Introduction to Flower

A flower is the reproductive structure of flowering plants (angiosperms). It is

responsible for producing seeds through sexual reproduction. Flowers are often
colorful and fragrant to attract pollinators.

Parts of a Flower
A typical flower consists of four main whorls (layers), each with specific parts that
play a role in reproduction and pollination.

1. Non-Reproductive Parts (Accessory Whorls)

These parts protect the flower and attract pollinators but do not directly participate
in reproduction.

A. Calyx (Sepals)

 Definition: Outermost whorl, usually green and leaf-like.

 Parts: Made up of sepals.

 Function:

o Protects the flower bud before it opens.

o May aid in photosynthesis (if green).

o Sometimes attracts pollinators (if petal-like. petaloid).

o Can assist in seed dispersal (e.g., pappus in dandelion).

Descriptive Terms for Calyx (Sepals)

1. Based on Duration (Persistence of Sepals)

Term Definition Example

Caducous Sepals fall off as soon as the

Poppy (Papaver)
(Fugacious) flower opens.

Deciduous Sepals fall off after pollination. Mustard (Brassica)

Sepals remain attached to the Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum),

Persistent
fruit even after fertilization. Brinjal (Solanum melongena)

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2. Based on Fusion of Sepals

Term Definition Example

Gamosepalous Sepals fused partially Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis),

(Synsepalous) or completely. Datura (Datura stramonium)

Polysepalous Rose (Rosa), Buttercup

Sepals free (not fused).
(Aposepalous) (Ranunculus)

B. Corolla (Petals)

 Definition: The second whorl, often brightly colored.

 Parts: Composed of petals.

 Function:

o Attracts pollinators (bees, butterflies, birds) with color, scent, and

nectar.

o Protects reproductive organs.

o Nectar secretion (in some species).

General Descriptive Terms for Corolla (Petals)

1. Based on Duration (Persistence of Petals)

Term Definition Example

Caducous Petals fall off immediately after

Poppy (Papaver)
(Fugacious) flower opening.

Deciduous Petals fall after pollination. Rose (Rosa)

Petals remain attached even during Tomato (Solanum

Persistent
fruit formation. lycopersicum)

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2. Based on Fusion of Petals

Term Definition Example

Gamopetalous Petals fused Datura (Datura stramonium),

(Sympetalous) (partially or fully). Morning Glory (Ipomoea)

Polypetalous Petals free (not

Mustard (Brassica), Rose (Rosa)
(Apopetalous) fused).

Perianth
 The perianth is the collective term for the outer floral whorls (sepals +
petals).

 In some flowers, sepals and petals look similar and are called tepals.

Types of Perianth

A. Dichlamydeous Perianth

 Sepals and petals are distinct (clearly different in shape/color).

 Examples: Rose, hibiscus, sunflower.

B. Homochlamydeous Perianth (Tepals)

 Sepals and petals look alike (undifferentiated).

 Examples: Lily, tulip, onion.

Aestivation
Aestivation refers to the arrangement of petals or sepals in a flower bud before it
opens. It is an important taxonomic feature used in plant identification. Below are
the main types of aestivation, along with definitions and examples.

1. Valvate Aestivation

 Definition: Petals or sepals touch at the margins but do not overlap.

 Appearance: Like closed doors.

 Examples:

o Calotropis (Madar)

o Annona (Custard apple)

2. Twisted (Contorted) Aestivation

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  Definition: Each petal/sepal overlaps one adjacent margin and
is overlapped by the other in one direction.

 Appearance: Spiral or twisted arrangement.

 Examples:

o Cotton (Gossypium)

o Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

o Lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus)

3. Imbricate Aestivation

 Definition: Petals/sepals overlap irregularly (not in a fixed direction).

 Example: Cassia (Senna)

4. Quincuncial Aestivation

 Definition: Two petals are completely external, two completely internal,

and one partially overlaps.

 Appearance: Found in pentamerous flowers (5 petals).

 Examples:

o Guava (Psidium guajava)

o Some members of Myrtaceae family

5. Vexillary (Papilionaceous) Aestivation

 Special case of imbricate aestivation in Fabaceae family.

 Arrangement:

o Standard (Vexillum): Largest, outermost petal.

o Wings (Alae): Two lateral petals.

o Keel (Carina): Two innermost, fused petals.

 Example: Pea flower (Pisum sativum), Bean (Phaseolus)

Comparison Table of Aestivation Types

Type Overlapping Pattern Example Plants

Valvate Margins touch, no overlap Calotropis

Twisted Each petal overlaps one adjacent Cotton, Hibiscus

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Type Overlapping Pattern Example Plants

Imbricate Irregular overlapping Cassia, Pea

Quincuncial 2 outer, 2 inner, 1 half-overlapping Guava

Vexillary Standard + wings + keel Pea, Bean

2. Reproductive Parts (Essential Whorls)

These parts are directly involved in sexual reproduction.

A. Androecium (Male Reproductive Part)

 Definition: The male part of the flower.

 Parts:

o Stamen (each consists of):

 Filament (stalk-like structure that holds the anther).

 Anther (produces pollen grains, which contain male gametes).

 Function:

o Produces and releases pollen for fertilization.

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Descriptive Terms for Androecium (Stamens)

1. Based on Number of Stamens

Term Definition Example

Monandrous Single stamen Canna

Diandrous Two stamens Veronica (some species)

Triandrous Three stamens Grasses (e.g., Triticum)

Tetrandrous Four stamens Ocimum (Tulsi)

Pentandrous Five stamens Solanum (Tomato, Brinjal)

Polyandrous Many stamens (unfused) Ranunculus (Buttercup), Rosa (Rose)

2. Based on Fusion of Stamens

(A) Fusion among Themselves

Term Definition Example

Filaments fused
Monadelphous into one bundle, Cotton (Gossypium), Hibiscus
anthers free

Filaments fused
Diadelphous Pea (Pisum sativum) (9+1 arrangement)
into two groups

Filaments fused
Polyadelphous into multiple Citrus (Citrus), Castor (Ricinus)
groups

Anthers fused,
Syngenesious Sunflower (Helianthus), Marigold (Tagetes)
filaments free

Both filaments &

Synandrous Cucurbita (Pumpkin), Cyathium (Euphorbia)
anthers fused

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(B) Fusion with Other Floral Parts

Term Definition Example

Brinjal (Solanum melongena),

Epipetalous Stamens attached to petals
Potato

Stamens attached
Epiphyllous Lily (Lilium)
to perianth (tepals)

Stamens fused with pistil (column

Gynandrous Orchids, Calotropis
formed)

B. Gynoecium (Female Reproductive Part)

 Definition: The female part of the flower.

 Parts:

o Carpel(s) (each consists of):

 Stigma (sticky top part that catches pollen).

 Style (a tube connecting stigma to ovary).

 Ovary (contains ovules, which become seeds after fertilization).

 Function:

o Receives pollen, allows fertilization, and develops into fruit and seeds.

Descriptive Terms for Gynoecium (Pistil)

1. Based on Number of Carpels

Term Definition Example

Monocarpellary Single carpel (simple pistil) Pea (Pisum sativum), Bean

Bicarpellary Two carpels Mustard (Brassica), Tomato

Tricarpellary Three carpels Lily (Lilium), Cucumber

Multicarpellary Many carpels (≥3) Papaver (Poppy), Citrus

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2. Based on Fusion of Carpels

Term Definition Example

Apocarpous Carpels free (unfused) Buttercup (Ranunculus), Lotus

Syncarpous Carpels fused (compound pistil) Tomato, Hibiscus, Orange

Paracarpous Carpels fused only at the base Argemone (Prickly Poppy)

3. Based on Ovary Position

Term Definition Example

Hypogynous Ovary superior (above other floral parts) Mustard, Lily

Ovary half-inferior (floral parts attached around

Perigynous Rose, Peach
it)

Sunflower,
Epigynous Ovary inferior (below other floral parts)
Apple

3. Other Important Floral Structures

Some flowers have additional supporting parts:

A. Pedicel

 The stalk that holds the flower.

B. Receptacle (Thalamus)

 The swollen base where all floral parts attach.

C. Bracts

 Modified leaves that may look like petals (e.g., in bougainvillea).

D. Nectaries

 Glands that secrete nectar to attract pollinators.

Types of Flowers
1. Based on Reproductive Organs

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A. Perfect Flowers (Bisexual)

 Definition: Contain both male (stamen) and female (pistil) reproductive

parts.

 Examples: Roses, lilies, tulips, hibiscus.

B. Imperfect Flowers (Unisexual)

 Definition: Have only male or only female reproductive organs.

o Staminate Flowers (Male) – Only stamens (e.g., cucumber male

flowers).

o Pistillate Flowers (Female) – Only pistils (e.g., squash female flowers).

 Examples: Corn, papaya, oak, willow.

2. Based on Floral Parts (Complete vs. Incomplete)

A. Complete Flowers

 Definition: Have all four whorls (sepals, petals, stamens, pistils).

 Examples: Rose, lily, sunflower.

B. Incomplete Flowers

 Definition: Missing one or more whorls (e.g., no petals or sepals).

 Examples:

o Grasses (lack petals, rely on wind pollination).

o Willow flowers (no petals, only reproductive parts).

3. Based on Symmetry

A. Actinomorphic (Radial Symmetry)

 Definition: Can be divided into equal halves in multiple planes.

 Examples: Daisy, lily, tulip.

B. Zygomorphic (Bilateral Symmetry)

 Definition: Can be divided into equal halves in only one plane.

 Examples: Orchid, pea flower, snapdragon.

C. Asymmetrical Flowers

 Definition: No symmetry (rare).

 Example: Canna flower.

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4. Based on Arrangement on Stem

A. Solitary Flowers

 Single flower on a stem.

 Examples: Tulip, rose, poppy.

B. Inflorescence (Cluster of Flowers)

1. Racemose (Indeterminate Growth) – Flowers bloom from bottom to top.

o Examples: Lupine, snapdragon.

2. Cymose (Determinate Growth) – Flowers bloom from top to bottom.

o Examples: Geranium, begonia.

Pollination and Fertilization

 Pollination – Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.

o Self-Pollination – Pollen lands on the same flower.

o Cross-Pollination – Pollen transferred to another flower (via wind,

water, insects, birds).

 Fertilization – Fusion of male (pollen) and female (ovule) gametes to form

a seed.

Significance of Flowers
1. Biological & Ecological Significance

Reproduction

 Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperms (flowering plants).

 Facilitate pollination, fertilization, and seed formation.

Pollinator Attraction

 Their color, fragrance, and nectar attract pollinators (bees, butterflies, birds),
ensuring genetic diversity.

 Vital for maintaining ecosystems and biodiversity.

Fruit and Seed Development

 After fertilization, flowers (ovary) develop into fruits, which contain seeds —
essential for plant propagation and food chains.

2. Genetic and Agricultural Importance

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Plant Breeding

 Used in developing hybrid crops and improving plant traits (like color, size,
and disease resistance).

 Important in genetic research and conservation.

Food Production

 Crops like apples, tomatoes, and rice come from flowering plants.

3. Cultural and Aesthetic Significance

Symbolism

 Different flowers represent love, peace, purity, grief, and celebration.

Art and Literature

 Inspire poetry, painting, sculpture, and fashion.

Rituals and Traditions

 Integral to weddings, funerals, festivals, and spiritual practices across

cultures.

4. Psychological and Emotional Benefits

 Flowers have a calming effect; used in therapy and healing environments.

5. Economic Significance

Floristry and Horticulture

 Huge industries worldwide—cut flower trade, gardening, landscaping.

 Important for local economies and export markets.

Perfume and Cosmetics

 Flower extracts used in making perfumes, skincare products, and cosmetics.

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