and that is the length of
the sling attachment for both the victim and the rescuer to the
descending device. For example, if the victim is to be across the
rescuer’s lap the victim’s attachment must be shorter than the
rescuer’s. If both are to descend side by side then they must
obviously be of equal length. Photos 77a and b show the
simplified set up for both of these positions.
It is possible to rig an adjustable length attachment for both
rescuer and victim or for one of them only. This requires extra
equipment in the form or a length of 5 mm (^16 in) or 6 mm
(14 in) cord for each attachment so may not be practical for
most situations. A cowstail with a number of possible attach¬
ments is much more versatile.
166 Escaping from the System

(74) Assisted evacuation: the victim across the rescuer’s lap

Assisted Evacuation 167

(75) Assisted evacuation: the victim between the rescuer’s legs

 168 Escaping from the System

(76) Assisted evacuation: the victim and the rescuer side by side
 Assisted Evacuation

(77a) Simplitieci sct-iip ot assisted evacuation sltown Simplified set-up of assisted evacuation shown in
169

in Photo 74 Photo 70
170 Escaping from the System

THE DESCENT

The abseil device that you choose to use must generate sufficient
friction to enable the rescuer to control the speed of descent of
two people safely and effectively. A figure of eight abseil device
or a belay plate is ideal. So also is a karabiner brake with extra
friction bars. The Italian hitch generates enough friction but
tends to twist the ropes and cause tangles, which is really the last
thing you need to happen.
As with all these rescue situations, it is of vital importance
to have some kind of fail safe system for extra security. The usual
method of protecting an abseil, with the French prusik above the
abseil device, is not suitable here because the device will almost
certainly be beyond arm's length. Remember that the safety back
up has to be well within reach. The alternative is to put the French
prusik below the device and attach it to the rescuer's harness leg
loop. Photo 75 shows this clearly. Lowering is then effected by
the rescuer releasing the French prusik and allowing the rope to
slide at the same time. If the rescuer lets go of the rope for any
reason further descent will be halted as the French prusik comes
tight. This method gives excellent fine control of the lower.
One minor disadvantage, and one that you need to be aware
of, is that if the rescuer has let go with both hands to attend to
something else, any movement upwards of the leg that has the
French prusik attached will cause some rope to slide through the
device. This is by no means a major problem but it is as well to
be aware that it might happen.
You could attach the safety back-up French prusik to the
front of the rescuer’s harness. If you have the inclination it is
worth trying in a practice situation but it is definitely not as
effective as having it attached to your leg loop.
As you descend you will probably find it easier to have one
hand on the victim's harness and the other on the controlling
rope. If you need to pull the victim away from the crag, perhaps
The Descent 171

to lie across your lap or between your legs, use a cowstail to hold
them in close to you. This should be clipped to the victim at the
harness attachment point and to the rescuer anywhere on the
harness that is convenient and comfortable. By pushing out from
the cliff face with your legs you will find with relatively little
effort it is possible to keep the victim away from the rock.
The ropes are rigged through the anchor in the same way as
you would for a ‘normal’ abseil retreat from a climb and you
descend on both ropes together. Thus, with single rope you are
limited to 22-25 m (70-80 ft) abseils but with two ropes the full
length of each rope. The ropes can be pulled down after each
stage, making sure that you secure both you and your victim
to the mountain first. Don’t worry about leaving your gear
behind - it is much more important to get you and your victim
down without any problems occurring.

An Alternative Method
The above system works very well and is versatile enough to
cope with any situation you may find yourself in but it may be of
interest to try out a slight variation. Instead of descending on
doubled rope as above, clip the rope through the anchor karab-
iner, tie the victim into the end of the rope and attach yourself to
the other side with a descending device. Photo 78 shows the
basic set-up. You will see that in this method the anchor acts as
a sort of pulley but the lowering is still done by the rescuer. It is
important that both rescuer and victim are connected as imbal¬
ances in weight may cause one to move down the cliff faster than
the other.
I have also seen this system operated using an abseil device
at the anchor point but feel that if anything should go wrong with
the device, such as it jamming up, when you are halfway down
you will be in a terrible predicament. It is better to avoid it
happening in the first place.
The only advantage with this alternative method over the
172 Escaping from the S\ stem

(78) Alternative method of assisted evacuation

The Descent 173

standard one is that it is much easier and more immediate to

adjust the positions of both the rescuer and the victim in relation
to each other.
174

Direct Belays and Belaying

Techniques
In traditional climbing procedure climbers safeguard each other
with some kind of body belay or mechanical device. In doing so
the belayer is placing him or herself between their companion
and the anchor point to which both are ultimately attached. This
can simply be referred to as an indirect belay or one in which the
initial impact of a fall is taken by the belayer. When using arZ/Vcc/
belay the load comes immediately on to the anchor. In the case
of an indirect belay, some of the strain can be taken by the
belayer’s body thereby decreasing the load on the anchor points.
Indeed, in cases where the anchors are poor or a little suspect, this
is done deliberately. In the [Link] of a direct belay however, the
load will come immediately on to the anchor. It may be stating
the obvious, but your anchors must be 100% sound.
Direct belays should always be treated with the utmost
caution and you should always question your decision to use one.
There is no doubt whatsoever though that in certain situations a
direct belay is both quick, convenient and efficient to use. These
situations occur most commonly in moderate terrain where there
may be some risk of a fall but not enough to warrant a full blown
belay and stance. They occur in winter climbing quite frequently
and the technique is in common usage in Alpine regions where,
combined with moving together techniques (see page 184), it
forms the basis of all Alpine ropework.
Direct belays can take on many guises. They may be rock
spikes or flakes, large boulders, trees, chocks wedged in a crack,
pitons, slings around chockstones, snow or ice anchors - in fact
almost any kind of anchor commonly used in climbing.
The techniques of using each anchor vary too. You may
drape the rope directly around a spike or you may place a sling
around it instead and clip the rope in with an Italian hitch.
Whatever the anchor and method you decide to use always
remember that the set up must be able to cope with the full weight
Using the Rope Directly around a Rock or Tree 175

of a fall and that if it fails you are powerless to halt the

consequences.

USING THE ROPE DIRECTLY AROUND A ROCK OR

TREE

After the soundness of the anchor the second most important

consideration is to be sure that the rope will not slip off the
anchor if you have to hold a fall. Sometimes the anchor may be
quite .shallow or rounded and not accommodate the rope effec¬
tively. The anchor, particularly if it is a spike or flake may also
have sharp edges which abrade the rope and may even cause it
to break when a load is applied. What is surprising to most people
who use direct belays of this kind for the first time is the ease with
which a fall, particularly that of a second, can be held. The
amount of friction generated by a turn around even the smallest
flake or spike can be impressive.
As a general rule in all direct belaying, the more rope you are
able to have in contact with the anchor, the greater the friction
will be. The greater the friction, the easier it is to hold a falling
climber. It is important when belaying a second in this fashion
that the rope is kept taut at all times and you should pay particular
attention to the way in which the rope is taken in. Ensuring that
you never let go of the controlling rope is crucial. To hold a fall
more effectively grip the two ropes together with the hand that
holds the live rope (Photo 79).
Unless you are able to arrange for a satisfactory upward
pulling anchor, you should not use this particular method for
belaying the leader. You can use direct belay techniques to belay
a leader but only with upward pulling anchors and by connecting
the rope to the anchor via a karabiner.

USING THE ROPE THROUGH A KARABINER

If you decide that you are going to use a sling around a spike or
176 Direct Belays and Belaying Techniques

(79) Direct belay around a spike

Using the Rope Through a Karabiner 177

a nut in a crack or a thread anchor, or bolts, pegs or ice screws you

will have to connect the rope to the anchor via a karabiner.
You will have to use some sort of friction device in order to
hold a fall. This could be a belay plate, a figure of eight
descendeur or an Italian hitch. If you decide to use a belay plate
make sure that you can operate it correctly by standing behind
the plate (see page 71). In practice the plate is awkward to use and
requires an almost purpose made stance to operate it safely so an
Italian hitch or a figure of eight may be preferable. It is possible
to operate both the latter devices from in front of the anchor,
which will in fact be found more convenient in the majority of
cases.
The rope can be used directly through the karabiner without
any friction device at all. It is essential to wear leather gloves if
you want to give yourself any chance of being able to hold
someone. In unpractised hands however this is not a terribly safe
method and if for some reason your partner falls off and you are
unable to hold the rope, the consequences may well be fatal. You
will no doubt see it used on the mountains however and that is the
main reason for mentioning it here. The only term I’ve ever come
across for this method is the ‘Australian glove belay’. It is
possible to make it a little safer by putting a second turn around
the karabiner. This unfortunately has a tendency to twist the
ropes quite badly.
A further consideration worthy of a few' words is the
combination of a belay device, such as a plate or hitch attached
directly to the belayer or even a body belay, but with the rope
running through or around a direct belay. This allows the belayer
to hold the rope more easily yet utilizes the speed of a direct
belay. In most cases it would not be necessary for the belayer to
anchor to the mountain. Indeed if that was necessary it would
negate the advantages of the direct belay.
178

Moving Together
Moving together is the commonly used term for situations where
two, or more, climbers are roped together for safety and moving
up, down or across the mountain but do not go through the
traditional sequence of making stances and climbing one at a
time.
The technique is most often used in moderate terrain where
there may be the potential of a serious slip or fall but in
consideration of speed and efficiency of movement on the
mountain it does not justify traditional belaying and climbing
techniques. Such terrain includes easy but exposed'scrambling,
easy snow climbs and glacial travel. It is a tenuous form of safety
that relies on good technique, quick reactions and an ability to
handle ropes and equipment slickly.
It is a technique that is generally criticized in the UK for its
apparent disregard of safety but one that is practised in Alpine
regions more frequently than any other technique. In these pages
I will try to dispel some of the myth but will make no attempt to
denounce the serious implications of using it in the mountains.

MOVING TOGETHER - TWO ON THE ROPE

This is moving together in its simplest form. Two climbers of

fairly equal ability and experience and moderate rock scram¬
bling terrain such as might be found on an easy classic Alpine
peak or the Cuillin on Skye.
The first decision that has to be made is how much rope to
have between the two climbers. This can be a problem because
too much rope out may lead to complications and inevitably,
tangles and not enough rope to greatly reduced safety margins.
Unfortunately there is no hard and fast rule that can be applied
as each situation dictates a different course of action.
A good starting point, however, is to have about 10 m
(30-35 ft) between each climber. The remainder of the rope can
Moving Together - Two on the Rope 179

be shared equally between the two people or carried by one per¬

son. If the decision is for one person to carry it, it is as well to
give it to the more experienced as he or she will be the one most
likely to need it. This will be particularly true if route-finding is
a problem or having just surmounted a short section of difficult
climbing, one finds that to go on a further 7 m (25 ft) or so will
lead to a safer stance and/or better anchor.
Photos 80a and b and 81 show a recommended way to
shorten the rope by coiling it around the body. There are many
ways of tying the rope off at the harness but, though not usually
dogmatic in my approach to these things, I suggest that this is one
of the simplest and most effective. It is also particularly easy to
release more rope as it is required.
When coiling the rope around your shoulder you should try
to make each coil about waist length. Anything shorter will have
you walking round like Quasimodo all day and anything longer
will make you angry as you’ll be tripping over the loops. Please
remember that it is important to tie the coils off for safety
reasons. If you don’t and you have to hold a falling climber the
coils will tighten up around your body and probably strangle
you.
Most of the time you will find it easier to move with a few
coils in your hand (Photo 82a). Here again make the coils quite
short so that there is little risk of tripping over them. Make sure
that you take coils working from the thumb outwards. This will
allow you to drop coils easily as and when they are required.
Photo 82b shows a good way to lock off the coils. If you have to
change the coils to the other hand you must turn the whole bunch
around before doing so. As a general rule you should always try
to carry the coils in the downhill hand. This means that if
someone falls off below you the rope is not pulled across your
body as the strain comes on to it.
Photo 82c shows another method of carrying coils. This is
called ‘lapping’ the rope and though favoured by some climbers
it is certainly not as popular nor is it as easy to hold a 'falling'
Moving Together
(80a) Shortening the rope. Pass a loop up through (b) Shortening the rope. Tie the overhand knot
180 all the coils
Moving Together - Two on the Rope 181

(81) Shonening the rope. The finished version

Moving Together

(82a) Carrying coils when moving (b) A method of locking off the (c) Lap coiling. Not quite so easy
together. Note that the'live'rope coils to hold a load
182 can be released if required
Moving Together - Two on the Rope 183

climber.
On easy ground where it is possible to climb without using
hands, it is as well to move quite close together - say 3-4 m
(10 12 ft) apart - with the remainder of the rope carried by each
climber. On slightly more difficult terrain or particularly on
snow slopes you should only take coils on the rope that goes to
the person below you. This affords a greater margin of safety
when it comes to correcting a slip as the rope can be pulled tight
immediately. There is no risk of them letting go of coils and
thereby gaining speed and momentum in the fall. It goes without
saying that the most experienced member of the party should be
in the highest up the hill position. If for some reason this person
slips you can only pray that they are able to stop themselves.
If the terrain requires the use of both hands you will most
likely find it easier to move with the 10 m (30-35 ft) of rope out. In
order to afford safety for both climbers the lead climber should
put on running belays. These running belays may take the tradi¬
tional form of a nut or a sling over a spike or a Friend or a piton.
They could easily be the rope simply draped around a spike or
a boulder or even just being on the opposite side of the ridge
to your partner. These ‘natural’ running belays need to be
treated with caution as sharp edges may cut the rope in the event
of a fall. I recall a climb in New Zealand (not a recommended
outing, I can tell you) where the rocks on the ridge were so sharp
we moved together with the rope ‘quadrupled’ between us. If the
lead climber continues to put on running belays in this way, he or
she will soon run out and the person behind will be laden down
with all the kit. So, from time to time you will need to meet up
with your partner and either swap leads or swap equipment.
When you come across something difficult on the climb and
you feel the need for greater security, it is a simple matter to
arrange a more traditional belay. Y ou may decide to use all of the
rope or just a portion of it. Similarly you may decide to anchor
yourself as in pitched climbing or use a direct belay which is
probably more appropriate to the technique of moving together.
184 Moving Together

In either case it is quick to drop coils from your body to gain extra
length. In some cases only one of the climbers need drop coils.
It really depends on how much rope is required.
Direct belays (see page 174) play an important role in
moving together techniques so it is well to practise until you are
familiar with the different types of direct belay.
Please note that moving together does not afford the safety
of traditional pitch climbing. One cannot hope to hold a serious
leader fall or even, if they have the opportunity to gather
momentum, a second falling for that matter. Safety lies in
keeping the rope tight between each climber and being on the
ball and quick enough to correct a slip before it turns into
something a lot more serious.

MOVING TOGETHER - THREE ON THE ROPE

The techniques are essentially the same as two on a rope. It is

probably advisable that the middle person ties on without taking
any coils. Also you should consider carefully how you tie the
rope into the harness. The easiest way is to tie a figure of eight
or an Alpine butterfly knot and clip it to the harness via a
screwgate karabiner. However, there are some harnesses that do
not function correctly or safely if you do this. The Whillans
harness is one such example. With this harness you must tie in
to the loops as per the manufacturer’s recommendation. To tie
into the harness take the portion of rope that you want to tie into
and thread it (it will be doubled) through the tie in loops and tie
a bowline knot treating the doubled rope as one rope. The
resulting knot is terribly bulky but it is really the safest way of
tying in. Incidentally, there is nothing to stop you from tying the
middle of the rope into all harnesses this way (Photo 83).
Tying on to the middle of the rope often presents problems
for that person. He or she can literally be torn between two
climbers. To avoid this occurring it is advisable to tie the figure
of eight or the Alpine butterfly with a long loop and then to tie
Moving Together - Three on the Rope 183

Alpine
butterfly

(83) Tying on to the middle of the rope using a bowline tied in

a loop of rope through the tie in loops of the harness
186 Moving Together

a figure of eight in the loop which is then clipped in to the harness

(Photo 14). This then allows a certain amount of freedom of
movement for the middle person. You should ensure that the
distance between the harness and Alpine butterfly or figure of
eight is such that it can never go out of arm's reach.
It is quite possible to have an infinite number of people on
a rope thus, and keep on adding ropes and ropes, but sense and
sensibility dictate that there must be a limit. I would venture to
suggest that this be something like four or five to a rope on very
easy ground and less as the terrain becomes more difficult. The
exception to the rule is glacier travel, in which case the more the
merrier for safety purposes. Glacier travel is dealt with under a
separate heading for although it is still technically moving
together, the specific techniques are a case apart.

LEADER BRINGING TWO CLIMBERS UP AT THE

SAME TIME

This technique is used quite often in guiding or instructional

situations and is a fairly quick way of mixing traditional pitch
technique with moving together. It can be used effectively by a
team of three climbers where movement up the climb would
otherwise be a slow and tedious process. If used efficiently there
is no reason why three shouldn’t move almost as quickly as two.
The lead climber should of course be experienced enough to be
able to handle bringing two climbers up at the same time.
Traditional anchoring methods are relevant but obviously one
needs to consider the fact that you may have to hold both
climbers at the same time, so make sure that anchors are good.
The method of belaying should also be given careful consid¬
eration. A body belay such as the waist or shoulder belay is not
enough. It should be a belay plate or similar device or possibly
an Italian hitch. Whatever system you decide to use the rope to
each of the climbers you are safeguarding must operate inde¬
pendently of the other. An Italian hitch in both ropes together.
 Leader bringing Two Climbers up at the same Time
187

(84) Shortening the rope to carry the bulk of it in a rucksack

188 Moving Together

clipped into one krab will not work efficiently.

The two climbers, rather than climb side by side, should
move about 5 m (15 ft) apart, one behind the other. They
should be tied into clearly identifiable ropes so that the belayer
is aware of who’s doing what at any time. On difficult or serious
terrain it may not be practical to bring both climbers up at the
same time. An advantage of this system is that it is convenient
to revert to traditional pitched climbing at any time and use the
moving together technique on easier or less serious ground.
When belaying the leader either of the ‘seconds’ may take on
the task or both could belay the leader on their own ropes.

Other Methods of Shortening the Rope

In other situations, for example if you only want to safeguard a
less experienced or more cautious companion over a short tricky
section of a climb, it would be laborious and unnecessary to go
through the previous procedure.
Photo 84 shows a method where only a part of the rope is
used and the remainder stored in the rucksack. This will obvi¬
ously cause problems if you discover that you need more rope
than you have instantly available, so be sure that you have
enough to hand. Never just ‘stuff’ the spare rope in your rucksack
as I can guarantee you will snag it somehow and pull it all out of
the pack.
There are a couple of other ways of tying off the rope as well
as the one described, but so long as the rope is tied off neatly and
securely it doesn’t really matter how it’s done.
 189

Glacier Travel
Glacier travel is an important aspect of Alpine mountaineering.
The most serious part of an Alpine climb is often the approach
up a glacier or the descent at the end of the day. It is an aspect of
mountaineering that is all too often taken lightly and without due
regard to safety - until you fall into a crevasse - and then it
becomes apparent that the words of caution were not spoken
lightly.
Glaciers, like climbs, can be easy or complicated and
difficult to negotiate. There is however no system of categoriz¬
ing the difficulty of glacier travel, nor indeed would it be
practical to do so. What one week may be a straightforward
stroll, a week later could be a complicated mass of yawning
crevasses and hungry crevasse tigers. It is not within the remit of
this book to discuss the mountaineering skills of route-finding,
suffice to say in these pages that glacier travel and its associated
dangers should be treated with the utmost respect.
Before you decide on a method of roping up for glacier
travel, it may be as well to consider the prerequisites. The rope
is required for the safety of the party in negotiating crevassed
areas where the dangers may not be visually apparent but may
well result in a fall into a crevasse. In many cases a fall into a
crevasse is only up to the chest level and extrication is a simple
matter. If, however, you are crossing a large snow bridge and it
collapses you may end up hanging well below the lip of the
crevasse - maybe even dangling in space. You may also sustain
an injury on the way down or be knocked unconscious. In just
about every case you almost certainly lose contact with your
companions on the surface. The rope must therefore be attached
to the climber in such a way that it affords safety to someone
falling into a crevasse and that it is possible for those who remain
on the surface first to hold and later to secure and rescue any
climber from a crevasse. There are numerous methods of tying
on to the rope, some of which will be discussed here and others
Glacier Travel
190
(85) Every which way but loose! Glacier travel through complex terrain
Glacier Travel 191

that I propose to leave to self discovery.

To begin with let us consider the choice of harness. By far
the most commonly used in mountaineering is the sit harness.
Whilst such a harness is adequate for nearly all climbing scenar¬
ios, any of which might result in a fallen climber hanging free
with a heavy rucksack on their back, it rnay cause the climber to
tip upside down and even fall out of the harness. For this reason
I recommend that you give careful thought to the type of harness
used in Alpine mountaineering and if for you a full body harness
is not a worthwhile buy, that you consider using a chest harness,
improvised or otherwise, and connect it to the sit harness. There
are a number of lightweight and efficient chest harnesses avail¬
able and one such is shown in Photo 86b. A two-piece system
such as this allows the climber the choice of sit or full body
harness applicable to whatever they may be doing. The sequence
of photographs shows a way to use the rope to connect the two
together (Photos 86a and b).
Generally speaking you should move on a glacier with
about 8-10 m (25-30 ft) of rope between each climber in much
the same way as the moving together techniques already de¬
scribed (page 178). This allows a good margin of safety for hold¬
ing a falling climber and also enough rope for exploratory
probing. Anything more than this can lead to tangles and confu-
sion and anything less lowers the safety margins. It is, however,
important to remember that unlike other methods of moving
together, you must not at any time carry coils in the hand.
The basis of the safety system lies in keeping the rope tight
between the climbers at all times. By allowing slack to develop
you increase the length of any fall and decrease your chances of
success in holding someone securely. The minimum safe num¬
ber of climbers on a rope is obviously two. Obviously, the more
climbers on the rope the greater the margins of safety and the
greater the likelihood of stopping someone should they fall into
a crevasse. The longest ‘rope’ of climbers I have ever seen was
about 73 - it was difficult to keep count! This was on the Tour
Glacier Travel

Bowline
192
(86a) Connecting a sit harness to a chest harness (j,) -pi^g completed connection
Roping-up Techniques 193

Glacier in Chamonix.
Regardless of the number of climbers on the rope it is
important to ensure that there is sufficient spare rope in the party
to effect a rescue. This can be carried in coils around the body or
in the rucksack or you might even have a complete spare rope in
your pack.
In theory, the ‘safest’ position on the rope in glacier travel
is in between two other clirnbers. Here you have a rope from both
sides so the chances of being stopped before you fall too far are
quite high - provided of course that your companions are alert.
It is quite possible that you could spend a lifetime travelling over
glaciers and not fall into anything serious that requires complex
rescue procedures. But it is such an unknown quantity that it
would be foolish to become complacent. At all times you must
be ‘on the ball’ and ready to hold a fall.

ROPING-UP TECHNIQUES

Two on the Rope

For two climbers moving on a glacier you should rope-up, as I
said before, about 8-10 m (25-30 ft) apart. Use the middle of
the rope leaving on a 45 m (150 ft) rope, for example, about
18 m (60 ft) at either end. This spare rope is then coiled around
the body in the way shown in Photos 80 and 81. The coils must
be tied of in the manner illustrated. This method of tying on has
the advantage that it creates a chest support which is particu¬
larly effective if the coils are reasonably snug around the shoul¬
der. In the event of a fall, the initial impact is taken on the sit
harness and the coils support the upper body.
You should always put a ‘prusik’ loop on the rope. I
recommend that this be the longest of the loops that you have so
that if you do fall down a crevasse you do at least have something
that you can stand in immediately. You will find this important
from the point of view of comfort. Whilst walking along the
glacier the spare cord can be tucked in the pocket or tied loosely
194 Glacier Travel

to the harness.
For reasons that will soon become apparent use a Klemheist
knot and tie a figure of eight knot in the sling about halfway
along. This is then used as a handle to assist with keeping the rope
out from under your feet and more importantly to help hold a
falling companion (page 203). The leading climber is the one at
most risk of falling into a crevasse. But don’t think that you’re
excused the pleasure just by being at the back! For the people
behind the leader the Klemheist can be used as a handle to assist
you with holding a fall and it is also a convenient knot to use
when the time comes to secure the rope prior to rescuing a
companion from a crevasse (see Crevasse Rescue page 201).
When moving over the glacier keep the rope taut at all times,
particularly when there are route-finding difficulties and the
leading climber is probing for hidden crevasses. If necessary,
you should not hesitate to use a temporary belay of some kind
(see page 103) to safeguard each other over difficult or danger¬
ous snow bridges.

Three or More on a Rope

I would suggest that four climbers would be the maximum
number you should consider tying into one 45 m (150 ft) or
50 m (165 ft) length of rope. This allows for about 9 m (30 ft) of
rope between each person and about 9 m (30 ft) spare at either
end for effecting rescues. You may of course have a whole rope
spare in a party of four climbers which can be used to work on
a rescue. The people in the ‘middle’ of the rope could tie on in
the manner recommended on page 184. Give careful considera¬
tion to whether or not these people should be tied into a full
body harness, improvised or otherwise. My suggestion is that
they should be, but, as there is much less chance of them falling
a long way into a crevasse it is possible to get away with wear¬
ing a sit harness. It is, however such a simple matter to rig an
improvised chest harness which will at least provide some sup¬
port, that you may be foolhardy not to do so. Photo 87 shows a
Roping-up Techniques 195

(87) Tying on to the middle of the rope using coils for chest support
196 Glacier Travel

method of making an improvised chest harness from the rope.

Each ‘middle’ person should put a prusik loop on the rope to
the climber in front of them. This can then be used as a handle
to assist with holding the person in front of you.
Do not become complacent with regard to safety. Just
because there is safety in numbers, it doesn’t mean you’re
exempt from the experience of falling into a crevasse. Keep the
rope taut at all times and don't carry coils.

SAFETY WHEN NEGOTIATING DIFFICULTIES

Snow bridges
If you should come across a seemingly weak or a narrow snow
bridge it is important that each climber be safeguarded across. It
is not enough to casually stroll along and hope that nothing will
happen. Often it may be safety enough that the person behind
keeps the rope very tight and moves forward only as the one
crossing the bridge needs rope. All other people on the rope
should keep the rope tight and be similarly braced. Once one
person is across this procedure can be repeated for the remainder
of the party. Make sure though that you keep the party strung out
and don’t gather together in one spot. It has happened that parties
have grouped together over a crevasse and the whole thing has
collapsed depositing everyone in the hole.
If you feel the need for a more solid form of anchor you may
choose to make one of the snow anchors described in the section
on snow and ice anchors. It would be true to say however, that
in the majority of cases keeping the rope tight is more than
adequate.

Jumping a Crevasse
Jumping over crevasses, whilst testing your long jump skills, can
be a dangerous thing to do. It is often necessary though, and you
would be as well to bear a few things in mind. Firstly ensure that
Safety when Negotiating Difficulties 197

the person jumping has enough rope to make the distance! That
sounds a bit obvious but I have witnessed a few occasions where
there hasn’t been enough rope and either the person jumping was
pulled back into the crevasse or the next person on the rope had
to make a hurried decision to jump. Make sure that you have as
good a take off as possible and that the landing is fairly safe.
Jumping downhill is the most risky because it is often difficult
to control the momentum. If you have someone who is a little
nervous about jumping you can wait for them to jump and, if you
don’t think that they are going to make it, assist them by pulling
on the rope! It works, just so long as you don’t pull before they
jump.
You may decide that you need a more secure anchor and
belay in which case use an appropriate system from the chapter
on anchors on snow, rock and ice.

Crossing a Bergschrund
Depending on the size of the bergschrund you have to cross, it is
likely that you will treat this aspect of mountaineering as a
‘pitched’ climb. You may not rig-up the anchors as you would
do in a fully fledged pitch situation but you will certainly move
one at a time.
In ascent, having chosen the crossing point, the leader will
go across. He or she will be belayed by the next person along the
rope. This could once more, be a simple matter of keeping the
rope taut. In descent, again depending on the size of the beast, it
is probably better to gather together at a convenient position
above the bergschrund and rig up a belay. Try to make sure that
you have a fairly comfortable stance. This may mean hacking out
a large platform to stand on or if the climb you are on is fairly
popular the stance will probably be large enough.
The leader or most experienced member of the party will
probably go last. All other members may be lowered down or
they may climb to safety. If there is room it is a good idea for all
the party to spread out along the length of rope available and keep
198 Glacier Travel

it taut to afford extra safety. The last person over the ‘schrund’
is protected by all the others keeping the rope respectably taut -
though not so tight that you run the risk of pulling the person off.
Should the leader discover that the bergschrund is straightfor¬
ward enough to cross without resorting to belaying each mem¬
ber, the party can resume a moving together technique and treat
the obstacle just like another creyasse.
Occasionally it will be necessary to abseil over a bergschrund.
Try, if possible, to do this near to some rocks and you may be able
to use a rock anchor. If there is no rock anchor available you will
either have to abseil off a bollard - the most likely - or an ice
screw or a retrievable T-axe. (See chapters Anchors on Snow and
Ice and Other Useful Rope Tricks.)
At risk of repeating myself, I would like to reiterate the
importance of good rope management and a sensible approach
to glacier travel. Too often one is witness to sloppy technique
and accidents, including deaths, that could so easily have been
avoided.
 199

Crevasse Rescue
‘To come down a glacier without relaxing the essential precau¬
tions asks, in most cases, for a special and sustained effort of will.
It is usually done in the afternoon; the party is tired; the snow is
softening in the warm sun; the hard climb is over and everyone
is relaxed; it is easy to be careless. This, above all, is the time
when people fall into crevasses. It may sound strange but it
happens again and again. The leader is sinking knee-deep into
soft snow; the second man, hot and exhausted, full of the wish to
be off the glacier as soon as possible, closes up to the leader; the
third man is bored by walking alone and closes up to the second;
their ropes trail behind them. Then someone goes through.’

From On Climbing by Sir Charles Evans, Museum Press, 1956.

Salutary words indeed, but so true.

200 Crevasse Rescue

This chapter deals with the techniques of getting out of a

crevasse. Many of the techniques have already been discussed
and it is simply a matter of putting them in context and discussing
where and what will work best. As with all self-rescue situations,
no two are ever the same. The circumstances are nearly always
different; the time of day, the seriousness of the terrain, the
abilities of individuals concerned and so it goes on. Armed with
a repertoire of techniques however, the mountaineer can usually
effect a rescue.

THE BASIC CREVASSE RESCUE

The most common ‘fall’ into a crevasse is going through up to

the waist or chest at the worst. Extraction is largely a matter of
self preservation. That is to say, as soon as you feel your feet
kicking around in space and that void below you, some strange
power takes over and you’re no sooner in than you’re out. With
a little help from your friends of course.
The serious problems begin when you are below ground
level. Provided that your partner or partners have been doing
their job well and the rope has been kept tight, you shouldn’t fall
too far into the crevasse. However, as soon as you go below
ground level the rope will cut into the snow on the edge of the
crevasse and this will give most of the problems.
To stop someone who is falling into a crevasse, the first
thing you must do is fall to the ground and try to dig your feet in.
There will probably be a few micro-seconds when you think
you’re not going to be able to hold but it is usually surprisingly
easy, particularly if the rope cuts deep into the edge and creates
a lot of friction. If you are the one who has fallen in and are
literally only just below the surface, you may be able to get out
with a struggle and a fair amount of tugging from your partners.
If despite all the tugging and heaving and pushing, the rope
remains stuck fast and you don’t pop out, you must adopt a
slightly more scientific approach. The climber, on the surface
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 201

may decide to secure you to an anchor and come to the edge to

help you. If there are three or more climbers on the rope, you can
be held by the second person along while a third comes to your
aid Whoever it is that goes to the edge, they must make sure that
they have some kind of protection just in case they fall through
too. This will mean rigging an anchor for the second person, and
then the third can go to the edge with the protection of a prusik
loop on the loaded rope. This can be moved along as the climber
approaches the edge.
When the rescuer gets to the edge the first thing to do is to
put something, such as a spare ice axe, ski poles or rucksack,
under the rope to try to prevent it from cutting deeper into the
crevasse edge. After that it is possible to cut away a little of the
edge in order to reveal the buried rope. Take care when hacking
the snow away from around the loaded rope because the slightest
touch may well be enough to cut it. Remember, a loaded rope
cuts very easily. You should have a very good chance of getting
out once all that has been done, without having to resort to
complicated pulley systems and hoists.

The ‘Real’ Thing!

If despite careful ropework or because of a lack of attention, a
climber disappears well below the surface, you will have some¬
thing more serious to deal with. One of the problems confronting
you from the outset will be the lack of ability to communicate
between surface and crevasse and this will frustrate attempts at
rescue. It is important that you establish with all of the party,
before you go out in the mountains, exactly what will happen if
one of the group falls deeply into a crevasse. This will speed up
the rescue procedure because at least everyone has an idea of
what is going on, including, most importantly, the person down
the crevasse.
As a general rule, once someone has fallen into a crevasse
the person on the surface should rig up an anchor and escape
from the system. Meanwhile the person in the crevasse should.
202 Crevasse Rescue

provided they are able, make sure that they have their prusiks on
the rope. They will almost certainly have one, but may not have
the other on so do that immediately. At the same time try to take
stock of the situation and decide the best way to get out of the
hole.
When escaping from the system on the surface, life is made
much more straightforward by having a prusik loop already on
the rope. If you use, as suggested in the previous chapter, a
Klemheist in the long prusik loop, it is a simple matter to convert
it to a French prusik autobloc. Photos 88, 89 and 90 show the
sequence of escaping from the system ‘crevasse rescue’ style.
The escape can be effected in much the same way as it is done
on a rock climb. Refer to the appropriate pages for more detail.
The procedure is as follows.
Take the strain of the fallen person by immediately drop¬
ping to the ground and digging your feet in. Once you have
stopped sliding and your partner falling you have to try to get an
anchor in. This could be any of the snow anchors described in the
chapter on snow, rock and ice anchors, but remember that the
snow may be very soft and unpredictable.
If there are more than two of you on the rope, it is preferable
to get someone behind you to rig the anchor. You would do well
not to underestimate the difficulty of holding someone’s weight
while trying to arrange an anchor. Having rigged the anchor, you
must then convert the Klemheist to a French prusik, as in Photo
88 and clip it into the anchor. Having done that move forward
gradually to take all the weight off yourself and transfer it to the
anchor. That done you can untie all the coils from around you and
untie completely. Make sure that you tie the rope into the anchor
with a separate krab before doing anything else. This is your
safety back-up in the event that the autobloc fails (Photo 90).
As soon as you have escaped from the system you must try
to establish contact with the person down the crevasse. To do this
you will need to go to the edge of the crevasse. It would be
sensible to approach the edge of the crevasse very cautiously and
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 203

(88) Escaping the system during crevasse rescue - stage one

204 Crevasse Rescue

(89) Having rigged your anchor, convert the Klemheist to a French prusik
and clip it to the anchor - stage two
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 205

(90) The final stage. The escape complete you can now rescue the victim
206 Crevasse Rescue

on hands and knees with a prusik loop on the load rope or some
other safety device attached to the anchor. This of course could
be a spare rope or the remaining rope that was coiled around your
shoulder. Once on the edge, put some padding or something
under the rope to prevent it cutting any deeper into the crevasse
edge.
When you have established communication you can decide,
between the two of you, on the best course of action. It may be
that the person down the crevasse decides to prusik out. If so, you
will need to sort out the edge of the crevasse so that it is easier
for the crevasse bound climber to get out. This will certainly
involve plenty of hacking away at the edge and a deluge of snow
down onto the victim. If you are unable to clear away the snow
from around the loaded rope the best thing to do is to cut a box¬
shaped slot just to the side of where the rope has cut in. You could
then drop a spare bit of rope down this to help the victim get over
the very awkward final edge. This can be used to pull the victim
out or for them to transfer to when they arrive near the top.
If you are the person that has to prusik out you will find it
easier to do so without a rucksack on. As you begin to ascend you
will notice that a loop of slack rope develops. This loop will get
longer the higher you go. As soon as you can identify this loop,
take off your rucksack and clip it into the loop so that it hangs
below you. If you have skis on you can dangle them from this
loop too. Be careful not to drop any equipment!
The party may decide that an assisted hoist (page 154) is the
answer to the problems. In which case set the ropes up for the
hoist in the way illustrated in Photo 69 but you need not put on
the belay plate of course. The biggest problem you will encoun¬
ter here is getting the hoisting loop down to the victim. Once
achieved however, extraction is a simple matter - well, fairly
simple. Never discount the possibility that the person who has
fallen-down the hole might be able to walk out out along a snow
bridge if lowered down a short distance.
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 207

Dealing with Problems

The most likely problem to occur is that the rope will have cut so
deeply into the edge of the crevasse that it is completely jammed.
In this event you will be unable to use it to aid the rescue. If the
victim decides to prusik out, he or she should do so on this rope
up to the point that it disappears into the edge. Meanwhile the
people on the surface should rig up a second rope for the victim
to transfer to for the final stage out.
If you have to do a hoist, assisted or otherwise, a slightly
different approach to that previously described is required.
Escape as illustrated in Photos 88-90 and go to the edge to cut a
box shaped slot just to the side of the jammed rope. Make sure
that you arrange something to prevent the rope from cutting
deeper into the edge. Go back to the anchor and fix a second
figure of eight knot in the rope and clip it into the anchor. If you
have a spare sling then use this as it will become much less
complicated around the anchor attachment (Photo 91). To all
intents and purposes, the rope that originally held the victim
becomes redundant, although at this stage their weight is still
hanging on it.
Using the rope from the second figure of eight knot that you
tied, drop a loop with a pulley attached, down to the victim. This
is then clipped into the victim’s harness at a secure place -
preferably the central loop. If for some reason this loop is not
long enough to reach the victim, it can be extended with a sling.
The slack end of the rope is passed through an Alpine clutch or
through a karabiner and pulley with a French prusik autobloc. On
this rope and between the autobloc and the victim put on a short
prusik loop. Take the rope from the other side of the autobloc and
clip it to this prusik (Photo 90). By pulling on the rope indicated
in the photo you should be able to hoist your victim. The victim
can actually help a little by pulling on the rope that is attached to
the second figure of eight knot that you tied earlier on. Once the
load comes off the original holding rope a third person could, if
desired, undo the figure of eight back-up, convert it to an Italian
208 Crevasse Rescue

(91) Crevasse rescue if the main rope is jammed in the edge of the crevasse
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 209

hitch and take in the rope as the victim gains height.

Unconscious Victim

If the person who falls down the crevasse is injured or has been
knocked unconscious, you will have very different problems to
solve. Without doubt, the first thing to do is to go down to the
victim and take stock of the situation. It may be necessary to
administer First Aid. You must make sure that the anchor you
have placed is strong enough to take the weight of two people.
Invariably this will mean backing the original up with a second
anchor or creating a new one just for the rescuer.
You will then probably have to hoist the victim to the
surface. This in itself is a difficult and onerous task and not one
to be undertaken lightly. It is tempting to say glibly here that you
should go to the surface and rig up an unassisted hoist as
illustrated in Photo 72 but in truth if you are on your own you
have very little hope of being able to pull an unconscious victim
to the surface. It is difficult enough even with two or three
people. There is, however enough information in these chapters
to give you a chance of rescuing an unconscious person but don’t
expect to be able to do it without some practice first - and
certainly don’t expect it to be easy.
Remember that small pulleys - such as those manufactured
by Petzl - reduce friction. If none are available use double krabs
to reduce the angle of the turn at each moving part of the system.

Hints on Practising Crevasse Rescue

Many people practise the techniques of crevasse extraction on a
dry glacier i.e. one that is bare ice and where all the crevasses are
visible. This is quite a good starting point to pick up the basics
but it is not terribly realistic. It is much better to go to some real
crevasses on a snow covered glacier to practise. You should be
able to make everything perfectly safe by having back-up
anchors for everything so that if someone fails to hold a falling
 210 Crevasse Rescue

>

(92) Making an anchor whilst holding someone who has fallen in a crevasse.
In this case a T-axe is used
The Basic Crevasse Rescue 211

(93) Crossing a narrow snow bridge. The rope is taut in both directions
212 Crevasse Rescue

climber at least they are not all going to fall in.

I would suggest this as a worthwhile exercise as it gives you
a more realistic idea of what to expect and, in my experience,
makes you aware of the importance of not being too relaxed on
a glacier. You need not even go to a glacier to practise. Small
cornices or other features in the British hills in winter provide a
similar formation to a crevasse. Please make sure that the 'run
out' is perfectly safe - the top of Number 5 Gully on Ben Nevis
would certainly not be ideal!
 213

Other Useful Rope ‘Tricks’

In this final chapter I propose to discuss a few techniques that
didn’t seem to fit in under any other headings but are, neverthe¬
less, appropriate to a rope techniques book. The first two
techniques are often labelled as pretty fancy tricks for instructors
and guides only but this needn’t be the case at all. Admittedly,
they have limited use and sometimes don’t work. Nonetheless,
if they are set up correctly and with some thought, there will be
occasions when you might find them useful.

RETRIEVABLE ICE SCREW

This trick will only work reliably with tubular screw in/screw out
ice screws. The ice screw must not be too long and you must also
make sure that the cord used to activate the retrieval is long
enough to unscrew the ice screw completely. Photo 94 show the
set-up in the ice ready for abseiling and the method for setting it
up. The Penberthy knot must be attached to the rope that you are
going to pull. If, therefore, you are abseiling on two ropes joined
put the Penberthy just above the joining knot. The cord that
initiates the turning of the screw must always be attached to the
left hand rope. If it is attached to the right it will only tighten the
screw into the ice! Y ou could arrange the connection of ice screw
to rope by using a piece of cord or tape and tying it into an
overhand loop in the abseil rope. This works just as well as the
method illustrated. When you put in the ice screw it is worth¬
while unscrewing it and screwing it back in a couple of times to
ensure that it will unscrew easily. This is particularly necessary
if it is many degrees below freezing as the screw could freeze in
tighter whilst you are abseiling.

RETRIEVABLE ICE AXE

A similar sort of gimmick to the retrievable ice screw but

 214 Other Useful Rope 'Tricks'

(94) Retrievable ice screw

Retrievable Ice Axe 215

(95) Retrievable T-axe

216 Other Useful Rope 'Tricks'

nonetheless one that I know has been put to good use on a number
of occasions, particularly abseiling over bergschrunds. Photo 95
shows the method for setting it up.
There are some important considerations to take into ac¬
count. Firstly, the snow that you set the anchor up in must be
fairly solid and reliable. When you are arranging the T-axe in the
slot make sure that the vertical axe will run smoothly up and
down the hole. The slot that you cut for the rope to run through
should be a little wider than what you would cut for a normal
T-axe anchor. This is to allow the rope to run more smoothly.
Make sure that the cord that you use for the Penberthy knot at one
end and the attachment to the spike of the vertical axe at the other,
is quite long. The vertical axe must be pulled completely clear of
the snow before the connection to the horizontal axe comes tight.
Stand very well clear of the rope when you do retrieve the
equipment! When pulling try to get the vertical axe out in one
movement and keep up the momentum so that it pulls the
horizontal one out with it.

TENSIONING ROPES FOR TYROLEANS AND OTHER

AERIAL ROPEWAYS

There are probably few occasions in day to day climbing when

you will need to tension ropes. However, if you are involved in
taking people - youngsters or adults - into the outdoors, you will
probably find yourself setting up death slides. Postman’s Walks,
Tyroleans and a whole manner of ropeway adventures.
The first such adventure I had was on my introduction to
Rock climbing course run by Pete Crew and A1 Harris from
Wendy’s Cafe in Llanberis. We had gone to Gogarth for the day
climbing and having just endured a Harris boulder trundling
session, whilst I was still at water level, we wandered over to
Wen Zawn. Within a short space of time two ropes, knotted
together were stretched across the Zawn from the top of Wen
crack to the promontory down below. The knot was almost
 Tensioning Ropes for Tyroleans

(96a) A simple pulley system for (b) ‘Marrying’ the ropes to prevent (c) Tying off the rope using a series
tensioning a rope slippage while tying off to the anchor of half hitches
217
218 Other Useful Rope 'Tricks'

exactly halfway along. My only recollection of this adventure is

of desperately trying to get past the knot without falling into the
sea which was swirling and splashing and roaring what felt like
thousands of feet below me. I’ve never done that tyrolean since!
One of the problems with setting up such a system with
climbing ropes is that in order to get a good slide and the right
amount of tightness in the rope, it is necessary to tension the
ropes until all the stretch has been taken out. The strength of a
climbing rope lies in its ability to absorb the shock of a falling
climber. Taking all of the stretch out of the rope before you
subject it to a load is putting the strain on it when it is at its
weakest. This is surely not a good thing. On many occasions I
have witnessed teams of ten or more people heaving on a
climbing rope to get it guitar string tight and then bouncing
about, see-sawing back and forth and generally subjecting it to
forces that surely one day will cause their demise.
If you are involved in such activities on a regular basis you
would be advised to buy a low- or non-stretch abseil rope specifi¬
cally for such adventures. It is not then necessary to tension the
ropes to near breaking point before you can use them. In fact it
only requires a couple of people to set up. Not only that but the
ropes themselves are much more durable.
Photos 96a, b and c show a tensioning system applicable to
all aerial ropeways. Note that pulleys have been used at each turn
in the rope. Every time you put a turn in the rope you are
weakening it to a certain extent - the tighter the turn the weaker
the rope. By putting pulleys at each turn the diameter of turn is
much less and therefore weakens the system less. Once you have
the right amount of tension in the rope and you want to secure it,
get someone to hold the ropes as illustrated in Photo 96b. This is
called ‘marrying the ropes’ and is a simple and effective way to
ensure that you don’t let any of the rope slip back through whilst
tying it off. From time to time you will need to retension the ropes
to keep them at the desired level of tightness. This is a simple
matter. The tie off at the anchor can easily be undone even when
under load.
Frontispiece: Well prepared for an MIA assessment!
Nigel Shepherd

Further modern rope techniques

ivith special information for SPA & MIA

Constable • London
Rock climbing, ice climbing and other aspects of mountaineer¬
ing are inherently dangerous and the techniques described in
this book require considerable practice before they can be
implemented safely and efficiently on crag and mountain. The
techniques require careful judgement, which can only be based
on long experience.
We strongly advise that anyone wishing to practice the
techniques described herein should do so under the expert
tuition of a qualified professional and must recognise the risks
that are involved and personally accept the responsibility
associated with those risks.
Contents
List of Illustrations 224
Acknowledgements 227
1 The SPA, MIA and MIC 229
2 Top roping and bottom roping 233
3 Abseiling with groups 254
4 MIA - Improvised rescue 262
5 MIA - Abseiling, stance organisation, multi-pitch
climbing and teaching lead climbing 283
6 Short roping for MIA 307
7 Sport climbs and climbing walls -
Some safety considerations 332
O VO 00

Belaying, double rope technique and hanging stances 348

Ascending a fixed rope 380
Retreating from climbs 386
Miscellany 395
List of Illustrations
Well prepared for an MIA assessment 220
1 Using the rope to bring multiple anchors to central
point 237
2 Two anchors brought to one point using sling 238
3 Two anchors to one point allowing sideways
movement 239
4 System to get multiple anchors under equal tension 241
5 Figure-eight descendeur in place of screwgate
karabiner 242
6 Side tension anchor for stabilising main anchor 244
7 Top roping set-up 249
8 Ascending set-up to rescue 'stuck' climber 250
9 Bottom roping: anchor point arranged over the edge 251
10 Bottom roping: two groups close together 252
11 Basic set-up of releasable abseil 256
12 Detail of Italian hitch tie off in releasable abseil 258
13 Rescue set-up for 'stuck' abseiler 260
14 Escape directly to counter balance - stage 1 269
15 Escape directly to counter balance - stage 2 270
16 Escape directly to counter balance - stage 3 271
17 A traverse problem 275
18 Rescuing a second who has fallen off a traverse 276
19 5:1 pulley hoist executable within the system 281
20 7:1 pulley hoist executable within the system 282
21 Cow's tail attachment for multiple abseil descents 284
22 A stacked abseil set-up 286
23 Stowing the cow's tail for ready availability 287
24 Stance organisation 293
25 Climbing in parallel 295
26 New Alp belay plate 298
27 Tying off the New Alp belay plate 299
28 Instructor rig for students learning to lead 303
29 Learning to lead with instructor in attendance 306
30 Alternative tie off for short roping - stage 1 311
31 Alternative tie off for short roping - stage 2 312
 List of Illustrations 225

32 Alternative tie off for short roping - stage 3 313

33 An overhand in the middle of the rope - stage 1 315
34 An overhand in the middle of the rope - stage 2 316
35 A well-braced stance with rope over boulder 318
36 Direct belay using an Italian hitch 320
37 Direct belay using Italian hitch - Instructor
secured separately 322
38 Counter balance through Krab on the anchor sling 323
39a Tying a clove hitch with one hand - stage 1 324
39b Tying a clove hitch - stage 2 325
40 Taking in the rope using a direct belay - stage 1 326
41 Taking in the rope using a direct belay - stage 2 327
42 Taking in the rope using a direct belay - stage 3 328
43 Taking in the rope using a direct belay - stage 4 329
44 Two methods of attaching karabiners to quick draws 334
45 Clipping climbing rope into quick draw - stage 1 336
46 Clipping climbing rope into quick draw - stage 2 337
47 Sequence for lowering off from the top of sports
climb 340
48 Two anchors rigged for abseil retreat 342
49 De-rigging an overhanging climb 343
50 Paying out double rope to a leader, one rope at a time 351
51 Paying out double rope to a leader, holding both 352
52 The Gri Gri - paying out rope to leader 354
53 The Gri Gri - non-approved method 355
54 Belay devices 357
55 More belay devices 358
56 Taking in - stage 1 359
57 Taking in - stage 2 360
58 Taking in - stage 3 361
59 Taking in - stage 4 362
60 Tying off a belay device - stage 1 364
61 Tying off a belay device - stage 2 365
62 Tying off a belay device - stage 3 366
63 Hanging stance with rope lapped round feet 369
64 Hanging stance with tope lapped over tie 371
65 Rope lapping between belay device and ropes to
anchor 372
226 List of Illustrations

66 Rope lapping using decreasing lengths of lap 374

67 Taking in through a runner on hanging stance 375
68 Traditional method of ascending a fixed rope 379
69 Ascending a rope using a Croll 382
70 The Wild Country Ropeman device 383
71 Ascending a fixed rope 384
72 Retreating from a single bolt/runner while hanging -
stage 1 392
73 Retreating from a single bolt/runner - stage 2 393
74 Retreating from a single bolt/runner - stage 3 394
75 Tensioning ropes - stage 1 396
76 Tensioning ropes - stage 2 397
77 Tensioning ropes - stage 3 398
78 Simple cow's tail attachment for safety line traverses 401
79 Retrievable single rope abseil 403
Acknowledgements
Whilst the words in this book are entirely my own, I cannot
claim full credit for the information offered.
The topics discussed are so diverse in character and there are
so many differing ways to do things that it is sometimes
difficult to stand back from the task in hand to obtain a realistic
and unbiased overview of the work. To this end I am indebted
to many, but particularly to Nick Banks and Steve Long who
kindly gave of their time to read through the manuscript; to
Graham MacMahon who was always incredibly enthusiastic
about bouncing ideas around and came up with a host of
useful suggestions and who helped with some of the pictures
- he probably wished he didn't live so close by; to Martin
Atkinson of Wild Country who very kindly donated all of the
gear used in the photographs; to Mark, Wyn and David at
Cambrian Photography in Colwyn Bay who patiently answered
an endless barrage of questions and offered kindly advice.
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1 The SPA, MIA and MIC
There have been instructor awards in this country for more
than five decades. In the very beginning the Mountaineering
Association employed instructors and gave them an in-house
qualification. This led eventually to the introduction of the
Mountaineering Instructor Certificate (MIC) (now the Moma-
tain Instructor Certificate) and the Advanced certificate
(MIAC). During the formative years of the qualifications there
were very few active professional instructors who earned their
living entirely by their trade - quite the reverse of today!
The Mountain Leaders Certificate (now the Mountain Leader
Award) followed on, bridging the gap between those who
wanted only to take walking groups into the hills and those
wishing to become involved in rock climbing.
During the 1970s Outdoor Pursuits Centres proliferated
throughout the country and alongside this growth it was
inevitable that there would be a vast increase in the number of
full time instructors. Gradually the demand for qualification
increased.
The origins of the Single Pitch Award (SPA), originally called
the Single Pitch Supervisors Award (SPSA) but changed when
the Scottish Mountain Leader Training Board joined the
scheme, go back to the early 1980s. At this time there were a
number of people working in outdoor activities who identified
a need for some sort of measure of competence for those taking
groups onto crags and who introduce others to the sport of
rock climbing. A number of local authority schemes were
already in operation but it was felt that something nationally
recognised was required. The BMC Training Committee delib¬
erated long and hard about the direction they should take and
at the conclusion of discussions it was decided to publish
simple guidelines on what should be considered good and safe
practice on single pitch rock climbing venues.
 230 The SPA, MIA and MIC

For many this was an imsatisfactory state of affairs and,

though it fulfilled part of an obligation, it didn't quite go far
enough. In 1992 the newly formed UKMTB established a
training and certification programme specifically targeted at
those taking groups on to single pitch rock climbing venues.
From the outset it was envisaged that this would be a very
basic qualification, attainable by anyone who has a genuine
interest in and a commitment to the sport of rock climbing and
who gives time over to introduce others to the sport - for
financial reward or otherwise
Around the same time the MIC imderwent considerable
changes. The most far reaching of these was to split the
qualification into two separate components. The Mountain
Instructor Award is aimed at those who wish to instruct
mountaineering skills in summer only and the Mountain
Instructor Certificate is an add-on for those who also wish to
instruct winter climbing skills. Prior to these changes being
introduced the award of the MIC was only attainable by
those with considerable experience in both summer and
winter disciplines. The flood gates opened and within a few
years more than 500 people registered for the MIA scheme,
thus proving a need and at the same time satisfying the
demand.
This brief historical perspective is important to understand¬
ing the differences between the various qualifications and
putting the skills of ropework into some kind of comprehen¬
sible perspective. Whilst some techniques will undoubtedly
cross over from one qualification to the other, it should be
made clear that the levels of competence required to attain
each award are significantly different, as is the experience of
the participant.
The syllabus of the SPA is intended to offer training and
qualification for those who wish to instruct on single pitch
climbing venues only. The definition of single pitch is any crag
that is;
 The SPA, MIA and MIC 231

• climbed without intermediate stances

• described as a single pitch in the guidebook
• allows students to be lowered to the ground at all times
• is non-hdal
• is non-serious and has little objective danger
• presents no difficulties on approach or retreat, such as
route finding, scrambling or navigation.

As part of their assessment candidates are required to

demonstrate their ability to lead on Severe grade rock and to
be able to place sound running belays and to arrange a good
stance at the top of the climb. This requirement ensures that all
those undertaking the scheme are committed rock climbers
and have a good understanding of the sport.
Candidates are also assessed on their ability to solve
problems. These are in general very straightforward and
will not involve complex rope manoeuvres or major cliff
evacuations.
A part of the scheme is dedicated to climbing wall use and
the supervision of groups. Many climbing walls now require
anyone bringing a group for instruction to have the SPA as a
minimum level of competence. This is a reliable yardstick and
reassures the management that those under supervision are
being well looked after.
The MIA is an altogether more comprehensive award. In
addition to the skills required for the SPA, candidates for this
scheme are required to demonstrate their ability to take care of
and instruct on multi-pitch climbs up to Very Severe standard.
The teaching element also includes the ability to instruct
students in the skills of leading and the complexities of safe
ropework. They will also be asked to solve much more complex
rescue scenarios that may require multi pitch evacuation of the
cliff with an injured climber.
The award also requires that they be competent to lead
people on scrambling terrain, either as a day out in its own
232 The SPA, MIA and MIC

right, part of a mountain day or when the techniques of short

roping are required in descent from a rock climb.
The MIC is an add-on component to the MIA and successful
completion of this allows instructors to instruct and lead in
winter conditions, including climbs up to Grade III standard.
Beyond these qualifications is that of Mountain Guide. To
achieve this award candidates must be experienced and com¬
petent mountaineers in every respect. They will be required to
demonstrate their ability to teach and guide to a high standard,
both in the UK in all seasons and in the Alps, both on foot and
on ski.
There are very clear differences between all the awards in
terms of what is required of candidates. A common thread
binds them - that whatever rope technique is required must be
used competently and safely, there is no allowable margin of
error when you are responsible for people's well-being and
enjoyment.
2 Top Roping and Bottom
Roping
On single pitch climbing venues you will either choose to
safeguard those in your care from the top of the crag or to have
the rope doubled through an anchor at the top of the crag and
belay climbers from the bottom.
Each method has its merits and for that matter, its draw¬
backs. If you have a group to take out for the day, belaying
from the bottom of the crag will enable you, as the instructor,
to keep more people actively involved for more of the time. It
is possible to arrange two or three climbs to take place
simultaneously and you flit backwards and forwards between
each group making sure that each is conducted safely. If you
belay from the top of the crag it is very unlikely that you will
be al?le to entertain more than one novice climber at a time.
Using a bottom rope belaying system means that you can
allow the group to belay each other. Whilst one of them is
climbing, two or three others can be responsible for belaying.
Thus two climbs might conceivably actively involve up to eight
people at any one time. There is much to be said in favour of
this, not least that everyone will feel a part of the activity by
working together, and they are much less likely to lose interest.
The major drawback with the technique of bottom roping is
that it has a profound effect on the environment by concentrat¬
ing a large number of people in one place, causing considerable
erosion to both the rock and to the ground immediately below
a climb. It is also rather invasive, limiting access to the routes
that you are using for others who may wish to climb them.
You should always be considerate in your use of the crags and
allow others to climb the routes that you are on by vacating
them as quickly as possible.
In such a situation you, as the instructor, will have an
234 Top Roping and Bottom Roping

enormous responsibility to ensure that everything is done

safely and that no-one gets hurt by tomfoolery or neglect or
carelessness. To organise two climbs at the same time you
must choose routes that are close enough together that it takes
only a second or two for you to move from one to the other. In
that way you are more likely to be able to keep control of the
situation. To have three climbs on the go at the same time is
much more difficult to manage and with complete beginners
may not be practicable nor, indeed, advisable.

RIGGING ANCHORS

In order to set up a bottom roping system you will first need

to go to the top of the crag and arrange the anchor points. It is
very important to ensure that the anchors are solid. Unless it is
a big stout tree, firmly established, or a large purpose-designed
anchor, it is preferable to select more than one anchor.
One anchor point is only suitable if the climb is immediately
below it and any load from below will be directed straight on
to the anchor. If there is the slightest chance that a falling
climber will swing off to one side, two anchor points (mini¬
mum) will be needed in order to stabilise the direction of pull.
Such simplistic situations are unfortunately rare and it is more
common to find that anchor points are well off to the side of
where you would like them to be.
You will need to have the fixing point of the climbing rope
draped over the edge of the crag. The ideal that you should
strive for is to arrange things so that the climber does not have
to go over the top of the crag but can climb up until they can
just touch the karabiner that secures their safety rope. From
that moment the belayers can take the weight of the climber
and lower him or her back down to the bottom of the crag.
It is therefore necessary to have anchors that are well back
from the edge and to use a rope to connect them all to one
central point which is then draped over the top of the crag. If
 Top Roping and Bottom Roping 235

the only suitable anchors are to be found close to the edge it is

better to set up the bottom roping system so that the end of the
climb is well out of arm's reach of the anchor points.
When you construct an anchor point in this way, the position
at which the climbing rope is attached may be subjected to
considerable movement across the rock. If you do not take
account of this the rope could very quickly become chaffed and
worn through to the extent that it is damaged beyond further
use. Similarly, the rope that is used for climbing on may be
subjected to the same chaffing effect. There is a need to keep a
regular check to see that all remains safe throughout the
activity.
To get aroimd this problem you can place something
between the rock and the ropes so that it is protected. The most
effective padding to use is a piece of hard-wearing carpet
which, if you tie cord through the ends, can be secured in place
by attaching it to the anchor.
Regardless of how many anchor points you select they
should all be cormected together to come to one central point.
This is most easily achieved by using a length of rope to
construct the whole anchor. It is advisable to use a non-stretch
rope for this. A climbing rope has lots of stretch in it - this is
necessary to help it absorb shock in a fall. If used to connect a
number of anchors together it will create an anchor point that
has a certain amount of stretch in it. This stretch will be
accentuated when a climber's weight comes on to the climbing
rope and the attachment point at the edge of the crag will rub
up and down the rock. This chaffing of the rope will cause
considerable wear and tear and may, in an extreme case, cut
through the rope.
By using a non-stretch rope this problem is largely elimi¬
nated. Furthermore, this type of rope is much more hard-
wearing. It is worth making the point here that non-stretch
ropes should not be used as climbing rope, as they do not
have the same elasticity as climbing ropes. The shock loading
236 Top Roping and Bottom Roping

on the anchors and belay system is considerably greater in the

event of a fall and might result in bodily injury or anchor
failure.
The only exception to this is perhaps on the sandstone
outcrops of southern England where climbs are very short and
considerable erosion is caused by ropes seesawing back and
forth over the edge of the outcrop. Also, the rock is so abrasive
that ordinary climbing ropes wear out very quickly indeed.
There are a number of ways to bring multiple anchors to one
central point. Photo 1 illustrates a suitable method. The all
important factor to remember whichever method you use is
that if one should fail there must be no shock loading on the
remaining anchors.
Obviously, the more anchors you have, the more rope you
will need to connect them. It may be possible to connect two
anchors together with a sling to create one attachment point in
which case you will save on rope. Photos 2 and 3 show different
methods of using a sling to bring two anchors to one point.
(See vol. one for other suggestions.)
Getting the tension to each anchor can be a bit problematical.
One way to make it easier is to tie the end of the rope into the
first anchor. Having done that, clip a large karabiner into the
abseil loop on your harness and clip the rope into it. Take the
rope to the next anchor and clip it in. Now clip back through
the krab on your abseil loop and take the rope to the next
anchor. Keep going like this until you have clipped all the
anchors. Using tension off the criss cross of ropes that you
have, move to the position in which you want the anchor ropes
to be. You'll need to feed them all through the krab on your
abseil loop as you move. Once you are satisfied that they are
all under tension and in position, make some final adjustments,
take the whole bunch of ropes out of the krab on your harness
and tie them all in a great big overhand knot. Photo 4 shows a
simplified version.
To be certain that the tension remains equal throughout, you
1 Using the rope to bring multiple anchors to one central
point.
2 Two anchors brought to one point using a sling with an
overhand knot in the middle.
 3 Two anchors brought to one point, allowing for sideways
movement but retaining equal load on both. Tie an overhand
in both sides to reduce shock loading if one should fail.
240 Top Roping and Bottom Roping

can return to each anchor point and secure the rope with a
clove hitch - though it is not at all important to do this.
The loops formed by the large overhand knot may be too
bulky to accommodate a karabiner safely. If this is the case,
divide the ropes equally between a couple of screwgate krabs.
This will be your attachment point for the climbing rope.
The karabiner or karabiners that you use here will be subjected
to considerable wear and tear against the rock. Ideally, use
steel screwgates or, as previously suggested, use a piece of
carpet to stop them rubbing directly on the rock.
Clip the karabiners in so that the gates face uppermost and
the opening end points down the crag. Sometimes karabiner
screwgates can rattle themselves undone, but if you place them
this way they are much less likely to do so. Another method of
attaching the climbing rope to the anchor uses a large figure
eight descendeur (photo 5). This method has clear safety
advantages in that there is no possibility of a karabiner undoing
itself or one of your students unclipping accidentally. Unfortu¬
nately, the rope runs against the rock during taking in and
lowering creating a more serious abrasive action, as well as
more friction. Using this method it is important to place carpet
protection between the rope and rock. It is a particularly
suitable method to use if the anchor point hangs freely over
the edge of the crag.
If you don't have a spare rope available for rigging anchors
together to one central point you will have to use slings. Be
very careful to ensure that the tension is equally divided
amongst the anchor points. It would appear to be a straight¬
forward task but it is usually not so easy to achieve as
satisfactory a result as is possible with a separate rope. If you
have to cormect slings together because they are not long
enough, you will need to use screwgate krabs at each connec¬
tion. Some people lark's-foot slings together to create extra
length but this is not as safe or reliable as using karabiners.
If you need to shorten slings it is possible to do so by tying
4 An effective system to get multiple anchors under equal
tension.
5 Figure eight descendeur used in place of screwgate
karabiner at anchor point. Note that ropes will rub against the
rock unless anchor point is hanging free.
 Top Ropipg and Bottom Roping 243

an overhand or figure eight knot to achieve the desired

length.
Occasionally, the anchors may not be situated in the most
desirable line for the anticipated loading. In such cases it is
possible to place a directional anchor, preferably anchors, to
hold the attachment point in position. Whilst these anchors
will not bear the brunt of the force, or load, they should
nonetheless be as solid as the main anchors. A sideways pull
can generate a fair amount of force and, of course, if the
anchors come out unexpectedly under the load, the climber
may swing and sustain an injury. Photo 6 shows a suggestion
for retaining directional stability.
Personal safety whilst rigging anchors or working close to the edge
of a crag is paramount. You should always ensure that you are tied
into an anchor of some description even if it has to be on a long
cow's tail to permit free movement across the top of the crag. At
assessment, personal safety is an important aspect of overall
performance.

TOP ROPING
To set up an anchor for belaying from the top of the crag you
must observe one or two important principles of safety.
Firstly, you should arrange your position so that you can see
the climb in its entirety and secondly you must be directly above
the climber you are belaying. This ideal is not always achievable
and some situations may necessitate dropping down to a ledge
below the edge of the crag. If you are not able to position yourself
so that anyone you bring up the climb can move off easily to
safe ground before untying from the rope, you might have to
consider lowering them back down to the ground.
It is well worth considering belaying climbers with a direct
belay. This method has a number of advantages over the more
traditional method of belaying off your harness. It means that
you are not committed to take the full weight of the climber if
6 Side tension anchor for stabilising main anchor.
 Top Roping and Bottom Roping 245

he or she falls off. Neither will you have to 'escape from the
system' if a problem occurs. It goes without saying that your
anchor points should be one hundred per cent solid for a direct
belay, as the load will be transmitted directly to the anchors. A
similar anchor set-up at the top of the crag to that used for
arranging a bottom rope is therefore quite sensible. For com¬
fort, safety and ease of operation the attachment point for the
belaying method ought to be slightly above you and well back
from the edge of the crag. This precludes the use of a belay
plate because you need to operate such a device from behind.
Normally you would use an Italian hitch or a descendeur, both
of which can be safely operated from below.
When using a direct belaying method in this way you must
take care of your own personal safety by clipping yourself in
to the anchor point as well. This should be done separately by
means of a sling or 'cow's tail'. Snake slings, which have a
number of sections separated by bar-tack stitching, are particu¬
larly useful for this, as you can adjust your position very easily
when needed. Photo 7 shows a suggested set-up clearly.
If you choose to belay climbers from within the system you
do so in a normal climbing way, but bear in mind the fact that
your ability to move around is severely restricted.

BELAYING METHODS FROM BELOW

As stated earlier, bottom roping systems are infinitely prefer¬
able because they involve more people. With only a short
demonstration and explanation of important safety consider¬
ations you can let the group belay each other - provided that
you are on hand to oversee the whole operation.
Arranging the rope through an anchor point at the top of fhe
climb will generate a certain amount of friction that helps the
belayers hold the rope. In this situation any loading of the rope
will create an upward-pulling force on the belayers and this
should be taken into accoimt. If you have light people belaying
246 Top Roping and Bottom Roping

heavier climbers you may need to arrange an anchor that will

prevent them being pulled up the cliff if the climber falls off.
Such anchors may not always be found easily, in which case
you might decide to use other participants to add extra weight
to the belayer. They can be clipped together with slings from
the front of the harness into the back of the harness of the
person in front of them.
If suitable upward-pulling anchors are readily available the
belayer only need be clipped in. Arrange the attachment so
that any load generated by holding a climber is transmitted
fairly directly through the belayer and on to the anchor.
Delayers should be positioned close in to the crag to avoid
the possibility that a load might drag them in towards the
bottom of the cliff. If the nature of the terrain dictates that you
have to belay away from the bottom of the crag it is essential
to tie the belayer into an upward-pulling anchor.
There are a number of ways to utilise as many people as
possible in the belaying. One person should be attached to the
belay device and be the main operator. Another can stand at
the bottom of the crag facing out and pull down on the rope as
the climber moves up. The belayer takes the rope through the
belay device and there should always be another person acting
as safety back-up on the dead or controlling rope.
The type of belay device or system that you use is entirely
one of personal choice. The Gri Gri is a very good device for
novices to use as it will lock even if everyone lets go. Some
climbers, with long experience, find the device a little awkward
to use at first and the temptation is to dismiss it out of hand. If
you are teaching people who have never used any other device
to use the Gri Gri, you will find that most will pick up the
basic principles quite quickly. The Italian hitch is also a good
method, as is any modern belay device. Be wary of using older
style Sticht plates, as they have a tendency to jam up at the
least'Convenient moment. See Chapter 8 on Belaying (page 348)
for ways to operate these devices.
 Top Roping and Bottom Roping 247

When instructing the use of a belay system, teach a method

that is fairly simple to understand. The most important aspect
is that the delayers must not let go of the dead rope or
controlling rope. You can work out your own methodology for
this - many people have their own particular way to do things.
Brief everyone on what is to happen during the climb; as soon
as the climber reaches the end of [Link]; and whilst the
climber is being lowered back to the ground. Before any
lowering can take place the climber should place all of his or
her weight on the rope. The delayers lock off the rope whilst
the climber does this. Once you are satisfied that all the weight
is on the rope the delayers can begin lowering very slowly. Do
not allow any rope to run suddenly through the device. If you
do let rope- rufi quickly the climber may experience the feeling
that the iope has been let go and will try to grab hold of the
rock taking their weight off the rope. The lowering should only
be speeded up once the climber has got used to the sensation
of being lowered with someone else in control of their destiny.
Whatever system you choose to use it is vitally important
that you remain in a position where you can control and
supervise everyone involved, conhnually emphasising the
importance of safety.

DEALING WITH PROBLEMS

Few problems are likely to occur that are not solved easily and
simply. Probably the most common occurrence of all is that of
'stuck' climber. This happens mainly through fear or lack of
experience to see what can and cannot be used as a handhold
or foothold. Sometimes it occurs through outright fear and the
climber becomes 'frozen' to the rock face. In both cases a
solution may be simply to talk the climber through a sequence
of moves or to encourage withi sympathetic words. If, on the
other hand, the climber has managed somehow to get a foot or
a knee jammed in a crack you will almost certainly have to go
248 Top Roping and Bottom Roping

to their assistance. One of the more unusual incidents I have

experienced was a solidly jammed helmet!
Anyone who is stuck or refuses to move and will not take
their weight on the rope to be lowered back to the ground will
require you to go to their assistance. This could be done by
going around to the top of the crag and abseiling down by
their side to talk them through the sequence or cajole them into
being lowered. To do this will take quite a bit of time and take
you away from your responsibilities to the rest of the group.
It is better to go to their assistance from below. One way to
do this is as follows. Put a French prusik knot on to the live
climbing rope just above the belayer and attach it to the abseil
loop on your own harness. Move the prusik up the rope until
you can lean out on it, putting tension on the rope in a counter
balance situation. Having done this you can put a second
prusik, such as a Klemheist, below the first and ascend the
rope.
An alternative and very quick system is to attach a belay
device below the first French prusik. If the rock is low angled
you can simply walk up the rock taking in the rope through
the belay device as you gain height. Make sure that the delayers
give you some slack but don't ask them to take the rope out of
the belay device completely. Photo 8 shows this set-up. Note
that on easy angled rock the foot loop prusik may not even be
necessary.
As you move up the French prusik will release itself but will
act as an autobloc to prevent you slipping back down if you
have to let go of the rope. Be careful though, French prusik
knots do not always lock without a little assistance to start the
process. Once you get to the stuck climber you can lean back
on the prusik and ask the delayers to take the rope tight
through the belay device and lock it off. This is by way of a
back up. You are now in a position to talk the stuck climber
through the moves and being by the side of them may be
sufficient moral encouragement to do this. As they move up
7 Top roping set-up.
8 Ascending set-up to rescue 'stuck' climber.
9 Bottom roping. The anchor point has been arranged over the
edge to reduce erosion.
10 Bottom roping. It is easier to supervise two groups when
climbs are close together.
 Top Roping and Bottom Roping 253

you can continue to ascend alongside, taking in the rope

through the belay device as you move up, using your weight
against theirs as a counter balance. If this fails and they do not
want to climb on or be lowered down alone, you can clip into
their harness tie on loop or the abseil loop and go down with
them in an accompanied abseil. All you need to do is simply
connect yourself to the tie on loop of their harness - a quick
draw will do - and abseil down to the gromid with them.
Don't forget to ask the belayer to take the rope out of their
belay device before you begin to descend.
All the time that you are doing this you will still of course
be responsible for ensuring the safety of any other ropes that
you may have set up, but at least you will never be out of sight
of what is going on. Of course, if something major were to go
awry on another climb it would take you some time to get
there to render assistance. If you are on your own supervising
the group it may be preferable to call a temporary halt to the
other climb whilst you sort out the problem in hand.
If by some unlucky coincidence a climber is injured whilst
on the route, the same method can be used to go to their
assistance and descend to the ground under your control.
This is by far the simplest way to deal with a stuck climber.
There are some others. For example, if you are using a Gri Gri,
there is no need for a prusik. You could take over the belayer's
Gri Gri by clipping yourself into the karabiner that attaches it
to their harness and unclipping them from it. You can ascend
the rope pulling the slack through the Gri Gri as you ascend
and you can, with practice, use the Gri Gri as an abseiling
device.
Keep it simple! is the key to solving these sorts of problems,
for simplicity often means speed and efficiency.
3 Abseiling with Groups
Abseiling is perceived by many to be a fun activity and may in
some cases be set up entirely divorced from the sport of rock
climbing to which it rightly belongs.
In itself there is nothing wrong with this philosophy but
there are wider implications if it is used by non-climbers who
do not understand the technical aspects of rock climbing
ropework.
There are a number of important considerations to bear in
mind when choosing a suitable venue. Of greatest significance
is accessibility. The group will be much easier to control if you
are able to arrange for them to wait well back from the edge of
the crag but when they need to come forward to take their turn
they are not exposed to the risk of falling over the cliff edge as
they approach and before being attached to a safety rope.
Take time to consider the situation at the bottom of the crag
too. Ideally this should be fairly flat and free of danger. If you
don't have anyone to supervise the group at the bottom of the
crag you will need to position them in a place where you are
able to keep an eye on them. It is also important to move them
away from the foot of the abseil out of line of fire of anything
that might accidentally be knocked down the crag.
You may decide that you want people to return to the top of
the crag after they have disconnected from the rope. To this
end, try to choose a venue that has an easy and obvious
walking route back to the top.
For people, young or older, who have never abseiled before
choose a crag that is not too steep. Vertical and overhanging
crags are intimidating places for those not familiar with a crag
environment and people may become preoccupied with their
fear rather than concentrating on and being able to savour the
experience. Neither should the crag be too high, about 10-15 m
(35-50 ft) is ideal. This height means that you will be able to get
 Abseiling with Groups 255

people down an abseil many times. The more they do, the
more confident they will become and you can move on to more
exciting things more quickly.

SAFETY

First experiences of abseiling necessitate the use of a safety

rope. This is not only a sensible precaution but is also a great
confidence booster. The safety rope should either be tied in
directly to the harness as per the manufacturer's recommenda¬
tion or clipped in to the abseil loop of the harness with a
screwgate karabiner. Normally, this would be attached to the
loop below the abseil device. Photo 11 shows the basic set-up.
It is also advisable to set up the abseil rope so that it can be
released under load. More problems arise in group abseiling
situations than they do in 'normal' abseiling by experienced
climbers when it is used as a means of descent.
The main problems that occur include clothing stuck in the
abseil device or, much worse, hair, which can be extremely
painful. Paying close attention to these potential disasters prior
to launching off will pay dividends and avoid the possibility
that they might occur in the first instance. Another common
occurrence is that the abseiler becomes so terrified that they
are unable to complete the descent and, just as in climbing up,
the abseiler may become 'frozen' to the rock face. Occasionally,
someone might get their foot or leg jammed in a crack. In rare
cases, the abseil device may become jammed or a knot appear
in the rope.
If such problems do occur you will be well placed to deal
with them if you set up a releasable abseil.
It is very simple to set up. Instead of securing the abseil rope
with a figure eight knot directly to the anchor, cormect it with
an Italian hitch into an HMS karabiner clipped into the anchor.
Tie off the Italian hitch securely with an appropriate method
(see vol. one, page 21). If someone has a problem on the abseil
11 Basic set-up of releasable abseil.
 Abseiling with Groups 257

you are then able to release the rope and take the strain on to
the safety rope. This can be effected very quickly, a particularly
important factor if someone gets their hair caught in a device
when there is considerable urgency to act. Photo 12 shows the
detail of the tied off Italian hitch in a realeasable abseil.
You should operate the safety rope as a direct belay and
keep yourself out of the system. Obviously you must be tied in
to the anchor but it is a good idea to allow yourself some room
for manoeuvre and tie in with a long cow's tail. A snake sling
is particularly useful for this (photo 11).
An Italian hitch is a good enough method with which to
operate the safety rope. So also is a figure eight descendeur.
Both of these belay methods allow you to stand in front of the
anchor where you can be most useful. Belay devices have to be
operated from behind and are therefore not so convenient.

SIMPLE RESCUE SCENARIOS

By proper plarming and setting up most problems are easily
avoided. If something unforeseen does occur, it is preferable to
solve it by working to the principle of 'simplest is quickest'. Do
not get bogged down in overly complex solutions to problems.
For example, if an abseiler gets clothing stuck in an abseil
device lock off the safety rope (as in photo 12 or in photo 57
vol. one) and then release the abseil rope until there is enough
slack for them to pull the clothing out of the device. The safety
rope can just be held tightly by hand without the need to tie it
off, but you will have to work quickly. If you want to ensure
there is a safety back up you could put a French prusik on the
loaded safety rope and attach it to the anchor or tie off the
device you are using to safeguard them with. (Provided you
don't have to move too far away from the anchor, you could
always have a French prusik safety back up on the safety rope
for those just-in-case situations.)
Once the victim has released the clothing from the device
12 Detail of Italian hitch tie off in releasable abseil.
 Abseiling with Groups 259

you can take in the abseil rope tight, tie it off again, and
continue with the abseil by lowering the victim's weight back
on to the abseil rope, using the safety rope.
Hair caught in a device requires extremely quick action on
your part and there may not be enough time to tie off the
safety rope until you have released the abseil. Just so long as
you have a tight hold on the safety and work with speed this
has to be acceptable.
If someone is stuck, terrified and refusing to move any
further, you should, to begin with, make every effort to talk
them down. Words of comfort and encouragement are often
the best solution to this type of problem. If words should meet
with little success you might try taking over control of their
descent yourself. This can be done by lowering both the safety
and the abseil ropes simultaneously. You must ensure that the
abseiler's full weight remains on one or both ropes at all times.
If you allow slack to develop, the shock of falling back on to
the rope before it becomes loaded may be too discouraging
and frightening. It will be obvious here that you should ensure
there is sufficient abseil rope available to achieve this, though
of course you could always allow the abseil rope to fall to the
ground, as there will always be sufficient length of safety rope.
If someone is so terrified that even this solution proves
unworkable, or they have a foot stuck in a crack, the best
option is to go down and help them abseil. A suggested way
to do this safely is as follows.
Take all the load on to the safety rope and secure it by tying
it off. Release enough of the abseil rope so that you can attach
yourself and then tie it off again. Connect yourself to the abseil
rope using a long sling shortened to make one long attachment
and one short. Make sure that you include a safety back up
French prusik attached to your leg loop. Then release yourself
from the cow's tail attachment to the anchor. Abseil down to
the victim and disconnect them from their abseil device.
Remove it from the rope.
13 Rescue set-up for 'stuck' abseiler.
 Abseiling with Groups 261

Next, connect the abseil loop of their harness on to the short

loop from your own abseil rig. When you do this, try to lift the
victim up a little, so that the safety rope coimection goes slack.
If you think they are able, you could ask them to pull
themselves up on one of the ropes. Once you have the victim
secured to your abseil device you can miclip them from the
safety rope. Abseil down together to the ground (Photo 13).
An alternative to the method suggested would be to use an
entirely separate rope for your own abseil. You may decide to
set one up ready 'just in case'. The method of rescue is identical
to that previously described.
By far the most important factor is that you must not become
involved in umiecessary and overly complex solutions.
4 MIA
Improvised Rescue

Many of the techniques required for the MIA, particularly

improvised rescue, are covered in vol. one. There are, however,
one or two other aspects not dealt with there and others where
there have been additional techniques or improvements made
to existing ones.

IMPROVISED RESCUE

A great deal of emphasis is placed on the ability to conduct

rescues from crags using only normal climbing equipment.
Placing such importance on these skills not only allows the
instructor to operate with confidence in the knowledge that
they possess but it also presents an opportunity to hone rope
techniques and develop a greater understanding of the prin¬
ciples of good stance organisation, selection of anchors and
avoidance of basic problems.
It is important to recognise from the outset that the simplest
solution to a problem is very often the most efficient and that
to embark on complex and long-winded fanciful rope
manoeuvres may not be the most appropriate way to solve a
problem.
For example, a client or student who is having difficulty on
a section of a climb may need some help getting over the hard
bit. To effect this the instructor might rig a simple assisted
hoist. If the instructor, however, feels strong enough to do it,
they may just simply pull the client hand over hand.
Obviously, the rope needs to be taken in through the belay
device so that security at all times is assured, but there is
absolutely nothing wrong with this solution.
Another example might be in the case of forced evacuation
 MIA 263

from the crag. If you are able to get down to the ground in one
abseil or lower, even if it means tying two ropes together, it is
preferable to fix the rope in place, retreat and recover your
equipment at a later stage. Obviously, if you are likely to need
your gear further down the mountain or you are in a remote
spot, you will need to retrieve as much of it as possible on the
way down.

SOLVING SIMPLE PROBLEMS

At assessment you will normally be asked to solve a number
of simple and common problems in addition to at least one
major scenario. Simple problems include the following:

A knot in the rope

If, despite all your careful preparations, you discover an

overhand knot in the climbing rope between you and your
client, either while leading a pitch or while taking in the rope,
it will be necessary to either undo it or, more straightforward,
move it down the rope. If your client has a rope attached to a
second client the best thing to do is to ask them to move the
knot down the rope until it reaches their tie on knot. Once the
client reaches your stance you can then untie the knot by first
clipping them into the belay anchor with a sling and releasing
them from the end of the rope. Untie the offending knot and
then tie back on to the end of the rope.
A client who is tied on to the end of the rope with no second
rope attached can undo the mysterious knot by simply moving
it down towards their tie on and then making a large loop to
step through in order to undo the offending knot.
In no circumstances should you ask them to untie from the
end of the rope whilst you are out of reach and without the
ability to check one hundred per cent that they have retied on
to the rope end correctly.
264 MIA

Stuck runner

If a client is unable to retrieve a runner from its placement it

may be better for you to descend and take the runner out
yourself. First of all you should try talking the client through a
procedure which you work out from your recall of how the
runner was placed. If this fails, the client may well reach a
point where the problem is made worse and the runner is
beyond retrieval. You may, of course, decide that you are
content to leave it behind and carry on with the climb.
If you decide that you will get the runner back yourself,
solving the problem is largely one of good organisation. Bring
your client or clients up to the stance and secure them to the
belay. You may find it quicker to climb back down to the
runner to retrieve it. You can ask one of your clients to belay
you as you do so and to safeguard you as you climb back up.
You might prefer to arrange your ropes in such a way as you
can abseil down to the stuck gear. What you might choose to
do is to abseil on the rope between your first and second client
and ask the first to belay you on your own rope whilst you
descend. Always abseil down with a French prusik back up, as
this will allow you to release both hands to retrieve the runner.
You can then climb back up the route and your client can take
in the rope as you do so.
Another solution is to abseil down and to prusik back up to
the stance. You would normally do this on your own rope,
without necessarily untying from the end. Simply drop a loop
of rope down the crag, enough to reach a little over halfway to
the runner and then fix the rope to the anchor. Attach your
abseil device to the fixed rope and descend on this. As you go
down, the rope attached to your harness will give you the extra
distance required to reach the stuck runner.
It is important to work methodically in arranging ropes to
descend otherwise you might become horrendously entangled and
spend unnecessary time sorting out the mess you have created.
 MIA 265

Client climbs past a runner

This is a favourite problem offered by assessors, but in truth it

should rarely occur! Arranging your stance so that you have a
view of the whole pitch and good communication will prevent
this happening. Unfortunately, despite your best efforts, it is
inevitable that it will happen occasionally. Clients frequently
become so absorbed and focused on the task in hand that they
pay little attention to anything other than making the moves.
Any time that a client asks for slack rope you should question
why they need it. Normally it will be to climb down a little bit
but if they say that they need it to climb past a runner then
clearly something is amiss. If you are aware of the problem
you can prevent them climbing more than a foot or so above
the runner and can easily ask them to climb back down rmtil
level with the runner. If, however, they climb a good few feet
above the problem is altogether more serious and will require
prompt action on your part.
If a client were to fall off a few feet above a runner the fall
could be quite long and in doing so they might sustain an
injury. As soon as you realise there is something amiss you
need to ask them to stay exactly where they are whilst you
arrange for a loop of rope to be sent down to them. The best
thing to do is to tie off the belay device and, using the slack
rope from where you are tied in to the anchor, drop a loop
down to them. This loop should have a knot and a karabiner in
it which the client will clip into the abseil loop of their harness.
You attach the rope to the anchor via an Italian hitch and ask
them to take their weight on the rope. Lower them back down
until level with the runner and regain control of the climbing
rope through the belay device. Once they are secured again
you can ask them to untie the loop, remove the runner and
climb on.
If the client can get into a reasonably comfortable position
and can reach the rope that goes between you, the instructor.
266 MIA

and the runner below the client, it may be possible for them to
pull through a bit of slack rope, tie a figure eight or overhand
knot in the rope and clip it in to a screwgate on the harness.
Obviously the client must be very comfortable and able to use
both hands to tie the knot.

Cannot climb a difficult section of the route

If you are part way up a climb and one of your clients finds it
too difficult to do the moves you can assist them by keeping
the rope very tight. More often than not you'll be able to help
them over the hard bit with assistance from the rope. If this
fails, you may have to arrange an assisted hoist. This can be
effected without the need to escape from the system. Tie off
the belay device and put a French prusik autobloc on the live
rope. Drop a loop of the dead rope down to the client with a
krab clipped in. This krab is then attached to the client's abseil
loop on their harness or just into the tie in loop. Undo the tied
off belay device and tension all the ropes. If the client pulls on
the only rope that travels downwards and you pull on the
spare rope at the same time you will both be able to effect the
hoist. See photo 69 in vol. one.
Once the difficult section has been overcome, the client can
release the loop of rope and you can regain control through the
belay device. If you leave the French prusik on whilst you are
sorting out the ropes the client will be safeguarded throughout.
This method of hoisting can only really work if you have
enough rope available to implement it. If your client is more
than a third of the rope's length below the stance you will need
to consider the addition of a sling or slings, cormected on to
the end of the loop that is dropped to them. If you have enough
slings, you could add a considerable length to the loop. Each
sling should ideally be connected to another via a screwgate
karabiner, though if none is available, lark's-footing slings
together may be the best alternative.
 MIA 267

Should the client be a long way below or off to one side,

where it is impossible to throw them a loop, you may need to
effect a hoist from within the system. This is set up in exactly
the same way as the hoist shown in vol. one photo 71 where
the anchor is replaced by your belay device. This method is
obviously laborious and time-consuming and as soon as the
client is within reach you should revert to an assisted hoist.

Client fails to follow a pitch

If, despite your best efforts, a client cannot follow a pitch and
there is harder climbing further up the route, you might decide
it is better to retreat. To do this you will need to lower the
client back down to the previous stance and secure them there
whilst you arrange to retreat.
If the anchor point on the previous stance was a complex one
you may not be able to trust the client to re-rig it. In this case
you will probably choose to arrange a counter balance abseil.
Lower the client back to the stance and ask them to stand or
sit securely on the ledge. Escape from the system and make
sure that the rope to the client is backed up with a tied off
Italian hitch to the anchor and leave the French prusik in place.
Decide what anchor you are going to use to retreat from. If you
have nothing else available this may have to be the anchors
that you are tied into. It is preferable, of course, to leave behind
the minimum amount of gear so alternatives should be
arranged if possible.
It is likely that you will need to leave, at the very least, a
sling and krab behind so that the abseil rope can be retrieved
easily. Once you have arranged the abseil anchor thread the
rope through it and keep pulling it through until it is tight to
your client down below. For the moment leave the tied off
Italian hitch and French prusik in place. Attach yourself to the
rope on the opposite side to the client's rope and make sure
that you put on a French prusik back up to the leg loop.
268 MIA

Retrieve all the gear you are not leaving behind, position
yourself as closely as possible to the anchor and then untie the
Italian hitch back up, clearing any other gear remaining. Pull
through any slack rope rmtil you are tight on the rope and
heave backwards with all your might! As you heave back you
must hold your abseil rope tightly in one hand whilst you
release the original French prusik securing the client. Once that
is released and recovered you can abseil down to join your
client, arrange a suitable anchor for both of you and then
retrieve the ropes to continue abseiling down.
If you do not have enough rope to reach the client in one
abseil, which will be the case if the pitch was longer than half
of the rope length, you will need to abseil down as far as is
necessary to create sufficient rope to reach their stance and
arrange another abseil anchor to continue your descent to the
client.
Photos 14, 15 and 16 show a suggested set-up for the counter
balance abseil descent as described. Always remember to tie a
knot in the loose end of the rope that you are abseiling on.
Of course, if you are able to lower your client to the ground
in one rope length, or even by joining two ropes together, you
should do so, for it will be easier to retreat yourself, even if
you have to make the descent yourself in two stages. Photo 61
on page 137 of vol. one shows a way to pass a knot through a
lowering device using a French prusik. Turn the page upside
down for improved clarity!

Other simple problems may be presented to you, but the ability

to cope with these described should equip you with the basic
knowledge to solve most of them simply and efficiently.
14 Escape directly to counter balance; Stage 1.
15 Escape directly to counter balance: Stage 2.
Rescuer

Victim

16 Escape directly to counter balance: Stage 3.

272 MIA

COMPLEX SCENARIOS
At assessment you will be given at least one complex rescue
problem to solve. The nature of the problem will depend on
the type of ground you are climbing on and will generally be
something fairly realistic. Assessors have differing ways of
presenting and creating these scenarios and it is important for
you, as the candidate, to be sure that you understand fully
what has been presented. There is a temptation to try to
outguess the assessor and assume that the scene has been set
for you to demonstrate a particular technique or set piece. You
would be well advised to concentrate on solving the problem
as you see it at the time it is presented and to do so in as
efficient a way as is possible.
By breaking down the procedure into different elements to
arrive at a satisfactory result, you will be able to concentrate
your efforts to greater effect.
Every scenario will be different, depending on the natiure of
the climb and, though it is possible to follow basic procedures,
you will invariably have to cope with idios3mcrasies. The real
skill of the instructor in these situations is tested to its
maximum.
A selection of scenarios follows. These are not exhaustive by
any means but should serve to equip you with the necessary skills
and procedural elements to manage other possible problems.

Unconscious and injured client

The priority with any unconscious victim is to get down to

them as quickly as possible. Ideally this should be accom¬
plished in a few minutes, 3-4 being a reasonable time to aim
for. Anything that takes longer than this might be deemed to
be inefficient and dangerous. To achieve this ideal requires
considerable practice and the ability to work totally uihlustered
and virtually flawlessly.
 MIA 273

Priority must be given to whatever is the quickest method of

escaping the system and descending to the injured climber. If
your anchor set-up is simple and you are within arm's reach of
the anchor, it is often just as quick to go straight into a counter
balance abseil as you escape. Having an unconscious victim
means that you are most likely to have to descend anyway so,
if it is straightforward to rig the counter balance, it is advisable
to do so.
Note that the set-up is very similar to that previously
described in the simple rescue scenario Client fails to follow a
pitch, illustrated in photos 14, 15 and 16, which show the set¬
up for escaping directly into the counter balance descent. By
working quickly, given that everything is in your favour, it is
possible to complete the procedure within the few minutes'
limit.
If, on the other hand, you are a long way away from your
anchor, or you have a complex anchor set-up, it is probably
more efficient in terms of time to escape the system and abseil
down to the victim. Having made your casualty comfortable
and satisfied yourself that they can be left, you will then need
to return to the stance to set up a retreat which can, once again,
be a counter balance abseil.
Never discount the possibility that even an unconscious
person might be lowered to a ledge where not only will they
be more comfortable but also make your task considerably
easier.
It cannot be stressed too highly that speed is of the utmost
importance in order to get the casualty into a position where
they are able to breathe comfortably and, hopefully, regain
consciousness.
For methods of escaping the system refer to vol. one page
144. Instead of backing up the French prusik with a figure eight
knot directly back to the anchor, it is preferable to tie it back
with an Italian hitch, tied off. This will enable you to convert
quickly to a lower and will not present you with problems if
274 MIA

the French prusik slips and the rope becomes tight on the
safety back up.
The same system can be set up to go to the aid of an injured
second who is hurt, but still conscious. Though speed is
obviously important, it is not as vital as in the case of an
unconscious victim.

Client falls off on a traverse and is unable to regain contact

with the rock

This is a good one to be given! It will test your abilities to their

max. It is an unenviable situation to find yourself in but,
mercifully, a very rare one indeed. Take, for example, the
following scenario. A climb has a 5 m (15 ft) traverse above an
overhang. The leader should try to arrange the stance as close
to the end of the traverse as possible and slightly above the
finish of the traverse. Ideally, the belay should be taken directly
above the middle of the traverse if it is a short one, or slightly
off centre towards the end, if it is a longer one. This cannot
always be achieved.
Photo 17 shows a traverse situation in less than ideal
circumstances. Let us suppose that the moment the second
unclips the runner above his head, he falls off. Clearly he will
fall into unclimbable ground.
A solution to the problem is suggested as follows:
The leader must first secure the rope by tying off the belay
device and putting on a French prusik which is fixed to the
central belay loop on the harness tie in.
Don't remove the belay device.
Next, the leader should take up some coils of slack from his
own end of the rope and attempt to throw a loop to the fallen
climber. Having successfully achieved this, the fallen climber
will cormect the loop to their harness tie on point, preferably
with a screwgate krab. As can be seen in the photo 18, one end
of this loop is already fixed and the other should be attached to
17 A traverse problem.
18 Rescuing a second who has fallen off a traverse.
 MIA 277

the anchor with an Italian hitch, or preferably an Alpine clutch

(see vol. one, page 53).
The procedure now requires considerable dexterity on the
part of the leader and great strength on the part of the second.
As the second pulls on the fixed rope the leader must take in
through the Alpine clutch and pay out through the belay
device. (Don't forget to release it first!) By this combination
you should be able to swing the second across until he or she
is directly below the stance. From here you can hoist them
directly up to the belay, using a direct one to one assisted hoist.
If your client can regain contact with the rock he or she should
climb up and you can take in through the Alpine clutch.
It is an extraordinarily difficult manoeuvre to effect. It is
made considerably easier if the second is able to maintain
contact with the rock but if they are hanging in space over the
lip of an overhang it can be quite problematical. There will be
considerable friction and you must not disregard the possibility
that the rope may be damaged or, at worst, cut by running
along the lip of the overhang.
Once you are both on the stance, secure the second to the
anchor, untie them from the end of the rope and pull it through
the runners on the traverse before tying them back on to the
end and continuing. You will, of course, have to decide
whether or not to retrieve the runners. If you do decide to get
them back it is easier to ask the client to belay you whilst you
reverse the climb, retrieve them and then climb back up to the
stance and continue with the ascent.
If, in fhe very worst case, your second is injured and unable
to help, or you can't throw the rope to them, you will need to
escape and deliver it yourself or get into a position where you
are able to drop a loop.
Be extremely careful doing this. You carmot simply escape
the system utilising the anchors above your head. If you do,
when you remove the belay device from the live rope to
transfer the load to the anchor there will be a straightening out
278 MIA

of the tensioned ropes which is accompanied by a sudden

shock loading and a certain amount of slack rope.
It is better to re-arrange the anchor so that the loaded point
remains in the same position as if you were still belaying the
second. To do this you will need to arrange an upward pulling
anchor from below and behind you which is connected to the
main upper anchors and adjusted so that the load remains in an
identical position to that when you were belaying from within
the system. Having rigged this complex arrangement, you must
then move out along the traverse on the tensioned rope, either
hanging from it or by climbing along attached with a cow's tail,
to a position where you can drop a loop of spare rope.
If the client is injured you may need to prusik down the rope
to them to attach the loop yourself.
Needless to say, this technique requires a good deal of
practice!

You have set up a stacked abseil and a client gets clothing

caught in the device and is unable to descend - client is
unable to touch the rock

Another interesting problem to solve! (Turn to page 67 for

stacked abseils.)
The first thing to do is to secure the abseiler so that they
cannot move any further down the rope. If you safeguard
stacked abseils as suggested later, you will already have the
belay device on the rope and can lean back on it to create the
necessary tension. Lock off the belay device and put a French
prusik on both ropes above the belay device. This should be
cormected by a short quick draw to your alaseil loop.
Put on a second prusik loop above the French prusik to use
as a foot loop. You can now prusik up the rope to the stuck
abseiler. All the time that you do this the rope will remain under
tension, preventing the person from sliding any further down
the rope. Photo 8 shows this set-up, though on a single rope.
 MIA 279

As you stand up in the foot loop, take in the rope through

the belay device and make sure you pull it as tight as possible.
As you sit back, the tension should come on to the French
prusik which will support your weight while you move the
foot loop up to gain more height.
On arrival at the victim make sure that you get as close as
possible and maintain your weight on the rope. Try to release
whatever has got caught in the abseil device but if it proves a
problem do not waste time - cut it with a sharp knife. Just
make sure that you cut away from any ropes!
You can now do one of two things. Abseil back down (having
first removed the foot prusik but not the French prusik) and,
once on the ground, ask the victim to continue abseiling. Or
connect yourself to the victim's abseil device with a spare sling
or quick draw and then remove your own belay device from
the rope. You can then abseil down together with you control¬
ling the descent through the French prusik that remains
attached to your harness.
If the client can touch the rock and, maybe, stand on a small
ledge or foothold, it may be possible for them to release the
offending object themselves and then gradually get their
weight back on to the abseil. You must make sure that you
keep the rope taut throughout this exercise, otherwise there
may be a shock loading on the rope when the client puts their
weight back on to the abseil.
You must never ask them to unclip from the abseil device in
any circumstances.

You are at the top of a multi-pitch climb and the client

cannot finish the route due to an injury

This presents a dilemma. Do you decide to retreat down the

crag or spend a bit of time hoisting the client to the top of the
crag from where you can easily walk off?
Hoisting presents its own particular problems. Not least, it
280 MIA

can be extremely difficult to effect and to operate efficiently.

Vol. one contains all you are likely to need with regard to
hoisting. Photos 19 and 20 illustrate two other efficient methods
of hoisting that might also be considered. Both of these have
the advantage that they can be operated from within the
system.
19 5:1 pulley hoist that can be executed from within the
system.
20 7:1 pulley hoist that can be executed from within the
system.
5 MIA
Abseiling, stance organisation, multi-pitch climbing
and teaching lead climbing

NOTE: in this chapter the techniques described assume that you will
he climbing with two students or clients.

STACKED ABSEILS

If you need to abseil off a climb with clients the safest and
most effective method is to use a technique known as the
stacked abseil. This technique requires you to go down first,
leaving your client or clients set up on the abseil before you
descend. As with all rope techniques it is important to be well
organised and methodical in your approach.
On arrival at the top of the climb arrange your anchor in the
normal manner. When you bring up each of your clients, get
them to clip into the anchor using a long sling. This can be
threaded through the harness tie on loops - the same ones
through which you would thread the rope. The length of this
cow's tail can be varied by tying a knot in the sling at the
required length.
Once you have your clients secure in this way, arrange a
similar set-up for yourself. Photo 21 shows a sling threaded
through the correct parts of the harness and secured with a
lark's foot.
Next you must arrange the ropes for the abseil. Be careful to
ensure that, as you all untie from the ends, you do not drop
any rope. A good safeguard is to attach one end of each rope
to the anchor with a knot tied a little more than a metre from
the end. This will usually leave you a long enough tail to loop
around the abseil anchor and allow you to tie the ends of both
ropes together. Obviously, if you think you need more, tie the
21 Cow's tail attachment for multiple abseil descents.
 MIA 285

temporary fixing knot further along the rope. Once the ropes
are securely in place you can then untie these temporary knots
without fear of dropping the ropes down the crag accidentally.
Decide which order your clients will descend in and attach
their belay devices to the abseil rope, one above the other.
Normally you will need to attach each via a short extension -
a quick draw is ideal for this. Make sure that you use screwgate
krabs to attach both to the harness and to the abseil device.
Attach clients one at a time, positioning them as comfortably
as possible and allowing room for each to stand. As an extra
security measure, and for practice in use, you can also arrange
for each of them to have a French prusik safety back up
attached to their leg loop. Whilst this offers a measure of
security and is a good opportunity to practise abseiling with a
safety back up you will invariably find that inexperienced
students or clients will have great difficulty manipulating the
back up and abseiling at the same time. It's a problem well
worth consideration.
Place yomrself on the abseil rope and make sure that you
attach a French prusik safety back up to your harness leg loop.
Once you are on the rope you can lean back with all your
weight on the abseil rope and be held securely by the French
prusik. Photo 22 shows the set up described. Ask each of your
clients to undo their sling attachment and wrap the sling
around their waist, clipping the krab back into it. By doing this
you will have a ready-made cow's tail to clip them into the
anchor after each stage of the abseil (photo 23). Unclip your
own cow's tail and clear any gear that you are not leaving
behind. Brief your clients well on the procedure to adopt for
the descent, tell them that it is vitally important that they do
not descend until instructed to do so.
Descend yourself to the next stance down (or to the ground
if appropriate) from where you will do a second sfage abseil.
Arrange an anchor for yourself and your clients that is easy for
them to clip into. Clip yourself in with the cow's tail. Make
22 A stacked abseil set-up.
23 Stowing the cow's tail so that it is readily available.
288 MIA

sure that you keep some tension on the abseil rope throughout,
as you are basically acting as the anchor person for your clients.
By keeping the rope imder tension you will prevent them from
sliding down the rope.
This is best done by leaving yourself attached to the device
you have used to abseil and leaving the French prusik safety
back up in place. When you are ready call the first client down.
On their arrival at the stance, take their cow's tail and clip it
into the anchor. Keep tension on the abseil rope all the time.
Once the first client is detached from the abseil you can then
call the second one down. The same procedure of attaching to
the anchor point applies.
When both clients are off the abseil you can detach yourself
and retrieve the ropes. Set up the second stage and repeat the
process.
It's worth pointing out here that with this method of stacked
abseiling you need not necessarily descend to the next stance in
one stage. If, for example, you think that you might go out of
sight of your clients, or that you need to keep close by because
they are nervous, you can actually descend in a number of
stages without the need to rig intermediate stances. If you felt
the need to, you could go down to a large ledge at, say, 20 m
(65 ft) and then re-group there before continuing the descent.
Some people leave the clients clipped in at the top of the
abseil with a cow's tail which has to be removed before they
can descend. This is OK, provided you know that the clients
will only undo the cow's tail and not something more import¬
ant by mistake. It also requires your clients to let go of the
abseil rope entirely to sort out gear. It is perhaps better to leave
them attached only to the abseil rope via the abseil device
and/or with a French prusik safety back up for those that have
the experience to handle it.
This method of abseiling with clients is not suitable for
anyone who has never abseiled before or who has very little
experience of abseiling.
 MIA 289

MULTI-PITCH CLIMBING

Poor organisation and planning of stances and construction of

belay anchors is one of the most frequently criticised aspects of
an iirdividual's skills observed during assessment. On the type
of climbs appropriate at this level there is really very little
excuse for shoddy belaying, as stances are normally fairly
commodious and anchors plentiful.
All that is required is a little careful thought and, more
importantly, planning. There are two different scenarios of
stance organisation - that required for a guiding scenario,
where the instructor will do all the belaying and that in which
the clients or students will belay each other. The differences in
actual methods of arranging anchors and organising the stance
are much less clearly defined, but both require the same
approach to safety and simplicity.
The main difference is that in the instructional scenario the
emphasis will be on teaching students techniques that they are
likely to need in order to go away and take care of themselves.
Whilst guiding should always contain an element of instruc¬
tion, for that will enhance the enjoyment of a day out, the
emphasis should be placed on speedy and efficient movement,
with as much climbing as can be reasonably achieved in a day.
There is a tendency amongst many instructors to over¬
instruct. An imbalance between action and words detracts
somewhat from the whole ethos of the sport. Whilst we have
an obligation to teach, if engaged to do so, we also have an
obligation to give clients a good day out on the crags and to
give them an opportunity to sample the true pleasures of rock
climbing.
It is questionable whether anyone who is shown half a dozen
or more differing ways of tying into anchors during a day out
will retain the knowledge through to the next day, least of all
in the time that elapses before they are able to go out on their
own. It is perhaps better to concentrate efforts on one or two
290 MIA

methods that can be adapted to suit almost all belays likely to

be encountered and to consolidate these skills throughout the
day's climbing. Be consistent in the techniques you teach and
the student will grasp the principles of safe stance organisation
more rapidly. This will make your task easier and allow you to
introduce variants as and when appropriate.
Given an ideal stance, you would try to bring anchors
together to one central point. Unless the anchor is a sturdy tree
or huge block or a fixed anchor, you will always need more
than one point to make a solid anchor. The simplest way to
bring two anchor points together is to coimect the two with a
sling.
Photo 2 shows the basic set-up very clearly. (There are other
ways illustrated in vol. one, page 122.) By tying an overhand
in the sling you effectively create two separate slings. Make
sure that you clip into both with a screwgate krab when tying
yourself to the anchor.
This system is very simple yet efficient. Problems may occur
if the two anchors that you select are too far apart to coimect
them with a standard long sling. As the angle increases at the
point in which you tie into the anchor, the less evenly distributed
is the load on each anchor. If the angle between the two anchor
points is 90 degrees or less the load will be distributed equally
50% to each. After 90 degrees the loading increases by an un¬
determined amount and at 120 degrees the load each anchor
must bear is the full 100%. Two anchors are normally selected
because one alone is not sufficient to hold the force of a fall and
it is therefore advantageous to distribute the load so that each
has less to hold in the event of a fall. An angle of 120 degrees is
obviously undesirable as the anchors must each bear the full
force of any any load. This is unsatisfactory if you have chosen
multiple anchors because you are not confident that one alone
will be able to hold the full force of any load. Many instructors
now carry huge slings for just such an eventuality. This is all
very well, but they are awkward for clients to carry and, unless
 MIA 291

you are going to encourage all your students to use one for their
own climbing, it may not be a valuable learning experience.
Two normal sized long slings might be a more appropriate
method to use. If one is too long it can be shortened to the
correct length by tying a knot in it. You might also consider
using a snake sling.
The alternative method of tying in to .two anchors is to use
the rope. Clearly, anchors that are a long way apart will take
up quite a bit of rope, but what you will be teaching is a
method that is applicable to use outside of an instructional day
and one that the students will certainly need to know if they
hope to climb on their own in the future.
In terms of stance organisation it is simpler to bring two
anchors to one point using a sling. If you decide to use the rope
method you will need to think much more carefully about how
you position everyone on the stance. It is very easy to get in a
terrible tangle!
It is very difficult to set standard procedures applicable to
all stances, but there are principles that apply to almost all
possible variances.
Always try to position your stance so that you are able to see
clients on the whole pitch, including the stance that you leave
them on. Sometimes this will mean that you have to ignore
stances as recommended in the guidebook description of the
route and take intermediate ones. This is particularly important
if you think that your clients may experience difficulties in
climbing the route. If you can see them, you will be able to
encourage them and talk them through a sequence of moves.
You will also be able to keep an eye on them to check that they
release themselves from the belay correctly. You will also be
better placed to prevent problems occurring, such as climbing
past a rurmer without unclipping from it. Furthermore, they
themselves will feel encouraged that you are able to keep a
close eye on them throughout and they will know that they
can ask for help whenever it might be needed.
 292 MIA

Position yourself on the stance so that each client can arrive

without having to climb over or under ropes attached to the
anchor and so that they have as much room as possible to
stand or sit comfortably.
Consider the order and direction in which you will move off
on to the next pitch. If the climb goes to one side or the other
try to arrange things so that they will leave the stance in the
correct sequence. This will avoid any possible tangles. When
you ask them to clip into the anchor point or points, do so in a
sequence that is clear for them to understand. Photo 24 shows
a suggested set-up.
If you are going to ask the second to belay the third you will
need to make sure that you yourself are in a position to
supervise and to act as a safety back up by holding the
controlling rope in a way that allows you to lock it off correctly
in case they are unable to hold a falling second. This is
particularly important if you are instructing novices on their
first experiences of multi-pitch climbing.
You will also need to make sure that the ropes are well
organised and will run off the pile smoothly and free of tangles
as folk climb away from the stance. This is sometimes the most
onerous of tasks. It is not so much of a problem if there is a
large enough ledge on which to store the ropes, but if you have
a small, cramped stance there may not be sufficient room and
you might have to lap coil the ropes over a spike or over the
rope to the anchor. (See chapter 8 for hanging stances, p. 367).
Here again, make sure that the ropes are arranged in the
sequence in which they need to run off - your end off the top
of one pile and the rope attached to the middle person off the
top of the other.
Stance organisation with two clients requires considerable
practice and a methodical approach. Try to do as much of it as
possible prior to assessment, as it is an aspect of the MIA that
candidates frequently fail to do competently.
 Second

Leader

Third climber^^^

Harness

Harness Harness

24 Stance organisation. Arrange everyone so that it is

straightforward to move off on the next pitch.
 294 MIA

CLIMBING IN PARALLEL OR SERIES

Traditional climbing is conducted in series, that is to say only

one person climbs at a time. Guided climbing is sometimes
done in parallel, when the guide or instructor trails two ropes,
one attached to each client. Both clients will climb at the same
time one slightly behind the other. The distinct advantage of
this latter method is one of speed.
Any instructional day out should be conducted in series. The
reasons for this are simple enough - you are teaching people to
climb in a traditional manner and should teach by example
rather than use techniques that your clients or students are
unlikely to use or even need. The only exception might be
when there is a need to move more quickly due to the lateness
of the hour or incoming bad weather.
Guiding on the other hand is slightly different in that the
emphasis must be placed on climbing as much rock as is
humanly possible in a day! To this end you will benefit from
the advantage of the extra speed gained by both clients
climbing at the same time. But that is the only benefit.
It can be quite unpleasant for the clients if they are in each
other's way or their ropes become entangled and there are
additional complexities to be dealt with by yourself as the
leader.
The least complex climbs to cope with are those that are
straight up and down. Ropes will rrm perfectly and you will
be able to protect each client with the rope running directly to
them. Unfortunately, not all climbs are so accommodating and
anything that involves any kind of diagonal or horizontal
traverse will necessitate the placement of strategic rimners in
order to keep the ropes running as you would like them to.
This poses a dilemma. Should you clip each rope into every
runner or have separate runners for each (photo 25)? Should
you ask one person to belay you on one or both ropes or do
you ask each client to belay you on their own rope?
25 Climbing in parallel. Note how the ropes run separately for
ease of unclipping from runners.
 296 MIA

The answers to these questions vary according to the nature

of the climbing. You may decide to clip both ropes into all
the runners via the same karabiner. Unfortunately what
tends to happen is that ropes frequently get crossed over
when the first client arrives at the runner to remove their
rope. Better to use a separate quick draw for each rope that
you clip into the runner. This means that you have to carry lots
of quick draws or reduce the numbers of runners placed on the
pitch.
If you decide to place runners alternately on separate ropes
you should, for safety sake, ask each client to belay you on
their own rope. Placing runners this way may not allow you to
position them in the most ideal situation for the client's
protection. Remember that runners are placed for three reasons
- one is for personal safety in case you fall, the other is for the
directional safety of your clients whilst they are climbing, and
the third is to show the way.
You will need to decide how best to belay your clients whilst
they are climbing. In doing so you have to consider the worst
case scenario where you might have both clients hanging on
the rope at the same time. Unlikely though this might be, it is
nonetheless a possibility.
In order to hold them effectively you must have a good
stance with good anchors and arrange the belaying system so
that you will not have to bear the full weight of both should
they fall at the same time. You can use a belay device attached
to your central tie on loop on the harness, just as you would
for climbing in series, but you must position yourself so that
the load is transferred directly on to the anchors.
You might choose to use a direct belaying method where the
belay device is attached directly to the anchor and you attach
yourself independently, either to another anchor or to the main
one. It is clear that if you elect to use such a method, the
anchors have to be a hundred per cent reliable as they will bear
the full weight of a fallen climber. However many anchors you
 MIA 297

use, you will need to bring them to one central point at which
you attach the belay device.
The t3^e of belay method you use on a direct belay demands
careful consideration. A belay device such as the ATC, BUG or
variable controller can only be operated correctly if you stand
behind it and are able to lock it off if the need arises. A figure
eight descendeur can be operated from below quite effectively,
though for maximum braking effect the controlling rope should
be kept behind the device.
The New Alp belay plate is designed specifically for this
type of belaying. Photo 26 shows the correct way to set up the
plate on a direct belay. Unfortunately, as a belay device it does
have its drawbacks. It is very difficult to pay out any rope if
you want to give slack or if a climber wants to move down to
a resting place. If there is any weight on the device it is
virtually impossible to pay out rope, or to take m the unloaded
rope. This means that if you have one client who has fallen off
on to the rope, the other must stop climbing as you cannot take
in any more rope through the plate and carmot therefore assure
their safety.
On the positive side, the device locks off very effectively and
there is never any doubt about holding a fallen climber. It is
also possible to leave clients attached to the plate directly to
the anchor, eliminating the need for them to tie into it separ¬
ately. It is advisable to tie off the rope as shown in photo 27, to
provide additional security.
When climbing in parallel you are quite likely to experience
one other major problem - that of ropes gethng twisted. This
happens when clients need to step over or go under the other s
rope. Whatever the reasons might be for this, and indeed there
are few, it happens more regularly than is desirable. To prevent
it happening at all will demand that you keep a very close eye
on your clients and make sure that if, for whatever reason, they
have to cross ropes, they do so without introducing a twist into
the system.
26 New Alp belay plate.
27 Tying off the New Alp belay plate.
300 MIA

Any twists can most easily be sorted out on arrival at the

stance and should be taken out as soon as is reasonably possible
before more accumulate and create all maimer of other
problems.
Climbing in series is subject to far fewer idiosyncrasies and
is the preferred mefhod of climbing, but it is as well to practise
parallel climbing for the occasions when it may be more
applicable.

TEACHING LEAD CLIMBING

Anyone who teaches rock climbing will at some time or other

need to instruct the skills required to lead rock climbs safely. It
is an important element of the MIA and one that you may be
asked to demonstrate at assessment.
Before you encourage or permit anyone to practise leading
you must first establish that the students are capable and that
they have a desire to lead. The decision to allow them to lead
must be based on their ability to operate a belay device
correctly, particularly as a second safeguarding a leader, and
to have a good understanding of the principles of arranging
anchors and running belays. Finally you must explain to them
that being in the lead on a climb does carry certain risks,
particularly of falling, and that there has to be an acceptance of
this by the students before you can go ahead. It may even be
worth trying to stage a falling leader scenario in a very safe
situation or, of course, to use a special weight drop machine
where a leader fall can be simulated.
Anyone who leads for the first time, no matter if they have
followed climbs of HVS or even harder, must undertake climbs
that are technically well within their ability. This is necessary
to ensure the highest margin of safety possible. As a rough
guide, someone who follows VS 4c competently ought perhaps
to begin on a Diff or at most a V Diff climb.
There are different ways to conduct the teaching of lead
 MIA 301

climbing. A gradual introduction might take the form of the

student clipping into pre-placed runners whilst being top
roped. As a progression from this, strategic runners might be
pre-placed with the student placing their own in between. Any
time a student places running belays, the instructor must be
present to assist and advise and to give the final go ahead to
use a particular placement or not.
Clearly it is advantageous to try to nm a rmmer placement
session from the ground using whatever cracks and features
might be available.
When the concept of introducing students to lead climbing
was instigated, it was accepted practice for the instructor to
solo the climb alongside the student. The instructor would
carry a short length of rope with a screwgate krab attached to
the end. This rope would either be coiled around the body or
carried in a bum bag around the waist. The idea was that it
would be a quick and simple method of getting a rope to a
student in difficulty - all very well if you can arrange a rumier
quickly, send the rope down, clip it into the student's harness
and attach it to the runner with an Italian hitch, all in the space
of a few seconds!
This method, whilst adhered to for many years, is clearly
flawed. The instructor is exposed to considerable risk. Even
though they might be climbing on ground that is well within
the margins of their ability, an accidental stumble or slip
cannot be ruled out. If an instructor were to fall they might
knock off the student or, at worst, fall and be killed, leaving
inexperienced climbers on the crag without the necessary
knowledge of how to proceed.
Apart from that most obvious risk, on many climbs there are
not enough good holds for instructor and student to share. It
might mean in some cases that the instructor is off to one side
on VS groimd, while the student is on V Diff ground. This, of
course, is the worst possible scenario!
Whilst this technique is still used by a very few instructors.
302 MIA

by far the most commonly used system of introducing lead

climbing is for the instructor to climb the pitch and fix a rope
in place at the stance at the end of the pitch, abseil down and
then to jumar up the rope by the side of the student who is
leading. (See chapter 9, page 380, for techniques of ascending a
fixed rope.)
The instructor might place a few strategic running belays on
the way up and leave these in for the student. Being attached
to a mechanical ascending device allows the instructor com¬
plete freedom of movement at all times - to be at the side of
the student or slightly above. This level of security is both a
confidence booster for the student and also permits the instruc¬
tor to help out more readily in case of difficulty.
It is a good idea to rig some kind of safety back up for the
student that allows the instructor to clip them in if they are
finding things difficult or if they decide that they do not feel
confident about climbing too far above a runner. This safety
back up can be arranged simply enough by attaching a long
sling to the ascending device (or a second device) and making
sure that there is a screwgate krab in the end which can be
clipped into the student's harness quickly and simply when
needed. Photo 28 shows a suggested set-up.
Many instructors will take the trouble to back up the
ascending device either with a French prusik or a second
device. The combination of something like a jumar with a
Ropeman above it works particularly, well.
The student who is belaying the leader must be well secured
and their anchor should almost always include one that is
capable of taking an upward pull. (There are exceptions to this
rule, of course, and one that springs readily to mind is that of
a heavyweight second attached to a great big solid spike above
their shoulder level.) If the lead student falls there is then no
chance whatsoever that the belayer will be pulled off the stance
and you can be assured that they will be able to concentrate all
efforts on holding the rope securely.
 t| Rope fixed to anchor
I at top of pitch
I
V. Ropeman or any
i1 * \\ other
oiner ascender
a

Attach through
harness tie-in
loops

Krab ready to
ii clip to student

28 Instructor rig for supervising students learning to lead.

304 MIA

As you ascend the rope alongside the lead student you will
be able to stop and discuss runner placement and offer tips on
how to place them better, or things to consider if extending
runners - or any other words of wisdom you are able to impart.
Rurming belays should be placed at fairly close intervals.
Not only will this increase margins of safety but it will also
concentrate the practice of placement, giving the student many
opportunities to place gear. The first runner off the ground or
off a stance should be placed by the instructor and the student's
rope clipped into it before moving off on the climb. On stances
part way up a climb this will avoid the possibility that a fall
factor 2 (see below) might occur if the student where to fall off
immediately above the stance and without a runner in place.
On arrival at a stance you can also supervise the selection
and setting up of anchors.
As students gain more experience and confidence at leading
you can step aside more often and allow them that most
valuable of all learning experiences - self-discovery. Knowing
that you are on hand to correct mistakes will be a huge
confidence boost to the student.
If both of your students have a desire to lead you can allow
them to lead through. Before leading the next pitch you will
need to go up yourself and fix the rope in place that you are
going to ascend on.
It is clear that at this stage of a rock climbing student's
progress you are getting much closer to the time when they
will be able to take care of themselves. Though it doesn't apply
to everyone who takes up rock climbing, this surely has to be
the ultimate objective for the instructor - and one of the most
gratifying.
 MIA 305

Notes on Fall Factor

This is a theoretical measure of the forces involved in a leader fall. I

say theoretical because there are many external influences to consider
that may reduce the forces likely to be experienced.
The maximum fall factor that can be reached is 2. At this level
ropes and equipment might be expected to-fail. (There are circum¬
stances where it may be greater but these are not necessarily
applicable at this level.) I once had the misfortune to experience a fall
factor 2 and can tell you it isn't at all pleasant.
The fall factor is worked out simply by dividing the length of a fall
by the amount of rope paid out. For example, a leader who is 3 m (10 ft)
above the second and who falls off before arranging a runner will fall 6 m
(20 ft). This gives a fall factor of 2. However, this high factor will only be
reached fthe rock is vertical or overhanging and there is no absorption
of the shock loading in the system (rope stretch, climbers bodies and
friction over the rock etc.) which is why it is really only a theoretical
measure. Nonetheless, all climbers should be aware of the problem, and
instructors particularly. Ensuring that there is a solid runner as soon
as possible after leaving the stance will avoid the possibility of a direct
loading of fall factor 2 onto the belayer.
Interestingly, big falls at the end of a long pitch are quite acceptable'
Take the following example. Rope out 40 m (130 ft), last runner at 30 m
(100 ft), length of fall -20 m (65 ft). Fall Factor 0.51 You'd have time to
experience the full pleasures of flying during a 20 m (65 ft) fall.
29 Learning to lead with an instructor in close attendance.
6 Short Roping for MIA
This is probably the aspect of MIA that proves to be the
downfall of many of those who fail at assessment. The reasons
for this centre on a lack of understanding of the technique and
the context in which it is intended to fit within the MIA
scheme.
This confusion is possibly because there are a number of
techniques that fit broadly into the same category. In 1994, in
an attempt to clarify the differing styles and to put a name to
each, I proposed the following which have subsequently
become widely accepted definitions.

CONFIDENCE ROPING
To safeguard an individual within a hillwalking group who
would gain a boost of confidence in an apparently exposed
situation by being tied to a short length of rope which is held
by the instructor or leader. The instructor may not even tie into
the rope. Both will usually move at the same time, therefore
not impeding the progress of the group as a whole. The use of
the rope is normally unplanned.

SHORT ROPING
The use of the rope to safeguard one or two clients in ascent or
descent on terrain that is exposed and where a slip could have
serious consequences. The terrain is not continuous rock climb¬
ing or scrambling but may have short sections of technical
difficulty approaching the V Diff grade ( or exceptionally, even
Severe). Sections that require safeguarding will generally be
very short but could be anything from a few metres to 20 m
(65 ft) or a little more. The instructor or leader will climb the
section of difficulty first leaving the clients secure on a ledge.
308 Short Roping for MIA

Normally clients will move over the difficult grormd at the

same time, tied a few feet apart on the climbing rope. The
instructor will safeguard them, using suitable belaying tech¬
niques that do not impede efficient and speedy ascent or
descent. These techniques are likely to be direct belay methods
or, where suitable, a braced stance with waist or shoulder
belay. The whole party will move at the same time between
sections of difficulty and in less exposed situations.
Occasionally in descent it may be appropriate to lower the
clients, either individually or exceptionally both together.
The leader or instructor will not normally place running
belays for his or her own protection but may do so for
directional stability in safeguarding the clients.

MOVING TOGETHER

The party will travel at the same time over terrain that presents
a combination of exposure and continuous technical difficulty
or extreme exposure alone. Most commonly this technique is
linked with moving along alpine ridges or mixed climbs where
speed with a degree of safety is preferable. A competent and
compatible rope of two will move together with the rope tight
between them at all times. For safety, the first climber on the
rope will arrange running belays at suitable intervals. It is
hoped that these running belays will go some way towards
preventing a tragedy should one or both climbers fall. On
arriving at anything of greater difficulty the party will stop
and initiate normal climbing procedures.
In a professional scenario where one is caring for a client or
clients the position is much more tenuous and requires sound
judgement, quick decision processes and sharp reactions that
can only be gained through much experience and training at a
high level. Consequently this style of safeguarding a client or
clients in the mountains is normally the preserve of the guide
and not appropriate at MIA.
 short Roping for MIA 309

From the above, it is clear that the domain that fits the MIA is
in between that of guide and fhat of mormtain walking leader.
There are fwo mountain scenarios where the technique is
applicable at this level. One is during the approach to or
descent from a rock climb and the other is when a day out in
the mountains is planned to include a scramble. The techniques
and principles are the same for both scenarios. It might be
appropriate to begin by outlining the reasons for using short
roping and to explain what the principles are.
Scrambling terrain, either in ascent or descent, will undoubt¬
edly feature climbing that requires the use of bofh hands. It
may also take place in exposed situations where there is a very
real risk of serious injury or worse in the event of a fall. Usually
the climbing is not of a high techirical standard, though moss-
and lichen-covered rock in the pouring rain will make even
simple climbing difficult. As stated before, any sections of
actual climbing may be very short and interspersed with other
sections of very easy terrain.
Clearly, this type of terrain does not require the use of a
more traditional approach of pitching and making stances
because it would slow the party down too much. It is preferable
therefore to have the rope in place, with everyone tied on to it,
so that it can be used as and when required.
The overriding principle is to make sure that the use of the
rope provides a good balance of safety but without slowing
down progress. To implement this efficiently you must be
flexible enough thaf you can adapt to any type of terrain and
use effective belay techniques where appropriate.
Furthermore, you will gain advantages of both efficiency and
safefy if you remain close to your clients and maintain eye to
eye contact throughout. Much can be learnt about the way
people react to any given situation and such understanding
may forewarn of any impending problem. Such non-verbal
communication is worth more in some respects than all the
knowledge of ropework acquired.
310 Short Roping for MIA

TYING ON TO THE ROPE

You will not need to use the whole length of the rope but you
must ensure that you can vary the length quickly. To do this
you will need to coil the rope around your body and tie it off,
so that it can be released when necessary. A simple way to tie
off the rope is illustrated in photo 81 in vol. one. An alternative
method is shown in photos 30, 31 and 32. The method illus¬
trated here is very quickly undone to let out more rope, yet
provides an effective locking system so that if you have to take
a load directly around the coils it will not tighten up around
the shoulders. However, it does have drawbacks, most notably
that it will tighten up around your body if you, as the leader,
take a fall. This is, of course, the worst case scenario, but if it
were to happen, tying off the rope in this way might cause
urmecessary injury and jeopardise the safety of your clients.
Some people like to tie off the rope at intervals, so that when
you have to drop coils you do so only up to the next tie off
point. This is very convenient in some respects but does mean
that you have a bulky bimch of knots around your harness tie
in point.
Those in your care should be tied into the rope. One person
on the end and any others should be tied in with an isolation
loop. Avoid, if you can, tying in people directly to the harness
abseil loop with a karabiner. This loop is intended to take a
static load only and, although it is immensely strong, the
manufacturer does not recommend clipping a climbing rope in
with a krab directly.
Better to tie an overhand knot in a bight of rope creating a
loop about 1.5 m (5 ft) long to form the isolation loop. Then tie
a second overhand knot a little more than .5 m (VA ft) from the
end of the loop. Thread the loop through the harness tie on
points and re-thread the overhand to create a secure tie on. The
end of the loop can be clipped back into the harness for extra
safety (photos 33 and 34). It used to be fashionable to use an
30 Alternative tie off for short roping: Stage 1.
31 Alternative tie off for short roping; Stage 2.
32 Alternative tie off for short roping: Stage 3.
 314 Short Roping for MIA

Alpine butterfly to create the isolation loop, but in recent years

the overhand has become the favourite. It is an equally strong
knot and has the advantage that it can be adjusted more easily
to vary the length of the isolation loop and can even be tied or
untied without removing the rope from those you are
safeguarding.
The distance that you have between the clients will depend
largely on the type of ground you are moving over. As a
general guideline about 2 m (6/2 ft) is just right. Any more, and
you will find that slack will easily develop between them, but
any less will mean that one is trying to avoid standing on the
other s fingers. It is difficult to say exactly how many people
you can have on the rope in this way. Much depends on the
nature of the terrain. The more people you have, the harder it
becomes to manage. One is perfect. Two is ideal, three is
manageable, but any more and one must ask the question
whether or not margins of safety are compromised.

METHODS OF SAFEGUARDING THE PARTY

At every difficulty encountered you must safeguard the mem¬
bers of your party adequately. The key here is to have a
number of differing methods at your disposal so that you are
able to adapt efficiently to each situation as it is presented.
There are no rules of thumb to apply, other than to be safe. The
simplest method of safeguarding someone is to take a braced
stance and either to take in the rope through your hands or use
a shoulder belay. The success and safety of this method is
tenuous to say the least. Much will depend on how strong you
are and how heavy your clients might be. A diminutive person
may not be able to hold a person weighing 80 kilos with the
rope rurming through their hands.
A secure braced stance (photo 35) is the foundation stone to
this technique. You must not stand casually on the edge of a
ledge and expect to hold someone who slips. You have to lean
33 An overhand in the middle of the rope: Stage 1.
 Overhand
knot

Can be clipped
back to harness
for safety ^

Middle person

34 An overhand in the middle of the rope: Stage 2.

 short Roping for MIA 317

back against the rock or sit down or wedge yourself behind a

substantial boulder. 'Every foothold must be a belay' is a
popular expression of a colleague of mine. And he's right -
think of it like that and you'll not go far wrong.
It is a good idea to use leather gloves that allow you a more
positive grip on the rope. If you decide fo take in the rope
directly through your hands, keep it tight all the time. You
should almost pull the client up, but without making them feel
that you are giving too much assistance, for they may find it
disconcerting.
Keeping the rope tight in this way will enable you to correct
a slip quickly before it develops into a fall. This reaction zone
is a vital part of any short roping or moving together scenario.
If you feel the need for exfra security and holding power you
can use a shoulder belay or waist belay. Photos in vol. one,
pages 67 and 70 show this clearly. If using fhe shoulder belay,
always remember to have the loaded rope coming maderneath
the armpit and the dead rope over the opposite one. It is
paramount that you do not lean forward because any loading
of the rope will pull it off your shoulders. Lean back slightly
and dig your feet well in.
It is not advisable to use this braced stance approach on
groimd that has a high degree of exposure nor where steep
scrambling or graded climbing is encountered. Better to
employ it where difficulties are short, there is a good ledge
below and a spacious one to stand on and the angle is low.
For more technical ground and where sections requiring the
security of the rope are longer you should use a direct
belaying method. These take a little longer to set up than a
braced stance and require an element of judgement and
imagination.
The simplest form of direct belay is to take the rope in
aroimd a flake or spike of rock. It may be obvious, but needs
to be said, that the anchor must be a himdred per cent solid. If
it isn't and it fails under load the consequences could be
35 A well-braced stance with extra friction generated by
running the rope over a boulder.
 Short Roping for MIA 319

catastrophic. Many people fail at assessment for selecting

anchors that are clearly not safe. Try to ensure that there are no
sharp edges that might cause unnecessary abrasion of the rope.
If there are it may be preferable to use a sling instead. Flakes
and spikes are the most obvious things to use as direct belays,
but sometimes you might find it possible to use other rock
features. For example, a large rounded boulder could be used
by climbing over to the opposite side from where you antici¬
pate the load will come. The rope running over the rock will
generate friction which will help you to hold any load. Small
nubbins of rock might also be used provided that they are part
of the mountain and not something that is held on with a bit of
mud or grass.
Avoid anything that has a pronounced V-shape that the rope
might jam up in. Not only might it jam it might also cut the
rope if it comes under load.
A sling and Italian hitch can also be used where you feel the
need for a more reliably smooth-running direct belay. If you
decide to take this option, make sure that you use an HMS
karabiner for the Italian hitch. D-shaped krabs hinder the free
rurming of the rope in an Italian hitch and make taking in and
paying out troublesome (photo 36).
Bringing the clients up is a straightforward affair. Make sure
that you keep a grip on the controlling rope at all times. Any
momentary lapse of concentration in this may catch you
unprepared to hold a fall. (See photos 40, 41 42 and 43 for the
taking in sequence around a direct belay. The same principles
apply to taking in through an Italian hitch attached to a sling
arormd the anchor.)
On stances in exposed positions where someone might fall
off a ledge, you must secure the party somehow. You must
certainly consider your own personal safety for, though you
might be quite at ease standing on the edge of a ledge over a
big drop, you are still responsible for your clients' safety and
that means your own too. Consider clipping in to the anchor
 W;

36 Direct belay using an Italian hitch.

 Short Roping for MIA 321

using a long cow's tail at the very least in exposed situations

(photo 37).
When those you are safeguarding arrive at the stance you
will need to have planned your actions in advance. The first
person to arrive will be well protected but unless you are
prepared for looking after the second or subsequent members,
they will be unprotected whilst you secure the first.
There are a number of different courses of action. You can
tie off the first person to arrive by securing them around the
direct belay. This is done by wrapping the rope several times
around the anchor or by tying the dead rope back into their
harness. Or you can keep hold of the main rope whilst reaching
down to take the rope between the first and second client and
then drape it over the direct belay anchor. This is referred to as
a coimter-balance belay. Provided that the rope sits well down
below the top of the anchor and is not likely to get accidentally
flicked off, two people can be left on a stance securely in this
way.
If you are using an Italian hitch you will find it easier to
have a second HMS krab on the sling into which you can clip
the rope between the clients (photo 38). To do this efficiently
you will need to be very adept at tying knots with one hand
(photos 39a and b). Either tie an Italian hitch or clip them
directly into the anchor with a clove hitch. Once clipped in the
clove hitch can be adjusted so that everyone is tight to the
anchor (photos 38 and 39).
Very occasionally you may need to implement the more
traditional belaying method of making a stance and using a
belay device. If you need to do this it will obviously impede
speedy progress and so must only be used in exceptional
circumstances where you feel that the party might be exposed
to greater risk than is usual on scrambling terrain.
All these procedures take time to implement. The real skill
is to minimise the time taken so that efficient movement up the
scramble is assured.
37 Direct belay using an Italian hitch. The instructor is
secured separately.
38 Counter balance through krab on the anchor sling.
39a Tying a clove hitch with one hand; Stage 1.
39b Tying a clove hitch with one hand; Stage 2
40 Taking in the rope using a direct belay: Stage 1. Note that
the same sequence applies to the Italian hitch.
41 Taking in the rope using a direct belay; Stage 2.
42 Taking in the rope using a direct belay: Stage 3.
43 Stage 4; go back to Stage 1.
330 Short Roping for MIA

When you arrive at easy sections where people can move

without risk or walk to the next bit of difficulty, you can take
up the slack rope in coils and carry them in your hand. To do
this, coil the rope up in short coils, no more than a foot or so
long, beginning at your own tie on point and finishing about a
metre or so from the first person down the rope. By coiling this
way you are able to drop coils as you need to. (See photos on
page 182, vol. one.)

GOING DOWN

Descents using short roping techniques present their own

problems. The principles of safeguarding the rope with either
a braced stance or a direct belay apply in the same way as for
going up.
The main difference is one of route finding. If you know the
way down well, this is not so much of a problem, as you can
explain to people where they must go. If, however, you are on
unfamiliar territory you will undoubtedly need to explore the
line to take yourself.
This must be done without the need for you to go first. You
carmot safeguard the party well enough from below even if
you place running belays. It must be done always from above.
To this end experience at seeing and deciding on a route pays
dividends. It is unlikely that those in your care will have the
necessary experience to choose their own route down.
The difficulties are compounded by the fact that you may
need to secure the clients whilst you yourself are descending.
To do this you'll need to allow them to make themselves
secure. In order to keep a close eye on folk whilst they are
doing this you should ensure that they do not get too far below
you. Much better to descend in very short stages where you
can see what is happening and give instructions as appropriate.
Occasionally it may be preferable to lower people down. If
you have a sound anchor, then you might consider lowering
 Short Roping for MIA 331

both at the same time. Usually you would only do this on

relatively low angled terrain where people can support much
of their own weight and where you can see them at all times.
If the ground you are lowering down is steep, or involves an
overhang, or is at all problematical, lower your clients one at a
time.
A way to do this is to untie the middle person from the rope
and undo their knot. Make sure before you do this that they are
safe, either well back from the edge and unanchored, or clipped
to an anchor with a cow's tail. (See photo 21 chapter 5.)
Lower the person on the end of the rope down. If you still
have lots of rope available, tie on the second person just below
the lowering device and then lower them down to join their
partner. You may then be able to climb down or abseil off,
using the remainder of the rope which can be retrieved once
you are down by imtying from the end and pulling it down
around the anchor.
If you find that there is insufficient rope to effect this you
will have to ask the person you lowered down first to untie
from the rope so that you can haul it back up and lower the
second.
Very rarely you may decide to abseil. Arrange folk in the
usual way for a stacked abseil. You descend first and call
each of your clients down when you are ready for them. See
chapter 5.
Short roping requires considerable practice before you can
do it well. This practice needs to take place in a real situation
where you genuinely have to take care of others. It requires
those that use it to make a great many decisions based on
judgement and familiarity with this type of terrain and the use
of appropriate rope techniques.
 7 Sport Climbs and Climbing
Walls
Some safety considerations

Doesn't it always feel pretty safe climbing on bolts? Clipping

in to a sturdy chunk of metal fixed deep into the rock induces
a feeling of immortality and encourages bigger air time. It
allows you to concentrate on the finer points of style and
technique and to push always that little bit further . . . The final
lunge for the chain lower off or belay is something positive to
aim for - a haven at last after the vertical onslaught.
Sport climbing, as it is known the world over, has become
one of the most popular aspects of the sport of rock climbing —
and justly so. The feel good factor of safety widens the appeal
for the less brave, it requires less equipment and, furthermore,
one is able to push physical capabilities beyond what might
otherwise be achievable on traditional climbs where protection
and belays may be sparse or inadequate.
Not wishing to put a dampener on the reverie of such
delights, have you ever stopped to think carefully about the
things that might possibly go wrong? How problems might be
avoided or solved? There are very few things to go awry, it's
true, but here are one or two that might give you cause for
concern the next time you're contemplating taking a big flight
on to a single bolt rurmer ... Consider clipping a single
screwgate krab into the first bolt. If it's not too far off the
ground and you need the protection for the first few hard
moves you'll probably be thankful for a short connection to
stop you from hitting the ground in an early fall. The benefits
of doing this however come into play when you are higher up
the climb. Clipping in securely to the first bolt will help to
ensure that the rope runs correctly through all subsequent
 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls 333

rumters. It also creates extra friction in the event of a big

plummet, enabling the second to maintain a more secure grip
on the rope.
Everyone has their own favourite way of racking gear,
clipping into bolts and clipping the rope in to the quick draw.
It is worth paying a little attention to one or two points. Firstly,
consider the direction in which you will be moving once you
have clipped the bolt. As a general rule it's advisable to have
the gates of both krabs facing away from the direction of
movement. This will ensure that the load comes correctly on to
the back, load-bearing, axis of the krabs. Any possibility that
the load may come across the weakest axis or along the gate
side of the krab is to be avoided at all costs.
There have been exceptional circumstances, particularly with
bent gate krabs, were a fall has resulted in the rope catching in
the bend of the gate and actually unclipping itself when the
load came on to the rope. The possibility of this occurring is
greatly heightened if you clip the rope directly to the krab on
the bolt. If you need to clip the rope directly into a bolt, without
using a quick draw, you'd be well advised to use a D-shaped
screwgate, which is much stronger.
Make sure that the quick draw is not twisted in any way. If
it is, it might cause a similar twisting action in the event of a
fall.
All these problems can be avoided by very simple prep¬
aration before leaving the groimd. Rack up all the quick draws
with krabs facing the same way - it will help too, if you fix the
bent gate krab with a strong rubber band. These can be bought
or improvised with ordinary elastic bands, castrating rings or
sticky tape. It is also possible to buy quick draws with captive
eye loops for the attachment of karabiners and these are well
worthy of consideration.
There are two methods of karabiner to quick draw attach¬
ment. Both are illustrated in photo 44 and both are equally
acceptable. The only common denominator is to ensure that
from the direction of travel.
 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls 335

the opening end of each krab is always away from the quick
draw.
Repeated falls on to bolts may damage the krabs that attach
the quick draw to the bolt. Such damage may be seen as burrs
or ridges in the krab and, in worst cases, a distinct thinning of
the metal may be apparent. This is a particular problem with
the more common hanger, as seen in photo 44. Eco bolts and
large ring bolts, such as those found on the Continent, preseiat
less of a sharp profile. It is advisable to use much sturdier
krabs directly on to bolts, as these will last considerably longer
if fallen on regularly. If you have any doubts about the safety
of your equipment it should be discarded.
Burrs in the bend of krabs can also cause a good deal of
damage to quick draws. Repeated falls whilst dogging a climb
may cause abrasion of the nylon, with an associated weakening
of fhe quick draw, to the extent that it might snap unexpec¬
tedly. Conscientious checking of your rack and changing dam¬
aged bits promptly will go a long way to preventing serious
accidents.

CLIPPING BOLTS
By arranging your quick draws in some semblance of order
you will be able to maximise efficiency and, as a result, will
waste less energy clipping the bolt and then the rope into the
quick draw. Better to reserve strength for the climb than fumble
around trying to disentangle gear from your harness or turn
krabs around in bolts or quick draws.
Clipping the rope into a quick draw requires a certain
amount of dexterity which is easily achieved with practice.
Like so many things, there is more than one way to do this.
The following is a suggestion only and Tm sure that as you
gain experience, you will adapt or develop your own style.
Photos 45 and 46 illustrate the following suggestion. Bring
up the rope draped over your thumb and middle finger to the
45 Clipping the climbing rope into a quick draw; Stage 1.
46 Clipping the climbing rope into a quick draw: Stage 2.
 338 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls

krab. Hook your ring finger into the bottom of the krab and
pull it under a small amount of tension - this stabilises the
krab. Hook the rope into the bent gate and use your forefinger
to press the rope into the krab. It takes a milli-second to do this
- provided, of course, that your second pays out enough rope!
Remember, too, that bolt hangers can wear out. Particularly
ones that are old or made from soft alloy or ones that are
subjected to huge numbers of falls - such as those on the crux
moves of popular climbs. The unseen part of the bolt can also
corrode and weaken over a period of time, though this may
not be apparent until it's too late to do anything about it. Be
particularly prudent on cliffs near the sea or crags that carry
regular seepage. Corrosion occurs mainly on the hidden part
of the bolt - that which is buried in the rock.

LOWERING OFF

Lowering off from the top of the climb rarely poses much of a
problem but have you ever thought what you'd do if you
dropped the rope whilst threading it through the lower off?
Once you get a hold of the lower off, clip yourself in to the
anchor with a quick draw. You may want to use a cow's tail
with a screwgate krab for safety or a couple of quick draws
with the karabiner gates turned in opposite directions. If you
only use one quick draw wifh snaplink krabs be careful not to
get into a position where you might untwist the krab connect-
ing you to the anchor. Usually, keeping the quick draw under
tension will ensure you remain attached.
To avoid any embarrassment fix the rope to your harness
with a krab before you untie. Pull up a big loop of slack rope
and tie a simple overhand or figure eight knot which can then
be clipped with a krab into the gear rack. Untie from the end
of the rope, thread it through the lower off and tie back into
the end. Don t forget to unclip the rope from the temporary tie
off on the gear loop before you ask to be lowered down!
 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls 339

Another very good way of going in to the lower off is

described below and illustrated in photo 47. Before you use
this method you must be certain that there is more than enough
rope to reach the ground safely, as some rope is 'lost' using
this system.
On arrival at the lower off, clip in to the anchor entirely
independently of the climbing rope. A quick draw between the
anchor and the harness abseil loop is the best way. Take the
climbing rope and thread it through the lower off as illustrated.
Tie a figure eight knot in the loop of rope and clip it in to a
screwgate krab on the abseil loop of your harness. Do not in
any circumstances clip it solely through the loop of rope formed by
tying on to the end of the climbing rope.
Having checked that all is in order, undo the tie in knot in
the rope end. Pull this through the anchor and get your partner
to take your weight on the rope. Unclip from the anchor and
ask to be lowered down. The photo should illustrate clearly
why you must have slightly more than half the rope available.
Many climbers nowadays choose to use 60-metre, or longer,
ropes. In Britain there are few crags that require such a long
rope but elsewhere there are many climbs that have 30 m (100 ft)
pitches where a long rope is essential.
Remember that if you are very close to the maximum amount
of rope available to reach the ground you should ask your
belayer to tie in to the other end of the rope or, at the very
least, to tie a chunky knot in the end of the rope. This will
prevent it sliding through the belay device if the second
inadvertently loses a grip on the controlling rope.
Be careful about how you treat lower off anchors. Normally
two anchors are provided for the lower off. In the case of Eco
bolts these are not connected, as the rope will run freely
through them without the need for them to be bought to one
central point. Large ring bolts are the same. All other hangers,
however, need to be connected, usually with a chunky piece of
chain that is connected to the bolts with maillons and the lower
47 Sequence for lowering off from the top of a sports climb
 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls 341

off point is either a screwgate krab with the gate glued shut or
a large maillon.
Make sure that the lower off is rigged in such a way that if
one anchor were to fail the other would remain in place.
Occasionally you will arrive at a lower off to discover that it is
connected with rope or tape and there is a ring through which
to thread the rope. The same principles of guarding against
failure apply. Make sure that if one anchor fails the whole lot
will not fall apart. If you have any doubts about the set-up,
replace the rope or tape with new stuff. Rotted or worn nylon
has little strength. Never ever lower with the rope running over or
through a nylon rope or tape sling - the heat generated can easily
reach a high mough temperature to melt through the sling.
Photo 48 shows a suggested method for cormecting two
anchors together for an abseil point. The same set-up can be
utilised as a lower off, though of course you must connect the
rope via a krab or a maillon if the rope is to run through. For
abseiling off you will probably not want to leave a krab behind
and in any case there is no need for one.

RETRIEVING RUNNERS
If the climb that you have just ascended is very steep, wanders
around a little or is overhanging, it can sometimes be a bit
problematical retrieving the quick draws from the bolts. You
may need to swing around quite a bit and could even find
yourself so far out in space that it is impossible to get enough
of a swing in to make contact with the rock.
It is a good idea to connect yourself to the rope that runs
through the runners which allows you to be lowered down the
line of ascent. This is achieved simply enough by connecting a
quick draw to the abseil loop of your harness and the other end
to the rope through the runners. Photo 49 shows this clearly.
As your partner lowers you down you will almost certainly
need to pull yourself along the rope and in towards the next
 Connect to harness
48 Two anchors rigged for abseil retreat. For re-rigging lower
off anchors the same principle applies but clip in a maillon or
old krab into the lower loop.
49 De-rigging an overhanging climb. The quick draw
attachment helps maintain contact with the rock.
344 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls

quick draw to be undipped. If the rock is really overhanging,

it may not be that easy to achieve and any strength that you
have left after the climb may wane rapidly just getting the gear
out!
When you do make contact with the runner try, if you can,
to unclip the quick draw directly from the bolt first, rather than
take the rope out. It is likely that you will be holding on tightly
to the quick draw, relying on it to hold you in position. If you
unclip the rope from the quick draw first and let go of it, the
chances are that you will swing out of reach entirely.
The technique requires a bit of practice as it is largely a
matter of dexterity, massive strength and quick reaction. Pull
yourself in as close as you can to the rock and at the moment
you are about to swing out again there will be a milli-second
when the quick draw is slack - this is the moment to unclip it.
Once released from the bolt, you'll then swing out again into
space. If it proves impossible to unclip, you may have to get
back on to the rock and release some tension from the rope
before you can unclip.
On really overhanging routes you can continue in this way
until you reach the last one - in effect, the first that you placed
on the ascent. Unclipping from this requires a bit of careful
thought. The quick draw that you used to connect yourself to
the rope through the runners may have to be released. If you
unclip the last quick draw from the bolt without doing this the
forces on your belayer will be considerable and may pull them
off the ground and, as you swing out, the second could be
dragged with you.
Take, for example, the following scenario of a climb that
overhangs about 3-4 m (10-15 ft) over its length. The climb begins
on a large ledge, below which is a vertical drop of about 10 m
(30-35 ft). The second fails to unclip from the lowering rope that
runs through the quick draws on the bolts, unclips from the
final bolt and takes the b-i-i-i-g swing. The leader is unable to
hold the force of the swing and both swing out into the void.
 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls 345

Neither climber is able to regain contact with the rock and they
are both left suspended in space without sufficient rope to
lower to the ground because the climb used up just under half
the rope length, leaving sufficient to regain the ledge but not
enough to allow for the extra height of hanging over the crag
below the ledge. This is based on a true story!
The problem was solved easily enough, but consider the
implications of the second being unable to retain control of the
belay device and there being no safety knot in the end of the
rope to prevent it sliding through completely. These are lessons
learnt the hard way!

CLIMBING WALL SAFETY

Climbing walls are accessible to all. Their creation is possibly

one of the most important developments in climbing history.
The number of users increases annually and just about every
major conurbation is served by one. Many people who visit
walls may only ever climb on walls and may even only try it
once. Some will obviously become smitten and progress to
climbing outdoors on sport routes and eventually, one would
hope, on to traditional climbing.
Because so many users are novices in every respect, includ¬
ing aspects of safety, it is not uncommon to witness a variety
of appalling lapses of concentration and rope technique at an
indoor climbing venue. It is surprising that so few people are
injured seriously. The fact that there are injuries at all is to be
lamented, particularly as many indoor accidents can be
prevented.
Shoddy belaying technique is perhaps the most commonly
witnessed aspect of poor safety technique - particularly when
safeguarding someone who is leading a climb.
As with any type of climbing, you are at most risk from
injury if you take a fall, either seconding, or particularly
leading, close to the ground and most importantly, before you
346 Sport Climbs and Climbing Walls

have the first runner clipped. It is a good idea to use an easy

way up the first few moves if they are difficult, and clip into
the first protection point. You can then descend and try the
early hard moves in safety. The delayer should stand close in
to the bottom of the wall and as close to the line of the climb
without being directly underneath it. If you belay from a
distance away from the wall, a falling leader may exert enough
force to drag you in towards the foot of the climb. This principle
applies equally in 'proper' climbing. In doing so the leader will
increase the length of their fall significantly and may hit the
ground as a consequence.
The same principle applies as the leader progresses up the
climb, though the higher they climb the less chance there is of
hitting the ground if a fall occurs. Furthermore, if there are
people in the way, milling around at the bottom of the wall or
on a climb close by, they might be injured by a falling climber
or by a delayer crashing into them.
It is all too easy to be distracted at an indoor venue. Your
partner might stop by for a chat, your attention might be
captivated by someone doing something hard that you want to
do, or you might just aimlessly spend your belaying moments
looking around and people watching. Such lapses of concen¬
tration on the task in hand might prove to be a catalyst for an
accident. It is therefore vitally important to pay close attention
at all times.
For this reason you would do well to consider using a belay
device designed specifically to make holding a fall much easier.
These devices and their methods of application are discussed
in Chapter 8.
Consider, too, the weight to weight ratio of the climbing
pair. A slight person, weighing in at around 50 kilos (112 lb), will
not have much chance of holding a bulkier person of, say, 80 kilos
(180,1b) if they take a big fall. Better to ask someone to hold them
down or if available, clip them in to an anchor point in the floor or
at the base of the wall.
 Sport Clirrrbs and Climbing Walls 347

Anyone who takes along a novice to a climbing wall for the

first time should spend a good while teaching the rudiments of
belaying before embarking on climbs. Many walls now insisf
fhat begirmers take a short, usually half-hour, session before
being lef loose on the wall. This is time well spent. In this
session not only must you introduce tying on knots and how
to operate a belay device, it is also worthwhile giving novices
the opportunity to hold a small fall and to lower a climber
using a belay device.
 8 Belaying, Double Rope
Technique and Hanging
Stances
BELAYING - LOOKING AFTER THE LEADER
I'm not very good at taking leader falls - I think it has
something to do with being brought up on the old ethos 'a
leader never falls' or, much more likely. I'm scared to death of
flying. A leader who never falls is an uncommon creafure these
days. In times gone by, before all the trappings of modern
protection equipment, a leader simply couldn't afford to fall. If
they did it could result in serious injury or much worse.
Nowadays it is a somewhat different matter, provided, of
course, your runners are sound, you have the nerve to do it
and there's someone reliable holding your ropes.
The leader is totally dependant on a good second who is
attentive to needs, manipulating the rope, and who can offer
moral support in times of stress. It is not always an easy job
and, until you are used to handling ropes and understand the
principles of what is required of you, it can be something of a
tortuous task.
There are a few basic safety principles to consider. Firstly,
make sure that you have a secure stance. Many climbers don't
bother to anchor themselves at the start of the climb. In normal
circumstances this is perfectly OK, but if you are standing on
grormd that is less than comfortably flat you should consider
some sort of anchor to reduce the possibility that you might
accidentally stumble backwards and pull the leader off.
If a leader falls off, the second will be subjected to an upward
pulling force. The level of this force will be dependant on many
different factors. For example, if the rope is rurming fairly
straight up the cliff and the climb is at least verhcal, there
 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances 349

could be a considerable force generated. A second who is

substantially lighter than the leader may well be lifted upwards
and might even be lifted a long way off the ground. On the
other hand, the force felt by the second may well be insignifi¬
cant on a climb that meanders around a bit, on which the
leader places lots of runners that introduce friction into the
system, and is less than vertical, where the fall would be a
sliding one.
By far the worst fall that I have ever taken was on a climb
called Flashdance on the slate. The climb is quite serious, in
that there are few good runners and you have to do a long
rising traverse away from small wires. Nearing the end of the
traverse things became a little worrying as the realisation
dawned on me that a fall might result in hitting the ground.
You just have to dispel such worries and commit yourself.
Quite by surprise, both my feet slipped at the same time and I
found myself sliding earthwards, fingers burning on the slab.
The top runner pulled out of the crack and a crash into the
ground seemed inevitable. Quick thinking on the part of my
second saved the day. By running down the hill he was able to
reduce the length of the fall which was a sliding one and
relatively slow (!) and I stopped about a couple of metres from
the ground. If he'd been anchored to the cliff I would certainly
have hit the ground. I didn't go back up for another try!
This example does not mean that it's advisable always to
remain unanchored at the bottom of a climb. Rather it is a
lesson which might be put to good use on another occasion.
Paying out the rope can be very trying. It isn't so bad if you
are climbing on single rope but double ropes are something
altogether different. A good second should always try to
anticipate when and how much rope the leader is likely to
need and when they will need it. I have often watched seconds
who don't even pay out the rope at all, relying on the leader
actually to drag it through the belay device. If the leader
doesn't complain, it's not a problem, but it's much better to
350 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

give a small loop of slack all the time - not too much though.
If you are a leader yourself you will appreciate more the
demands that being on the sharp end place upon the climber
and should be more sympathetic to the cause.
Leading a climb can become an all absorbing task. When this
happens the leader will rely on the second to pay out the right
amount of rope at exactly the moment it is needed. Obviously,
it helps to anticipate this need if you can see the leader. A
leader who is finding things a bit difficult will often become
fairly abusive if the second doesn't pay out enough rope at the
crucial moment. This is particularly true on hard moves where
protection is needed to bolster failing nerve and waning
strength. There's nothing worse than trying to drag up the rope
to clip it in to a runner and discovering that you can't get
enough of it from the second. The worst case is when you
almost have enough rope to reach the clip and no more is
forthcoming. After a few choice words you are forced to drop
the rope for fear that you can't hang on with one hand any
more. This, of course, leaves a huge amount of slack in the
system which you hope and pray will be taken back in quickly
by the second - a nightmare scenario!
Manipulating a rope through a belay device is relatively
straightforward for single rope. Remember that you must at all
times keep a grip on the locking rope or dead rope. To make
things a little easier when you're using two ropes consider the
following advice. Always hold the two dead ropes in a closed
grip which is slackened, but not released when you need to
pay one of the ropes but not the other. The hand that operates
the live ropes can be moved freely around and can let go of
one rope to pull the other if required. Photos 50 and 51 illustrate
a suggested technique. Photo 51 shows a method of maintain¬
ing ^ gnp nn one rope whilst paying out the other - something
to strive for!
Whether you are climbing on double or single rope you
should make sure that the rope is in a neat pile and will run
50 Paying out double rope to a leader, one rope at a time.
51 When you become more adept, you can hold both whilst
paying out one.
 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances 353

smoothly. The all too familiar cry from a second to the leader
of 'can you hang on a minute while I sort out this tangle' ought
to be an unnecessary one.
The Gri Gri is an excellent device for belaying a leader,
though it can of course only be used with single rope. Its only
slight disadvantage is that it is heavy to carry. But as it is most
commonly used on climbing walls and for sport climbing, this
is not really a valid criticism. The device locks automatically
when a load is put on the rope. It does this by a very simple
cantilever action which grips the rope in a sleeve. There is a
handle to release the grip on the rope and this has to be backed
up by gripping the dead rope in one hand when lowering.
Paying out the rope to the leader is very straightforward and
there can be no excuses for not giving enough at the right time!
Occasionally the rope will jam if you try to pull it through too
quickly. To alleviate this problem make sure that when you
want to give rope to the leader you lift the dead or controlling
rope above the device (photo 52).
Many people operate the device by gripping the lever which
prevents it activating whilst paying out rope, hoping that if the
leader falls there will be enough force to activate the locking
mechanism (photo 53). In most cases this may work but the
certain exception to this is in a slow fall where not much force
is felt by the second. The rope can run through the device
alarmingly quickly. It should be pointed out that, although this
method is used by many climbers, it is not something that the
manufacturer recommends.
There are a number of other belay devices available that to a
large extent have superseded the original Sticht plate. These
devices work much more efficiently in that they are much less
prone to jamming accidentally during use.
We will consider, briefly, some of them here.
The Black Diamond ATC (air traffic controller), the DMM
BUG and the HB SHERIF, all work in a similar way and are
used exactly as you would use the old Sticht plate. (See vol.
52 The Gri Gri - paying out the rope to the leader.
53 The Gri Gri - the alternative method of paying out rope to
a leader.
 356 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

one, page 54.) There are idiosyncrasies to each. If you are using
8mm twin ropes, as you might on a big route to save on
weight, the ATC does not operate efficiently if you have to
hold a leader fall. You really have to grip the ropes tightly even
to hold the weight of a climber. The manufacturer recommends
that the device should be used on 9 mm (% in) and 10.5 mm
('Yaa in) ropes, with which it does work extremely well.
The BUG has quite tight holes for the rope in comparison to
others. This makes it a very efficient holding device but it can be a
problem gethng an 11 mm (Vu in) static abseil rope through the
holes. This is a consideration if you use static ropes to gain
access by abseil to climbs on sea cliffs for example, or on Big
Wall routes. Once the rope is through the device it does operate
perfectly smoothly.
Another interesting device that works along the same prin¬
ciples is the Wild Country Variable Controller. The wedge
profile permits two levels of friction braking. If you thread the
rope through so that the controlling rope is on the thin end of
the wedge you achieve maximum braking effect. This should
always be used for belaying a climber, the leader particularly.
By having the controlling rope out of the thick side of the
wedge the braking power is reduced by a fraction. This is
useful for abseiling on double ropes, in particular where
friction generated through the device may hinder smooth
descent. In all other respects the VC is used exactly as you
would any other device of this kind.
Photos 54 and 55 show each of the devices. Photos 56, 57, 58
and 59 show a sequence of taking in the rope when belaying a
second. The methods of locking off a belay device illustrated
in vol. one are still applicable and photos 60, 61 and 62 show
another method that has become popular in recent years. With
this method you do have to be very careful not to let any rope
slip through the device as you are tying it off and again when
releasing it whilst under load.
54 Belay devices.
 358 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

Another device for belaying is also illustrated in photo 54.

This is called the Single Rope Controller (SRC) and is also
manufactured by Wild Country. The instructions that accom¬
pany the device suggest that a good deal of practice is required
before you can be sure that the device can be operated
efficiently - and there is a specific warning to experienced
climbers who think they know everything! The warning is
justified. It does take a bit of time to get used to but, having
spent that time, the device is a tool worth using. Paying out
the rope quickly to a leader who needs rope desperately is
quite awkward to begin with. Taking in is very easy, as is
lowering.
The way it works is quite clever. The rope will run freely in
and out of the device when you need to take in or pay out but
as soon as a load is put on the rope, a cantilever motion,
instigated by the tensioning of the rope, forces the karabiner
into the slot and jams the rope between a fixed bar and the
krab. It is important to remember that the rope does not jam
solid and if you let go of the controlling rope whilst under
load, it will run through the device. This is an important aspect
of use, that must be clearly understood. The device is suitable
for use on climbing walls, top and bottom roping for groups,
sport climbing and also for traditional climbing when using
single ropes.
With all of the belay devices mentioned, and others that
aren t, you 11 need plenty of time to get used to operating them
safely and correctly. If you don't mind clocking up a few hours
of flying time on well protected climbs you'll give the second
plenty of belaying practice.
55 Belay devices.
56 Taking m: Stage 1. Reach down with the live hand, pull up
and pull through with the control hand at the same time.
57 Taking in: Stage 2. Lock off the controlling rope.
58 l ake live hand off the live rope and hold control rope with
both hands. ^
59 Move control hand to below live hand and go back to
Stage 1.
60 Tying off a belay device: Stage 1.
61 Tying off a belay device: Stage 2.
62 Tying off a belay device: Stage 3.
 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances 367

HANGING STANCES
Lower grade climbs are usually blessed with large holds and
commodious ledges for stances, big chunky runners aplenty
and reassuringly solid anchors. As you progress to higher
grades things become much less friendly and very much
smaller. There is little solace to be found for a troubled mind
and weary body on a tiny cramped stance at the end of a long
poorly protected pitch. Neither will you find much relief on a
hanging stance high above the groimd, secured to your airy
perch by numerous small wires, each relying on the other to
take their share of the precious load they bear. Nor will you
derive much pleasure from the whole experience when your
ropes become snarled up in a crack far below you, or they drop
into the sea or mysteriously form an unfathomable knot that
no text book would ever condone.
But 1 make it sound far too unattractive! The gnarly experi¬
ences are mercifully few but, as any honest climber will testify,
they do happen from time to time. Tiny stances and hanging
belays need not turn into a nightmare of tangled ropes and
awkward change-overs, provided that you arrange them meth¬
odically and work neatly.
On any small stance you will generally find it more comfort¬
able to take some of your body weight directly on to the
anchor; on a hanging stance you are, of course, forced to place
yourself entirely on the anchor. Even the tiniest of ledges on
which you can get a foothold will help to relieve some of the
discomfort of hanging around for a long time. Modern sport
climbing harnesses are not designed for such prolonged
periods of hanging about and leg loops and waist belt will cut
into places that you never knew could be so sensitive. Make
sure that you keep adjusting your position so that cramp
doesn't set in for, if it does, on the first few moves of the
following pitch you will be moving as fluidly as a wooden
marionette.
 368 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

Where and how to store the ropes on a small cramped stance

presents the biggest problem. As a general rule for most
situations try not to let it drop down the crag. If you are on the
edge of an overhang and the cliff is undercut below you, so
that the ropes will simply hang in space, there is little chance
that they will get snagged on anything. They may get a bit
tangled particularly if there is a strong wind blowing, but at
least you are unlikely to get them jammed. The only other time
that it's safe to let them drop down the crag is if the rock below
you is smooth and clear of flakes or spikes that might lure the
rope causing the most hideous kind of jam. In the worst case
you may be forced to descend to clear the stuck rope. If your
leader is part way up a pitch, maybe on the crux of the climb
and you shout up to tell them of the predicament, they will
certainly not be very impressed.
Better to avoid the scenario altogether. There are a number
of ways to store the rope on small stances or hanging belays.
The simplest to use is to lap the rope over your feet - if you
can keep them in contact with the rock (photo 63). In most
cases this works very well. Keep the laps fairly short, say a
maximum of 3-5 m (10-15 ft) on either side. If you make them too
short there will be so many laps that they could become
entangled with themselves, worse than that though they don't
support themselves and will keep sliding off. Once one goes
the rest usually follow with ever increasing rapidity until you
find yourself in the situation you had hoped to avoid! The only
inconvenience with this method will be discovered as soon as
you want to adjust your foot position to a more comfortable
one. Some fancy foot juggling will be needed to prevent the
rope from slipping off entirely.
Another way to keep the rope secure is to lap the slack rope
over the attachment to the anchor, so that it sits up against
your body. Once again, make the laps about 3 m (10 ft) long, or
longer if the way is clear below you. As with the previous
system, there is an inconvenience. In this case it makes hand-
63 Hanging stance with the rope lapped around the feet.
370 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

ling of the belay device fairly awkward and will need consider¬
able practice to perfect. Photos 64 and 65 show a way to do this.
Notice that the rope is stored in between the belay device and
the rock - it is much easier to let it run off without snagging.
You can lap the spare rope over spikes or flakes that are
close to the stance in a similar way or you can lap it in your
hands and then clip it to the anchor with a long sling. Clip one
end of the sling into a separate krab on the anchor, pass the
sling under the laps and then clip the other end into the krab.
This has the great advantage of keeping the rope well out of
the way. This method is particularly useful at the start of a
climb on a sea cliff where there may not be a ledge onto which
you can uncoil the rope.
Whichever system you use to lap the ropes, it is worth
making each lap slightly shorter than the previous. This will
ensure that the loops of rope do not get snagged on each other
and everything will run much more smoothly (photo 66). With
all the slack rope piled around you in one of the above
methods, change-overs at stances may be troublesome. If you
are sharing leads with your partner the rope need not be
changed around because their end of the rope should run
smoothly off the lapping. It probably won't, but that's life! If,
on the other hand, you are not swapping leads you will
definitely need to run the rope through so that your end is
back on the top of the pile. It's good advice not to simply lift
off the laps and hand them to your second. Much better to feed
it lap by lap to your belayer who can then arrange it neatly.
In order to effect this as efficiently as possible try to ensure
that the stance is well organised and prepared for the arrival of
the second. This means having something for them to clip into
directly on gaining the stance. If you have a number of different
anchor points try bringing them altogether to form one central
point of attachment. See methods of bringing anchors to one
point in Chapter 2, pages 238 and 239, photos 2 and 3, and vol.
one, page 122, photo 55.
64 Rope lapped over tie in to anchor on hanging stance.
65 Rope lapping between belay device and ropes to the
anchor.
 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances 373

One of the most worrying aspects of a hanging stance, or any

cramped stance, is the thought that your second might fall off
and the load will come directly on to you. Inevitably, on such
stances you are more than likely to be facing into the crag. It is
more comfortable to hold a second if you are facing out from
the crag but this is rarely achievable when most of your weight
is directly on to the anchors. You might be able to run the rope
to your second down between your legs. In doing so, if the
second falls off, the loading is likely to come directly on to the
anchor. But there are many circumstances where this is simply
neither convenient nor possible.
A useful trick is to rim the live rope through a runner above
you. Obviously this must be a hundred per cent solid runner,
as it will need to bear pretty much the full force of a falling
second (photo 67). If your anchor is absolutely bombproof, and
only if, you can rim the rope through a separate karabiner
attached directly to the whole anchor. In both cases any loading
on you as the belayer will come from an upwards direction
and the extra friction created by the rope running through the
krab will greatly reduce the load you have to hold. It is
important to remember here that the krab through which the
second's rope will run sits perfectly perpendicular to the rock.
If it naturally lies flat against the rock, pulling the rope through
it will create a twisting action that will result in a kinked and
tangled climbing rope. It basically twists the inner core of the
rope inside the sheath and can ruin an otherwise perfectly
good rope.
On leaving a hcmging stance it is very important that the
leader places a running belay as soon as possible. If no decent
runner is available, consider using one of the anchors as the
first runner. A leader who falls directly on to the belayer can
easily generate a fall factor of 2 (see page 305).
It is important to take time out to practise these suggestions
before you get yourself into a really scary position. This can be
done on any smallish stance on easier climbs, even though you
66 The principle of rope lapping using ever decreasing
lengths of lap.
67 Taking in through a runner on a hanging stance. Make sure
it's a good one!
376 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

might be able to stand comfortably and have enough room to

coil the rope on the ledge. Just remember to be neat and
methodical!

DOUBLE ROPE TECHNIQUE

In the first volume of Modern Rope Techniques I briefly discussed

some of the principles of double rope technique. British climb¬
ers are probably amongst the few nationalities in the climbing
world that use double ropes for the vast majority of their
climbing whether on rock or snow and ice.
There are distinct advantages in using two ropes to safe¬
guard a climb. The most vaunted advantage is that it is better
in terms of arranging protection. A climb that zig-zags its way
up the rock face will be a problem to protect if using a single
rope because, inevitably, you will need runners in places that
create angles in the way that the rope runs. Not only will this
increase the friction and make the rope difficult to drag up the
pitch, it will also heighten the possibility that some runners
may be pulled out if the leader, or second for that matter, takes
a fall.
Using double ropes allows the leader to place protection off
to one side of the climb and, by careful management, arrange
the ropes to run in relatively straight lines. It also makes it
easier to protect traverses for both leader and second with
adequate runner placements and reduced rope drag.
There are other advantages. Psychologically it makes things
feel a lot safer. You know when you are pulling up the rope to
make a critical clip into a runner, that you are not increasing
the likelihood of a longer fall if you are unfortunate enough to
fall off whilst attempting the clip.
It also makes retreating from a climb or abseiling off con¬
siderably more efficient in that you are able to abseil the full
length of the rope if need be. Using single ropes only permits
an abseil of half the full rope's length.
 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances 377

Tying into anchors is also more straightforward. If you have

two anchors, one rope can be tied into each, and even third
and fourth anchors are simpler to attach to. This offers added
security to the climb.
Belaying is only a little more complex (see page 348) and
with a little practice can quickly be mastered.
You do need to be a little more attentive to the way in which
the ropes are organised to avoid complicated and annoying
twists developing. It is very easy to set off on a climb with the
ropes running perfectly but by pitch three have them in such a
tangle that the only solution is to untie from one and pull it
through the twists. Lots of twists will also have an effect on
running belays. If the twists run a couple of metres up the rope
in front of you when you are seconding there is a chance that
they might pull out runners as the leader takes in. If these
runners are critical, on a traverse for example, it may induce a
greater feeling of insecurity than might be desired.
Twists are introduced into the system every time you turn a
complete circle. Tie in to two ropes and see what happens
when you spin around three or four times. Imagine doing this
whilst on a climb or particularly on a stance and you will soon
realise how those twists develop so 'mysteriously'. Being aware
of the problem goes a long way to preventing it happening in
the first instance.
Try to make sure that you run the ropes through at the end
of each pitch. Do them individually if you can be bothered or
at least together and separate them by running one finger in
between each rope as you do so. If twists are apparent one of
you can spin around to unravel them. Don't do it too fast or
you'll get dizzy and fall off the ledge!
Take a good look at the pitch before you set off and plan
where you hope to place runners and which rope you will use
where. A moment's planning pays dividends in the long run.
Double ropes provide considerably safer opportunities to
protect both leader and second on traverses. Using a single
378 Belaying, Double Rope Technique and Hanging Stances

rope may require you to miss out using a crucial runner

because to place it would create too much friction or pull out
other more critical runners. Such problems can be avoided by
extending runners with long slings to decrease the angles
through which the rope runs, but doing so sometimes means
that a fall may be longer than you would like. Double ropes
permit better use of runners in such situations and, though
sometimes runners may need to be extended, the occasions are
far fewer.
68 Traditional method of ascending a fixed rope. Note that the
foot ascendeur is connected back to the harness.
9 Ascending a Fixed Rope
In vol. one the techihques of ascending a fixed rope were
discussed briefly. Though all that was said remains valid, there
are one or two further suggestions worth making.
Whenever you have a need to ascend a fixed rope other than
in an improvised rescue scenario, you should consider using
some kind of a mechanical ascending device. Such devices not
only offer increased security but they are also much more
efficient to use.
Occasions that demand the use of mechanical devices
include those in which an instructor is teaching a student to
lead and those where you are on a multi-day climb that
requires you to descend and re-ascend on several occasions.
Both these require a slightly different approach to the method
in which you attach yourself to the devices.
For ascending a fixed rope when climbing on big walls, it is
advisable to connect yourself via the sit harness to both devices
as a sensible safety measure. Photo 68 shows a suggested
method of doing this. You would be well advised to use a
chest harness connected to the sit harness and to link the two
together to form on central point of attachment. This will make
long ascents considerably more comfortable and provides a
better positioned point of attachment if you have a heavy load
on your back.
The length of the safety back up attachment to the foot
ascendeur is fairly critical and should be adjusted so as not to
impede the distance that you can move the foot ascendeur up
the rope for maximum efficiency.
There are a large number of devices available for ascending
a fixed rope. Those that incorporate a handle are the most
comfortable to use over a long period of time. Lighter versions
are also available that do not feature a handle and are worth
considering for short sections of ascent. Petzl is perhaps the
 Ascending a Fixed Rope 381

most well known brand name and offers a range of devices

which will suit any situation you are likely to encounter.
The Croll is an interesting device that is designed to connect
between a sit harness and a chest harness. Photo 69 shows how
the Croll should be used. It is a very efficient device in that
there is no need to move it up the rope by hand. As you stand
up in the foot loop the device slides along the rope. It is
important to fix the Croll securely at both ends, the top to a
chest harness and the bottom to the sit harness. Ensure that
there is very little slack in the connection. This will help it to
operate as efficiently as it is designed to do. Another important
development is the Ropeman from Wild Country. This remar-
akable little device is incredibly simple to use and offers a
degree of safety and efficiency unsurpassed for its diminutive
appearance. It weighs only a few grammes and can be carried
easily in place of a prusik loop, over which it has considerable
advantage, particularly in aspects of safety. Photo 70 shows the
Ropeman attached to the rope. As a device to use in emergency
prusiking, such as crevasse or crag rescues, it is particularly
useful.
If the rock is low-angled where you can support a good deal
of your body weight on your feet, you need only attach yourself
to the Ropeman via the abseil loop on your harness. Make the
attachment fairly short. As you step up the rock face, take hold
of the fixed rope below the device and pull it upwards. The
rope will run smoothly through the Ropeman and you can feel
secure, knowing that you are able to lean back on it at any time
and it will lock on the rope.
If you have two devices and the ground is much steeper,
attach to the top Ropeman via your harness and use the bottom
one for a foot loop. Don't make the connection to the sit harness
too long, about level with your chest is plenty. The foot loop
attachment should be as short as you can comfortably stand up
in. Move the top Ropeman up by sliding your hand under the
cam and pushing it back so that it releases.
69 Ascending a rope using a Croll. The Croll must be firmly
attached to a chest harness of some sort.
70 The Wild Country Ropeman - a superb little device.
384 Ascending a Fixed Rope

To move the foot one up, keep a little tension on the device
and take hold of the rope below the device. By pulling upwards
on the rope the Ropeman will slide up perfectly.
There is no reason why the Ropeman could not be used by
instructors teaching lead climbing (see page 300), instead of a
more traditional type of ascendeur. The grip on the rope is just
as efficient and the strength of the device as adequate. If you
are not happy to do this, it can be used as a back up to another
ascending device by placing it above the main ascendeur and
connecting the two together with a karabiner.
 \
71 Ascending a fixed rope. When carrying a big pack always
wear a chest harness.
 10 Retreating from Climbs
Just as there will be success on climbs, there will also be
failures. Learning to cope with failing on a climb is a difficult
thing, particularly if the route is one you've aspired to, dreamt
about doing and sought as much information on as you can.
Talking about failure seems a very negative thing but when
you're out on your own having to make decisions about
backing off a route, it takes on monumental importance.
One of my early failures on a climb was on a route at the
Roaches when I was at college in Buxton. I was the only
climber on our course and keen to encourage others to climb
so that I would always have partners to go out with. I can't
remember for the life of me the name of the climb but it was
away left of the Sloth area. It was a bleak and miserable
autumn day with a fine drizzle dampening everything but our
enthusiasm. Not having a guidebook, we scoured the crag for
likely looking easy lines and found one that looked possible. It
began reasonably enough but the rock was slimy and cold.
About 10 m (30-35 ft) or so off the ground, maybe less, further
progress became a matter for bravery that I was unable to
muster and I decided to retreat.
I had put a sling around an almost horizontal spike of rock
for protection and worked out that, if I took that off, I could
put the rope around it and be lowered off by the guys holding
the rope below. They didn't know how to use a waist belay so
all three of them just held on to the rope. All went well until
about 3 m (10 ft) off the ground when one of them noticed the
rope gradually creeping off the spike. We stopped and pon¬
dered our next move and decided that it would probably be
OK until I reached the ground. Of course, it wasn't - just as
soon as they resumed lowering me it popped right off. I fell
dowxi on top of my companions and all four of us tumbled and
rolled down the muddy slope in a tangled heap with much
 Retreating from Climbs 387

mirth and merriment. Only one of them ever went climbing

again after that. Another instructional success!
Retreating off a pitch when you're part way up and have
reached the point where you can get no further can be quite
harrowing. If you have a good runner you may well decide to
lower off that and then let your partner make an attempt. If he
or she doesn't fancy having a go at leading the pitch you'll
either have to down climb taking out all the runners as you
descend or, if the prospect of down climbing is too daunting,
you'll need to lower off a piece of gear, or even two connected
together.
This may present you with a bit of a dilemma on two counfs.
One is of pride. Anything you leave behind is a reminder of
your failure and a symbol of a failure for others to gloat upon.
The other is the loss of an expensive piece of equipment that
might have been hard to come by. Put both out of your mind,
for the thing that matters most of all is fhat you get off safely
and return to climb another day.
When being lowered off you should always be lowered with
the rope running through a karabiner. Never be tempted to run
the rope through a nylon sling or through the wire of a nut.
Nylon has a very low melting point and with the added weight
and the friction of the rope running over a nylon sling it is
possible to generate sufficient heat to melt through the sling.
Lowering through a wire doesn't create the same problems but
the rope will not run smoothly over such a tiny radius and you
may well damage the climbing rope - a much more expensive
item of gear to replace.
It is far better to leave behind a krab. It need not be one of
your best though - in fact make sure it isn't. It's quite a good
idea to carry your nut key on an old krab which you could use
for just such a purpose. Although you might lose a nut or a
sling at least you'll feel that that's all you've lost.
If you are part way up a multi-pitch climb, say on the third
pitch, once you've been lowered back to the stance you'll then
388 Retreating from Climbs

need to find an escape route that is considerably easier or, if

none exist, retreat to the gromid by abseil.
It is quite likely you'll need to leave gear behind on each
abseil. If you can get back to the ground in one long abseil,
then all is well and good and you'll lose only minimal gear. If,
on the other hand, you're too high off the ground to do this,
you'll need to go down in stages. Unless you have a clear view
of where to go and can see likely places to use as staging posts,
it may be safer to retreat down the line of ascent. This becomes
less preferable if the route you climbed weaves its way all over
the crag.
When you retreat by abseil in this way there is no need to
leave a krab behind on each anchor. The rope will be doubled
through the anchor and will only run over the nylon sling
when you retrieve it. At this point you no longer need the sling
and so any heat generated that might melt the sling is of little
consequence. Of course, you may not have to leave anything
behind if there are suitable rock spikes to abseil off, or maybe
trees. If you use spikes in this way make sure that the first
person down tests the rope to see that it will pull around the
spike before the last person sets off. If it doesn't, you may well
have to leave a bit of gear in place to make the retrieval of the
rope less troublesome.
On long multi-pitch descents off big routes, and particularly
the most popular ones, you may find that all the equipment is
in place. There is a climb on the Grauewand for example, just
above the Furka Pass in Switzerland, where the abseil descent
has been rigged with two large ring bolts connected with a
plate that has an eye in the end for clipping in to. This is the
most luxurious of pre-set rap stations. Many others may feature
in-situ gear connected with a chain or with slings. Regardless
of the set-up each should be checked before you use them,
rather tlian blindly trusting to them.
In the case of all metal anchors there is very little that can go
wrong, unless of course they are old and rusted through.
 Retreating from Climbs 389

Slings, however are a very different matter. Nylon deteriorates

over a period of time when exposed to the UV rays of the sun.
Any piece of in-situ gear that is faded ought to be treated with
suspicion. To check the degree of fading unravel a bit of the
knot and see what the original colour of the sling was.
Similarly, if the rope is to be threaded through the sling
directly, some heat will be generated when ropes are pulled
through during retrieval. This heat may cause some melting of
the nylon and this could weaken the sling considerably.
If you need to replace the sling do so with careful consider¬
ation not just to how you will use it but also how others might
use it in the future. Normally at least two anchors will be used.
When connecting the two make sure that you arrange the sling
so that, if one were to fail, your abseil rope will nof detach
itself from the other. Photo 48 ^hows a suggested set-up. There
are other ways to connect the two to one point and the
principles remain the same for whafever method you choose.
I once, to the horror of my partner, suggested that we abseil
off a lace from my rock boot. It was 4mm nylon boot lace and
we did thread it through the peg about eight times before
joining the ends together. Nonetheless, when I think back on it
now it was a pretty stupid thing to have done, even abseiling
off one old peg was daft enough. It came down to the fact that
I didn't want to leave anything of value behind.
From then on, to cope with such eventualities in the future, I
began carrying a couple of short prusik loops made up of 6mm
accessory cord — and have been doing ever since. Boot laces
aren't what they used to be anyway ...
Retreating off bolted climbs when you fail can be a bit
troublesome. Bolt hangers that allow you to clip in two
karabiners at the same time, or even to thread a rope through,
are much more convenient to retreat from wifhout leaving gear
behind. Take the most simplistic scenario; a bolt climb with
large ring bolts or DMM Eco anchors. With these it is a simple
enough matter to clip yourself fo the bolt with a short cow's
 390 Retreating from Climbs

tail attachment made up from a quick draw. Secure the

climbing rope to your harness and then untie from fhe end of
the rope. Thread the end through the bolt and tie back on. Ask
your partner belaying you to take all your weight on the
climbing rope and then unclip the cow's tail from the bolt.
Some jiggling of krab and rope may be needed but this is easily
accomplished. You can then be lowered through the bolt and
collect the other quick draws on the way down.
If you are climbing a sport route that has any other type of
hanger you have bigger problems and will need to leave
something behind to lower off, though if the crag is easily
accessed from above, you can simply nip around to the top
and abseil down to retrieve the lost runner. Or you might be
able to ask the next person to climb the route if they would
kindly get it back for you.
If neither of the above solutions is possible you should leave
a krab behind on the bolt and be lowered off that. You may be
loathe to leave a good krab behind, in which case you must
take one that you are prepared to leave, unclip the quick draw
and then clip the disposable krab into the bolt hanger, with the
climbing rope already clipped in. To do this you'll need to
have enough strength to hold yourself on the rock whilst re¬
arranging the gear.
Another way to retreat is to clip yourself into the bolt with a
cow s tail. Take a short length of cord/prusik loop and thread
it through the hanger. Take the climbing rope and tie the two
ends of the cord together, thus securing the rope. It is probably
advisable to thread the cord through twice so that you have
double the strength.
Next, pull the rope through, so that you have enough to
reach the ground or the stance below on the doubled rope.
Having done that you can attach yourself to both ropes in
preparation to abseil off. You will, of course, need a device to
descend on, normally your belay device. Once the abseil is
rigged you can untie from the end of the rope and let it drop
 Retreating from Climbs 391

to the ground. Unclip from the bolt and cow's tail attachment,
clear any other gear and descend. Photos 72, 73 and 74 show
the procedure.
This same principle can be applied to a retreat off any kind
of runner, provided, of course, that you are happy with the
placement!
72 Retreating from a single bolt or runner whilst still hanging
on it: Stage 1.
73 Retreating from a single bolt or runner whilst still hanging
on it: Stage 2.
74 Retreating from a single bolt or runner whilst still hanging
on it: Stage 3.
11 Miscellany
TENSIONING ROPES FOR A TYROLEAN OR SAFETY
LINE
In the first volume. Modern Rope Techniques, I suggested that
ropes could be tensioned using pulleys at each turning point in
the tensioning system. Whilst this makes it considerably easier
to attain the required tension, the pulleys used have a limi¬
tation to their breaking strength. This limitation is imposed by
the strength of the axle on which the pulley rotates.
If you do not have pulleys or those that you have do not fall
within acceptable safety margins, the teclmique illustrated in
photos 75, 76 and 77 is a perfectly good method of tensioning
ropes.
The Alpine butterfly knot is tied as far down the rope as
you can possibly reach. Try to make the loop formed by
the knot fairly small, just large enough to squeeze your fist
through.
Attach a screwgate karabiner. Take the rope from the knot
and pass it through a screwgate on the anchor, then take it
back to the Alpine butterfly krab and clip it in. You now have
a pulling system. It might require a number of people to pull
on the rope to achieve the required tension.
Once the rope is as tight as you need it to be, 'marry' the
ropes and then secure them by threading a bight of rope
through the krab at the anchor and tie a number of half hitches
around the three tensioned ropes. You can include the fourth if
you wish but there is really no need.
As stated in vol. one, it is important to try to use low-stretch
ropes for this type of work as they are considerably more
robust and capable of the loads exerted on them.
Over a period of use, some tension may be lost and you'll
need to re-tension the rope from time to time. This is effected
75 Tensioning ropes; Stage 1
76 Tensioning ropes: Stage 2.
77 Tensioning ropes: Stage 3: 'Marry' the ropes and
with half hitches.
 Miscellany 399

easily by releasing the half hitches whilst 'marrying' the ropes

together and then getting help to pull more tension into the
system. The Alpine butterfly will be extremely tight after use
and may be difficult to undo. If the ropeway has been used to
cross a river or a gorge and you need to get the rope across to
one side without getting it wet or without the risk of getting it
stuck around a rock or a tree, for example, the best way to do
it is as follows.
Decide which side the rope needs to end up on. On that side
take in all the rope until the person left on the other side has
only the end of rope to hold. Both sides then pull the rope until
there is tension in it, but only holding it in their hands. On a
pre-arranged signal the person on the opposite side lets go of
the rope and, in theory, it should go whistling over to the side
you want it to finish up on. Obviously, those receiving the rope
must be prepared for the sudden slackness otherwise they will
fall flat on their backsides - usually accompanied by much
mirth and merriment from onlookers.

SAFETY LINES FOR TRAVERSES

In any situation, such as a sea level traverse for example, where
you need to rig a horizontal safety line, those for whom the
line is rigged will need to have some method of clipping in.
There are various ways of doing this and the simplest is to clip
in with a sling attached to the harness.
It is vitally important that you consider carefully how the
line is rigged. For safety it is preferable not to have too much
slack in the system, otherwise the purpose of the line is
defeated. Clearly, the line is there to hold someone if they slip
off. To do this the line needs to have a reasonable amount of
tension in it, otherwise the fall could be considerably longer
than is desired and might lead to injury.
It is no good, therefore, to stretch a rope between two points
that are a long way apart, 20 m (65 ft) for example. In fact, I
 400 Miscellany

would venture to suggest that the maximum distance accept¬

able ought to be around the 6 m (20 ft) mark, particularly if you
are using climbing ropes to rig the safety line. Anyone loading
on a horizontally placed line will inevitably introduce consider¬
able stretch and this must be considered when rigging. Low
stretch ropes present less of a problem in this respect but
nonetheless the same considerations must be applied. You
must therefore, make sure that the rope is anchored securely
and at frequent intervals.
Anchors placed along the traverse would, ideally, be above
the line of travel. This is not always possible. Any anchors
placed on the line of travel should be placed so that they
cannot be lifted out accidentally. To this end you might need
to rig an upward pulling anchor to hold the downward pulling
one under tension, so that it remains solidly placed.
The knot that you use to attach the rope to each of these
anchors could either be an overhand, a figure eight or an
Alpine butterfly. It matters little, though the overhand, and
particularly the Alpine butterfly, are more suited to taking a
load in either direction.
The change-over at each anchor point is effected with greater
safety if you arrange a cow's tail similar to that shown in photo
78. By using this set-up you will be secure on one rope whilst
you clip into the next. As you arrive at an anchor the spare
cow's tail is clipped in and the screwgate secured before you
unclip from the other.
Not all safety lines rigged this way are horizontal. Inevitably
there will be sections of vertical ascent or descent. The Via
Ferrata of the Italian Alps are classic examples of this.
If you take a fall in ascent or descent you will obviously fall
as far as the anchor point below you. In some cases this might
be a considerable distance. The forces generated by such a fall
are enormous. For example, if the length of sling attachment is
1 m (3 ft) long and you fall 5 m (15 ft) the fall factor (see page 305)
is 5. It is made doubly worse by the fact that there is no shock
78 A simple cow's tail attachment for safety line traverses.
 402 Miscellany

absorption in the system. If the sling that attaches you to the

line doesn't break, your body is almost certain to.
There are a number of devices that are specifically designed
to absorb the shock of such a fall. The least complex of all is
the ZYPER from Petzl. This is a very simple set up constructed
of a length of rope with pre-formed loops in either end. Shock
absorption is effected by a simple twist through the link that is
attached to the harness. Basically, as the load comes on to the
lanyard, the rope slips gradually through the link, absorbing a
great deal of the shock load.
Such devices cannot be improvised easily from normal
climbing equipment.

RETRIEVABLE SINGLE ROPE ABSEIL

Quite when this technique may be useful is difficult to say

with any certainty. It's one of those things that may come in
useful sometime - like that bizarre tool stashed away in the
shed that'll come in handy if I never use it!
However, I did hear an interesting story from a mate of mine
who was climbing in Spain once. Arriving at the top of a multi¬
pitch climb, he waited to one side while the pair in front rigged
their abseil descent. The first climber went down and the
second climber attached himself to the rope to begin the
descent. As he leant backwards on to the rope my mate noticed
that he was only attached to one rope and frantically lunged
forward to save him, screaming, 'Stop, stop, you're only on one
rope!' The climber turned to him, slightly bemused by the
show of concern, and said, 'I know. My belay device will only
take one rope. He d rigged the rope out of sight of my mate
who wasn't able to see the whole set up. Photo 79 shows the
method clearly.
There are two vitally important considerations. The first is
that the ring or maillon or krab that the rope is threaded
through must not have too large a hole, otherwise the knot
 Abseil on
this rope!

79 Retrievable single rope abseil. Make sure that you abseil on

the correct rope!
404 Miscellany

might slip through as you descend. Whilst it will never become

entirely detached, it may become jammed in the hole or cause
confusion over which rope to pull.
Most important of all, though, is to ensure that you abseil on
the correct rope - the opposite side to that in which the knot is
tied. The consequences of going down on the wrong rope do
not bear thinking about.
 Glossary 407

Glossary of terms used in the text

Anchor
Point of security on a cliff. Can be anything from natural
chockstones to Friends. To secure oneself to the crag or moun¬
tain.

Assisted Evacuation
Rescuer evacuates a victim who is incapacitated and unable
to help in any useful way.

Assisted Hoist
Victim helps the rescuer to pull him/herself up the cliff.

Autohloc
A device that will lock around a rope and prevent
slippage when a load is applied to the rope in a particular
direction. It must also be capable of releasing itself when the rope
is pulled the opposite way.

Belaying
The way in which a climber’s rope is safeguarded whilst he
or she is climbing. For example a belay plate or an Italian hitch.

Central Loop
The loop that is formed by the climbing rope when it is tied
into a harness.

Dead Rope or Slack Rope

Any rope that does not have a climber directly on the end of
it.

Doubled Snaplinks
Two snaplinks clipped in with the gates on opposite sides
used for safety instead of a screwgate karabiner.
408 Glossary

Escape from the System

The technique of releasing oneself from the belay system
and end of rope whilst ensuring the safety of the climber you are
responsible for.

Hanging Hoist
The technique of relieving the the weight from the end of the
rope whilst someone is hanging on it.

In Situ
Abbreviation for in situation i.e. gear that is already in place.

Jumaring
Ascending a fixed rope using mechanical devices.

Load or Live Rope

Any rope that has a climber directly on the end of it.

Multiple Anchors
More than one anchor point.

Passing a Knot
The technique of passing the join of two ropes through an
abseiling or lowering device.

‘Prusik’
Any knot that will grip on to a thicker rope when a load is
applied.

Prusiking
Ascending a fixed rope with any kind of ‘prusik’ knot.

Safety Back-Up
A back-up system should the main system fail.
 Glossary 409

Stance
A ledge or place where one anchors oneself to belay a
climbing companion.

Tail end
The rope left over after tying a knot in the end of a rope.

Tie on loops
The loops of a harness through which the manufacturer
recommends the rope to be threaded to tie into the harness.

Tying Ojf
The technique of securing a rope that is part of a belaying,
abseiling or lowering system. It is also the method used to attach
to pitons, both ice and rock, that haven’t been inserted right up
to the hilt.

Tying On
Fixing a climbing rope to a harness. Also used with refer¬
ence to securing a climber to an anchor or anchor points.

Unassisted Hoist
The situation in which the rescuer hoists a victim who is
incapacitated and unable to help in any useful way.
a

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Index
Figures in italic indicate illustrations.

abseil tensioning, 236

accompanied, 253 tying in to, 115-23,116-17,
brakes, 129-32 119-20
choosing venues, 254-5 ascending
counter balance, 267-8,269, by fixed rope, 139-40,141,
270,271,273 142,379,380,385
escaping the system, 273 improvised methods, 143
figure of eight descendeur, autobloc see French prusik
124,125-6,127 ATC (Air Traffic Controller),
over bergschrund, 102 297,356
past a knot, 135-6,137
rack, 133 Bachman, 48,49
releasable, 255-7,256 belay
rescue scenarios, 257-61, boot, 103-9,105
260,178-9 counter balance, 321
retrievable single rope, devices, 248,253,285,297,
402-4,403 353-8,357, 359,364,365,
rope, 259 366
safety, 134-5, 255-7 direct, 317-21,320,322,326,
stacked, 283-8,286 327,328,329
Alpine butterfly, 39, 40,314, running, 304
395,399,300 shoulder, 66, 70,317
Alpine clutch, 52,53,143 stamper, 106,107
anchors waist, 65-6, 67, 68,69,317
on ice, 109-14 belay plate, 54,55,56,57-60,
lower off, 339-41 61,127,245
multiple, 121,122,236, New Alpine, 297,298, 299
237,239,241,290-91, belay system, 246-7
400 escape from, 144,145-7,
points, 234-43,290-91 148,150-51
on rock,90-95 belaying techniques, 54,
side tension, 244 174-5,177,233-4,243-7,
on snow, 95-109 296-7,348-58
 412 Index

bergschrund, crossing a, 102, direct rope connection, 115,

197-8 116
Black Diamond ATC, 297, DMM BUG, 297,353,356
353,356 double rope techniques, 88-9,
body harness, 87,88 376-8
bolts
climbing on, 332 escape problems, 144,145-7,
clipping, 333, 335-8 148-9,150-51,152-4
hangers, 338, 389-90 evacuation
bowlines, 28,29,30,31,32 assisted, 164-5,166-9,172
BUG, 297,353,356 descent, 170-71

central loop, 28 fall factor, 305,400

climbing figure of eight descendeur,
guided, 294 124,125,240,242,245,
in parallel, 294,295, 257,297
297-300 for abseiling, 126,127
in series, 294,300 for belaying, 61, 63,64
lead, teaching of, 300-304, figure of eight (knot), 33,34,
303,306 35-7,42,43
sport, 332-8 fisherman's knot
walls, 231,345-7 double, 22,23,25
clipping in, direct, 123 half, 42,43
clove hitch, 18,19-20,321, three quarters, 37, 38
324,325 French prusik, 48,50,51, 72,
cow's tail, 73,245,284,287, 134,138,202,248,257,
288,401 264,266-8,278-9,285
crevasses friction devices, 177
jumping, 196-7 Friend, 94
rescue from, 199-202,
203-5,207, 208, 209, glacier travel, 189,190,191,
210 193,196-8
Croll, 381,382 Gri Gri, 246,253, 353,354,355

Deadboy, 99 hanging hoist, 76, 77,78

Deadman, 99-100 harnesses, 26,28,84,86,87,
descending, 170-71,330-31 380-81
'dinner plating', 109 connections for, 192
 Index 413

for glacier travel, 191 D-shaped, 319,333

chest, 84,86,87 HMS, 255,319,321
improvised, 30,81-8 screwgate, 240,285,301,
HB SHERIF, 353 332-5,395
hoisting techniques Klemheist, 46,47,194,202,248
assisted, 154-5,156,158, knot, passing a, 71,73,135-6,
262, 266-7 137
injured climber, 279-80 knots
pulley, 281,282 clove hitch, 18,19-20,321,
unassisted, 157 324,325,480,481
Yosemite lift, 161,163,164 fisherman's, 22,23, 25,37,
Z pulley system, 159, 38,42,43
160-61,162 Italian (Munter) hitch, 20,
21,22,64,129,245,246,
ice axe 255-7,258,267-8,321
anchor, 95,96,97,98 mariner's, 73, 74
retrievable, 213,215,216 overhand, 310-14,315,325
ice bollard. 111, 123 Penberthy, 43,49,50,213
ice screws, 109,110, 111, 112 sheet bend, 24,25
bar break, 132 tape, 26,27
retrievable, 213,224
ice thread, 223,114 lap coiling, 78,80,182
ice tools, 114 'lapping', 179
isolation loop, 310-14 larksfoot, 75, 76
Italian hitch, 20,21,22,64, lead climbing, learning of,
129,245,246,255-7,258, 300-304,303, 306
267-8,321 Lowe belay tube, 61,62
lowering, 71,152-4,338-41,
'Johnnyknot' see French 340
prusik
'Jumaring', 139 mariner's knot, 73, 74
moving together
Karabiners, 285,332-5 number on rope, 314
anchor connections, 116, scrambling, 309
118,121,234,240 three on a rope, 184,185,
attaching to quick draws, 186
334 two on a rope, 178-9,183-4,
brakes, 129,130,131 308
414 Index

multi-pitch descents, 388 shortening, 179,180,181,

Munter hitch see Italian hitch 187,188
taking in, 360,361,362,
New Zealand boot axe belay, 363
103,104,106 tensioning, 216,217,218,
nuts (chocks), 90,91, 92 395,396,397, 398
twists, 377
Parisienne baudrier, 82,86 unclipping the quick draw,
Penberthy knot, 43,49,50, 128,344
213 roping
piton bar brakes, 131,132 bottom, 233-4,235,245-6,
pitons, 94-5 251,252
prusik confidence, 307
knots, 43-4,45,248; see also isolation loop, 310-14
under specific names moving together, 308-9,
loop, 278-9 314
'prusiking', 139 short, 307-8,321,312,313,
pulleys, 157 330-31
top, 233^, 243-5,249
rescue techniques, 247-53, tying on and off, 310-14,
262-3,266-80 311,312,313
unconscious victim, 272^ roping-up, for glacier travel,
retreating from climbs, 267, 193^, 295
386-91,387,388,389 runner, 301
ring bend see tape knot climbing past, 265-6
Ropeman, 381-4,383 importance of, 296
ropes retrieving, 341-5,342, 343
abrasive action, 240,319 stuck, 264
clipping into quick draw,
335-8,336,337 safety, 314
coiling, 78,79, 80,179, safety lines for traverses,
182 399-402,401
knotted, 263 scrambling, 309
lapping, 368-70,374 screwgate krabs, 240,285,301,
non-stretch, 235-6,395 332-5,395
paying out, 351,352,353, sheet bend, 24,25
354,355 sit slings, 81, 83,84, 85, 87
safety, 257-9 ski anchors, 108,109
 Index 415

slings stomper belay, 106,107

for anchoring, 92,93,94, stuck climbers, 247-53,250,
236,238,240^3,245,257, 259
290,291,323
for hoisting, 266 tape knot, 26,27
replacing, 389 Tragsitz, 164
snake slings, 73 traverse falls, 274-8,275,
snow anchors, 95-103 276
snow bollard, 100,101,102, Tyrolean ropeway, 216,218
103
snow bridges, 196,211 variable controller, 297,356
snow stake, 100 victim, lowering, 152^
SRC, 358
stances, 289-92,293,314-21, Yosemite lift, 161,163,164
318,348
hanging, 367-76,369,371, Z pulley system, 159,160-61,
372,375 162
Sticht plates, 246 ZYPER, 402
 ROPEWORK -
THE COMPLETE KNOWLEDGE

* Top and bottom roping

* Snow, rock and ice anchors
* Abseiling
* MIA improvised rescue
* Glacier travel and crevasse
* Short roping
* Double rope technique
* Retreating from a climb

CONSTABLE
[Link]
Sport/Climbing
Cover design by Neil Straker Creative
Cover image © Nigel Shepherd

;C9.99