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 TABLE OF CONTENT
S. No. MAJOR HEADING Subheadings Pg No
1. MEASUREMENT/UNIT CGS System, FPS System, MKS System, SI System, Details of Fundamental 1
Units, SI Derived Units, SI Unit Prefixes,Vector Quantities, Scalar Quantities
2. MEASURING DEVICES Table of Devices 2
3. MECHANICS Difference between weight and mass, Distance & displacement, Speed & 4
velocity, Acceleration, Newton’s laws, Momentum
4. WORK, POWER, ENERGY Work, Power, Energy, Mechanical energy, Kinetic energy, Potential energy, 5
Transformation of energy by apparatus
5. MOTION OF PLANETS & Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, Newton’s Law of Gravitation, Escape 5
KEPLER’S LAWS Velocity
6. NEWTON’S LAW OF Relation between 'g' and 'G' 6
GRAVITATION
7. SIMPLE PERIODIC Mean & extreme positions 6
MOTION
8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES States of matter, Elasticity types, Stress, Strain, Hooke’s law, Surface tension, 7
OF MATTER Cohesive & adhesive force, Capillarity, Viscosity, Pressure, Pressure in liquid,
Upthrust, Sinking/floating, Archimedes' principle, Young's modulus, Torricelli's
law, Avogadro’s law, Relative density
9. OPTICS Light properties, Speed in media, Refractive index, Refraction, Dispersion, 9
Critical angle, Reflection, Mirrors, Lenses, Scattering, Important values
10. THERMODYNAMICS & Heat, Mechanical equivalent, Laws, Facts & conversions, Thermos flask, 11
HEAT Sweating, Clay pot cooling, Humidity, Freezing, Radiation, Reflection, Fruit
storage, Wool
11. WAVE MOTION Phase, Wavelength, Mechanical waves, Wave formulas, Electromagnetic waves, 12
Types/properties
12. SOUNDWAVE Propagation, Frequency range, Applications, Intensity, Echo, Mach number 13
13. ELECTRICITY Current, Power, Dynamo, Motor, Tungsten, Lightning, Fuse, Lamps, 14
Transformers, Solar cells, Earth’s field, Conductivity, Semiconductors,
Transistors, Resistor codes
14. NUCLEAR PHYSICS Fission & fusion, Nuclear reactor, Comparison table, Radioisotopes, Thorium, 15
Uranium, Hydrogen bomb, Breeder reactor, Installed power, Research centres
15. COMPUTER & INFO. Computer development, Supercomputers, Classification, Generations, Parts, 16
TECHNOLOGY Memory, Software, Programming, Networks, WWW, E-mail, IC chips, Notable
facts, Logic gates
16. SCIENTISTS & Key scientists and discoveries, Nuclear science in India, Expensive materials 18
INVENTIONS
17. INDIAN SPACE MISSIONS Types of missions, Major Indian missions, Timeline, Highlights, Launch vehicles 19
18. DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY iDEX-Prime, ADITI scheme, Corridors, SRIJAN, Defence output, Tata-Airbus, 20
& UPDATES INDUS-X
19. COMBAT AIRCRAFT & LCA Tejas, Prachand, Apache, Chinook, Rafale, Sukhoi, MiG, Mirage, Jaguar 21
HELICOPTERS
20. NAVAL PLATFORMS INS Vikrant, Vagir, Vaghsheer, Imphal, Surat, Vindhyagiri, Nilgiri, Kiltan, 21
(SHIPS & SUBS) Abhay
21. DRONES & UAVs MQ-9B Predator, Tapas-BH, Heron TP, Hermes 900, Nagastra-1, Swarm drones, 21
FWV-200B
22. MISSILE CLASSIFICATION By range (SRBM, MRBM, IRBM, ICBM), By trajectory (Ballistic, Cruise, 21
Hypersonic)
23. INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS Ballistic missiles, Cruise missiles, SAMs, ATGMs, Air-to-air 21
24. AIR DEFENCE SYSTEMS VSHORADS, Akashteer, C-Dome, Bhargavastra 22
25. DRDO STRATEGIC IGMDP, Mission Shakti, BMD, Rudram, HSTDV, SCOT, Scramjet, Pinaka, 22
PROJECTS BMD-II
26. IMPORTANT POINTS Agni-P, Astra Mk-II, Pralay, Helina, SANT, BrahMos-ER, VL-SRSAM, 22
(MISSILES) SEBEX-2, Zorawar, GAURAV, ABHED, SMART, FOBS
27. PHYSICS FORMULAS All major physics formulas (speed, force, energy, optics, etc.) 23
TABLE

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 28. CHEMISTRY – ATOMIC Dalton’s theory, Electron, Proton, Neutron, Nucleus, Atomic number, Mass 25
STRUCTURE number, Weight, Isoelectronic, Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Radioactivity,
Particles, Higgs boson
29. PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL Comparison table: Physical vs chemical change, Definitions, Examples 25
CHANGES
30. SOLUTION & ITS TYPES Solution, Solvent, Types, Dilute, Concentrated, Saturated, Solubility, Osmosis, 26
Membrane
31. METALS, MINERALS, Free/combined state, Minerals, Ores, Major types, Alloys, Gold purity, Properties 27
ORES
32. IMPORTANT MINERALS & Bauxite, Diamond, Marble, Ruby, Iron, Soldering, Rennin, Tannin, Asbestos, 28
USES Mercury, Limestone, POP, Gypsum
33. CARBON & ALLOTROPES Graphite, Diamond, Fullerenes, Dry ice, Coal types, Carat, Properties & uses 29
34. HYDROGEN & HEAVY Properties, Isotopes, Heavy water, Water hardness, Peroxide, RO, Uses, Plants 30
WATER
35. INERT/NOBLE GASES Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon, Uses 31
36. NITROGEN & Nitrogen, Nitrous oxide, Aqua regia, Common compounds 31
COMPOUNDS
37. ACIDS, BASES, SALTS & Definitions, Types, Sources, Uses, pH scale, Indicators, Acid-base table 31–32
INDICATORS
38. IMPORTANT CHEMICALS Bleaching powder, Sodium thiosulfate, Silver bromide, Polymers, Lactic acid, 32–33
& FACTS TNT, RDX, LPG, Octane/Cetane, Biogas, Gasohol, Benzoic acid, etc.
39. HYDROCARBONS Classification, Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Cycloalkanes, Alcohols, Acids, 35
Dicarboxylic, Explosives (TNT, RDX, Gun Cotton)
40. IMPORTANT CHEMICALS Medicines, Fuels, Explosives, Artificial sugars, Alcoholic beverages, Inorganic 40–43
& COMPOUNDS elements, Organic compounds, IUPAC names
41. BIOLOGY - Natural science, Branches (Zoology, Botany, Genetics, Embryology, Cytology, 44
INTRODUCTION & etc.)
BRANCHES
42. EVOLUTION OF LIFE Earth formation, Origin of life (Theories), Evolution timeline, Key fossils, 44–46
Epochs, Evolution facts
43. TAXONOMY & KINGDOM Taxonomy, Binomial nomenclature, Five kingdoms, Characteristics & examples 47
CLASSIFICATION
44. KINGDOM PLANTAE Types (Pitcher plant, Xerophyte, Hydrophyte, Halophyte, Epiphyte), Plant 47–48
organs, Pigments, Ecological terms
45. KINGDOM ANIMALIA Animalia features, Major phyla, Adaptations, Animal types (Fish, Amphibia, 49
Mammals, Birds)
46. CELL & CELL BIOLOGY Cell theory, Prokaryotic/eukaryotic, Organelles (Wall, Membrane, ER, 50–51
Ribosome, Mitochondria, etc.), Programmed death
47. HEREDITY & GENETICS Heredity, Variation, Mendel, Laws, Genome, Gene mapping, Jumping genes, 51–52
Nucleic acids, Chromosomes, Sex determination, Key terms
48. BIOFERTILIZERS Types (Bacteria, Fungi, Cyanobacteria), Symbiosis, Functions 52–53
49. HUMAN ANATOMY & Skeleton, Types, Major bones/muscles, Body water, Chemical composition, 53–54
PHYSIOLOGY Teeth, Notable bones & muscles
50. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestion process, Alimentary canal, Glands, Enzymes, Absorption, Large 55
intestine, Enzyme nature, Table of glands & secretions
51. VITAMINS & NUTRITION Food components (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, nucleic acids, 56
vitamins, water), Deficiency, Nutrition facts, Tests
52. BLOOD & CIRCULATORY WBCs, Platelets, Blood cell production, Blood groups, Antigens/antibodies, Rh- 59
SYSTEM factor, Inheritance, Blood group tables
53. EXCRETORY SYSTEM Excretion, Nitrogenous waste, Human kidney/nephron, Functions, Dialysis, 61
Other excretory organs
54. NERVOUS SYSTEM Structure, Types of neurons, CNS/PNS, Cranial/spinal nerves, Brain parts, 62
Reflex, Homeothermy
55. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands (thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, thymus, pineal, pituitary, pancreas, gonads, 63
placenta), Hormones, Functions, Disorders, Pheromones
56. REPRODUCTION & Human reproduction, Fertilization, Pregnancy, Embryo/fetal development, 64
EMBRYOLOGY Gestation, Extra-embryonic membranes, Key hormones, Labour, Umbilical cord,
Prenatal stages

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 57. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Photosynthesis (process, equations, phases, factors), Plant nutrition 65
(macro/micro), Vascular tissues, Amarbel (Cuscuta)
58. PLANT HORMONES & Auxin, Gibberellin, Cytokinin, Abscisic acid, Ethylene, Functions, Growth, Uses, 66
GROWTH Summary table
59. PLANT REPRODUCTION Asexual & sexual, Vegetative, Apomixis, Stem cutting, Layering, Grafting, 67
Flower structure, Pollination, Fertilization, Dichogamy, Micro/megaspore-
genesis, Double fertilization, Fruit/seed formation
60. PLANTS: ECONOMIC Food, Fibre, Medicinal, Industrial plants, Sunflower, Essential oils, Key Indian 68–69
IMPORTANCE plants & uses (amla, mango, banana, guava, apple, grapes, citrus, neem, tulsi,
turmeric, lemon, Brahmi, mint)
61. DISEASES & Major viral (polio, hepatitis, mumps, rabies, dengue, chikungunya, AIDS, 70–73
TREATMENTS COVID-19), Vaccines, Bacterial (cholera, typhoid, TB, etc.), Fungal, Parasitic
diseases
62. GENETIC DISORDERS Mutation, Sex-linked, Chromosomal aberrations, Types (albinism, hemophilia, 74
thalassemia, color blindness, Down, Turner, Klinefelter, SCID, PKU, AKU,
muscular dystrophy)
63. DEFICIENCY/NON- Iron, iodine, protein, vitamin deficiencies (anemia, goitre, marasmus, 74–80
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES kwashiorkor, rickets, diabetes, xerophthalmia), Cancer, leukaemia, dropsy,
silicosis, Eye defects, Other diseases (Alzheimer’s, epilepsy)

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 Non-SI units
PHYSICS
Unit Meaning
Cusec Rate of Flow
MEASUREMENT/UNIT Byte Computer
Bar Pressure
CGS System (Centimetre - Gram - Second System) Richter Magnitude of an earthquake

 Centimetre - Unit of length

 Gram - Unit of mass THE 22 SI DERIVED UNITS WITH
 Second - Unit of time
SPECIAL NAMES AND SYMBOLS
FPS System (Foot - Pound - Second System):
Derived Quantity Special Name of Unit
plane angle radian
 Also known as the British System of measurement.
solid angle steradian
 Foot - Unit of length
frequency hertz
 Pound - Unit of mass
force newton
 Second - Unit of time
pressure, stress pascal
 Note: 1 Pound = 453.59 grams
energy, work, amount of joule
heat
MKS System (Metre - Kilogram - Second System): power, radiant flux watt
electric charge coulomb
 Metre - Unit of length voltage/electric potential volt
 Kilogram - Unit of mass difference
 Second - Unit of time capacitance farad
electric resistance ohm
SI System (International System of Units): electric conductance siemens
magnetic flux weber
magnetic flux density tesla
 Adopted during the conference on International Weight
inductance henry
and Measures, held at Paris (France) in 1960.
 It has seven fundamental or base units. Celsius temperature degree Celsius
luminous flux lumen
illuminance lux
DETAILS OF FUNDAMENTAL UNITS activity referred to a becquerel
radionuclide
absorbed dose, kerma gray
S.No. Physical S.I. Unit Abbreviation
Quantity dose equivalent sievert
1. Length Metre m catalytic activity katal
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s SI UNIT PREFIXES FOR LENGTH
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Luminous Candela cd
Name Symbol
Intensity gigameter Gm 10⁹
6. Electric Ampere A megameter Mm 10⁶
Current kilometer km 10³
7. Amount of Mole Mol decimeter dm 10⁻¹
Substance
centimeter cm 10⁻²
millimeter mm 10⁻³
Physical Quantity Unit micrometer μm 10⁻⁶
Acceleration meter/second² nanometer nm 10⁻⁹
Force Newton picometer pm 10⁻¹²
Work done joule
Impulse newton second
Lens power diopter
VECTOR QUANTITIES
Pressure pascal
Heat joule  Quantities that require both direction and magnitude
to be expressed.
 Examples include force, velocity, displacement,
acceleration, momentum, impulse, etc.

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SCALAR QUANTITIES Calorimeter An object used for calorimetry or the
process of measuring the heat of
chemical reactions or physical
 Quantities that require only magnitude to be expressed, changes as well as heat capacity.
no direction.
Cardiograph An instrument for recording
 Examples include time, distance, speed, volume, etc.
graphically the movements of the
heart.
Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities Chronometer A specific mechanical timepiece tested
Mass Displacement and certified to meet certain precision
Volume Velocity standards, used by navigators in the
Density Acceleration sea.
Work Force Colorimeter A device used to measure the
Speed Weight absorbance of particular wavelengths
Energy Impulse of light by a specific solution.
Power Pressure Cathetometer An instrument to measure vertical
Area Momentum distance.
Volume Gravity Cryometer A type of thermometer used to
Time Torque measure the very low temperature of
Temperature Electric field an object.
Distance Magnetic field Cyclotron An apparatus that accelerates charged
Current Angular velocity particles outwards from the centre
along a spiral path.
Potential difference Angular momentum
Crescograph A device used to measure the growth
Resistance Electric flux
in plants.
Charge Angular acceleration
Dilatometer An instrument that measures volume
changes caused by a physical or
MEASURING DEVICES chemical process.
Dip Circle A device used to measure the angle
Apparatus Application between the horizon and the Earth's
magnetic field (dip angle).
Altimeter An instrument used to measure the
altitude of an object, mainly in an Dynamo An instrument which converts
aeroplane. mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Ammeter An instrument used to measure the
electric current in a circuit. Dynamometer A device used for measuring force,
Torque or power of the engine.
Anemometer A device used for measuring wind
speed and wind pressure. Electroencep An instrument used for recording the
halograph (EEG) electrical activity of the brain.
Actiometer A device used to measure the heating
power or intensity of solar radiation. Electrometer An electrical instrument for measuring
electric charge or electrical potential
Accelerometer A device that senses the different
difference.
types of accelerations or vibrations.
Electroscope An instrument used to detect the
Atmometer A device used for measuring the rate
presence and magnitude of electric
of water evaporation.
charge on a body.
Audiometer An instrument used for measuring or
Evaporimeter An instrument used for measuring the
evaluating hearing acuity.
rate of water evaporation from a wet
Barograph A type of Barometer that records the
surface to the atmosphere.
atmospheric pressure over time in
Endoscope An instrument used in medicine to
graphical form.
look inside the body.
Barometer A device used for measuring
Fathometer An apparatus to measure the depth of
atmospheric pressure.
the sea.
Bolometer A device to measure the power of
Fluxmeter An instrument used to measure the
incident electromagnetic radiation via
magnetic flux.
the heating of a material with a
temperature dependent electrical Galvanometer An electrical instrument for detecting
resistance. and indicating electrical current.
Calipers A caliper is a device used to measure Gravimeter An instrument used for measuring
the distance between two opposite gravitational acceleration.
sides of an object. Gyroscope A device used for measuring angular
velocity.

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Hydrometer An instrument for measuring the Potentiometer An instrument for measuring voltage
relative density of liquids. by comparison of an unknown voltage
Hydrophone An instrument used for recording or with a known reference voltage or to
listening to under-water sound. measure the electromotive force (emf)
Hygrometer An instrument for measuring the – a differential potential that tends to
relative humidity of the atmosphere. give rise to an electric current.
Hygroscope An instrument which gives an Pycnometer A laboratory device used for
indication of the humidity of air. measuring the density or specific
gravity of materials (liquids or solids).
Hypsometer A device for calibrating thermometers
at the boiling point of water at a Pyreheliometer An instrument for the measurement of
known height above sea level or for direct beam solar irradiance.
estimating height above sea level by Pyrometer A type of sensor measuring radiation
the temperature at which water boils. thermometer used to measure the high
Kymograph A device to record muscular motion, temperature of the surface.
changes in blood pressure and other Psychrometer An apparatus used to measure the
physiological phenomena. relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Lactometer An instrument used to check the Rain Gauge (Udometer, Pluviometer or
purity of milk by measuring its Ombrometer) It gathers and measures
density. the amount of liquid precipitation over
Luxmeter An equipment that measures the a set of period.
brightness of light falling on an Radiometer A device for measuring the radiant
object at a particular area. flux of electromagnetic radiation.
Lysimeter A device used to measure the amount Refractometer A device used for the measurement of
of actual evapotranspiration released an index of refraction.
by the plant. Salinometer An instrument used for measuring the
Magnetometer A magnetic sensor instrument that salinity of water.
measures magnetism, either by Saccharimeter An instrument used for measuring the
magnetization of a magnetic concentration of sugar solutions.
material like a ferromagnet or the Sextant An instrument which measures the
direction, strength or relative angular distance between two visible
change of a magnetic field at a objects. It is used to know the height
particular location. of celestial bodies.
Manometer A device to measure pressure of Sphygmomanometer An apparatus used to measure the
liquids or gases. blood pressure.
Microphone A transducer that converts sound Stethoscope A medical device used for listening to
waves into electrical signals. the sounds of the heart.
Microtome A tool used for cutting extremely thin Speedometer Measures and displays the
slices of materials, known as sections. instantaneous speed of a vehicle.
Used especially in biology to observe Tachometer An instrument used for measuring
the sections under a microscope or rotation of the speed of a shaft or
electron microscope. device. Widely used in automobiles
Nephoscope An instrument for measuring the and planes etc.
altitude, direction, and velocity of Viscometer An instrument used to measure the
clouds. viscosity of a fluid.
Odometer An instrument for measuring the Wind Vane An instrument for showing the
distance travelled by a wheeled direction of the wind.
vehicle. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) - A
Odometer An instrument for measuring the technique that uses sound propagation
frequency/wavelength of (usually underwater, as in submarine
electromagnetic waves. navigation) to navigate, communicate
Periscope An instrument for observation over, with or detect objects on or under the
around or through an object or surface of the water, such as other
condition that prevents direct line of vessels. It uses the echo principle by
sight observation from the observer's sending out sound waves.
current position. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) -
Phonograph A device for mechanical recording and Radar is an object detection system
reproduction of sound. that uses radio waves to determine the
Photometer An instrument for measuring the range, angle or velocity of objects.
intensity of light.

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 MECHANICS Newton's Law of Motion
 Mechanics is the area of science concerned with the Newton, the father of physics, first propounded the laws of
behavior of physical bodies when subjected to force or motion in his book 'Principia' in 1687 AD.
displacements and the subsequent effects of the bodies
on their environment. First Law of Motion
 Weight: The force exerted in a body by gravity.
 Mass: Represents the amount of matter in a particle or
 If an object is at rest, it will remain at rest; or if it is
object. Mass of matter is constant at every place. It is moving in a straight line with uniform speed, it will
denoted by 'm'. continue to move the same way unless its present state
is changed by applying an external force on it. Also
Difference Between Weight and Mass called Galileo's law or the law of inertia.

Weight (W) Mass (m) Second Law of Motion

1. Gravitational force of A measurement of the amount of
Earth matter something contains  The rate of change of momentum of an object is
2. It is a vector quantity It is a scalar quantity proportional to the force applied on that object, and
3. Weight varies It is constant at every place the change in momentum occurs in the direction of the
according to places force also known as Law of acceleration.
4. Its unit is newton Its unit is gram or kilogram  The first law is a part of the second law.
 If the applied force is F, the acceleration produced in
the direction of force is a, and the mass of the object is
Distance & Displacement m, then according to Newton's second law of motion:

 In daily language, Distance and Displacement are used F=ma

interchangeably, but in physics, they have different
meanings.
 The length of a specific path traveled between two
Third Law of Motion
points by an object is called distance.
 Displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest  For every action, there is an equal but opposite
distance between the initial and final position of a reaction.
point.  Also known as Action-reaction law

Faction -Freaction
Speed & Velocity
=

 Galileo Galilei was the first to measure speed by Momentum

relating the distance covered to the time taken.
 Speed is the distance travelled per unit of time.  The product of mass and velocity of an object is called
 Speed Formula the momentum of that object.
 Formula:
Speed (s)
=

citance Momentum (P) = Maxx (m) x

Velocity(v)
 Speed is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is
meter/second. Change in momentum
 Velocity is the distance travelled by an object per
unit time in a particular direction.
 It is a vector quantity  The rate of change in momentum of an object is
 Formula for velocity: proportional to the imposed force on it
 Momentum (p) = Mass × Velocity
 Unit: kilogram meter per second (kg·m/s).
Velocity placement
(5)  The change in momentum always occurs in the
direction of the force. This is another form of
Newton's Second Law of Motion:
Acceleration =>
a
= change
in momenture-mu-mu

 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an m = mapp

object with respect to time. v =
initial velocity
 If the initial velocity of an object is u and after time t its
velocity is v, then acceleration a is:
v =
final velocity
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 g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
WORK h = height above ground (m)
 Unit: Joule (J)
 A force does work if it causes a displacement of the
point of application in the direction of the force. Example:
 Unit: Joule (J) A stone held at a height has potential energy due to gravity.
 If there is no displacement, no work is done.
 Work formula:
TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY BY
Work (w) = Force (1) X
displacement(s) APPARATUS
POWER S.No. Name of Transformation of Energy
Apparatus
 Power is the rate of doing work by a machine or 1 Dynamo Conversion of mechanical
person. energy into electrical energy.
 Power formula: 2 Electric motor Conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical
energy.
3 Microphone Conversion of sound energy
into electrical energy.
4 Loudspeaker Conversion of electric energy
 The SI unit of power is joule/second, also called a watt into sound energy.
(W). 5 Solar cell Conversion of solar energy
 Another unit of power is Horsepower (HP). into electrical energy.
 1 Horsepower = 746 watts. 6 Tubelight Conversion of electric energy
into light energy.
ENERGY 7 Electric bulb Conversion of electric energy
into heat energy and light
energy.
 Energy is the capacity for doing work. 8 Electric cell Conversion of chemical
 Forms of energy include mechanical energy, heat energy into electric energy.
energy, light energy, sound energy, etc.
9 Candle Conversion of chemical
 Energy is a scalar quantity.
energy into light & heat
 The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
energy.
10 Sitar Conversion of mechanical
Mechanical Energy energy into sound energy.

 Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and  Note: During photosynthesis in green plants, solar
potential energy in an object used to do work. energy is converted into chemical energy.
 Formula:

Potential THE MOTION OF PLANETS

energy
Mechanical
energy-
Kinetic
energy a a
(ME) (k)

Kinetic Energy  All planets, including Earth, move around the Sun in
their orbits.
 A natural satellite is a celestial body orbiting a planet.
 Kinetic energy is the energy possessed due to motion.
 If mass is mm and speed is vv, kinetic energy is:
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, proposed three laws
about planetary motion around the Sun:
Potential Energy (PE):
The energy possessed by an object due to its position or 1. First Law:
state. All planets move around the Sun in an elliptical orbit,
with the Sun at one of the two foci.
 Formula (Gravitational PE): 2. Second Law:
PE = mgh A radius vector joining any planet to the Sun sweeps
where out equal areas in equal lengths of time.The closest
m = mass (kg) planet to the Sun moves fastest, and the farthest
planet moves slowest.
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3. Third Law: Independence: Does not depend on the mass of the object.
The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly For Earth: g = 9.8 m/s², Rₑ = 6.37 × 10⁶ m
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its
Calculated value: Vₑ = 11.2 km/s (or 11.2 × 10³ m/s)
orbit.
Fact: Any object thrown at ≥ 11.2 km/s from Earth’s
surface will escape into space.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
If two objects have masses m1 and m2, and are separated by Key Points:
a distance r, the force of attraction between them is:  Minimum speed to escape Earth = 11.2 km/s
 Independent of object’s mass
 Uses Earth’s radius and gravity
formula :

=
e
where

Velocity (Ve
,

Escape
Re-radius of
Me = mass
of Earth
,
Earth
where G is the gravitational constant.
Circular Motion and Escape Velocity
Relation between 'g' and 'G' Relation
The gravitational acceleration on Earth (gg) is related to the
universal gravitational constant (GG) as follows:
If the circular motion speed of a satellite revolving
nearby Earth is V₀ and the escape velocity from Earth’s
surface is Vₑ, then:
Relation: Vₑ = √2 × V₀
where:
Implication: A satellite revolving near Earth, if its speed
exceeds √2 (about 1.414) times its circular speed, will
• G = Gravitational Constant escape into space, leaving its orbit.
• Me= Mass of the Earth
• Re= Radius of the Earth
About Newton
CIRCULAR MOTION OF SATELLITE  Brahmagupta (anticipated newton) was a 7th-century
Indian mathematician who declared that all things
gravitate to the earth in his work 'Brahmasphuta
Siddhanta'.
 Isaac Newton formulated the theory of gravity, stating
that everybody in the universe attracts every other body
with a force.
 In 1687, Newton published his law of gravitation in
'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'.
 Newton’s law states that the gravitational force
between two masses (m₁ and m₂) is directly
proportional to their product and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r) between
them:
 F = G (m₁m₂)/r², where G is the gravitational constant.
 Newton is credited with propounding the universal law
of gravitation.

Pendulum Clocks and Time Loss in

Escape Velocity
Summer

Escape velocity: Minimum speed required for an object to Pendulum clocks usually lose time in summer because the
length of the pendulum increases, which increases the
leave Earth’s gravitational pull and never return.
time period of each oscillation. As the temperature rises
Formula: in summer, the material of the pendulum expands,
resulting in a longer pendulum. A longer pendulum means
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that each swing takes more time, so the clock runs slower
and loses time.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
Time Period of a Simple Pendulum States of Matter
The time period (T) of a simple pendulum is given by the  There are three states of matter: (i) Solid, (ii) Liquid,
formula: (iii) Gas.
T = 2π √(l/g)
where:
- T = Time period
Special properties about each state of
- l = Length of the pendulum (increases in summer) matter:
- g = Acceleration due to gravity
Solids
Note: Increase in pendulum length → Increase in time  Fixed Shape and Volume: Particles are tightly
period → Clock loses time in summer packed and vibrate around fixed positions.
 Rigidity: Strong intermolecular forces make solids
rigid.
SIMPLE PERIODIC MOTION:  Incompressibility: Solids can’t be easily compressed.
MEAN AND EXTREME  Definite Melting Point: Most crystalline solids have
a precise melting temperature.
POSITIONS
Liquids
 Fixed Volume but No Fixed Shape: They take the
When an object in simple periodic shape of their container.
motion passes through its mean position:  Fluidity: Particles move more freely compared to
 No force acts on it. solids.
 Its acceleration becomes zero.  Viscosity: Property defining resistance to flow (e.g.,
 It has maximum velocity. Honey has higher viscosity).
 It has maximum kinetic energy.  Surface Tension: Causes liquids to form droplets.
 Its potential energy is zero.
Gases
 No Fixed Shape and Volume: They fill their
container completely.
 Compressibility: Highly compressible due to large
spaces between particles.
 Low Density: Far apart particles mean lower
density compared to solids and liquids.
 Diffusion: Gases rapidly diffuse and mix with
other gases.
Plasma
 Ionized State: Plasma consists of charged particles
When the object reaches its extreme (ions and electrons).
position:  Conductivity: Strongly conducts electricity and
 Its acceleration is maximum. responds to electromagnetic fields.
 The counterforce acting on it is maximum.  Most Abundant State in Universe: Makes up
 Its kinetic energy is zero. stars, including the sun.
 It has maximum potential energy.
 It has zero velocity. Elasticity Types
 Perfectly elastic substance: Matter which resumes
At the mean position: Maximum velocity and kinetic perfectly its normal state after withdrawing the applied
energy, zero force, zero potential energy, zero acceleration. force.
At the extreme position: Maximum acceleration and  Perfectly plastic substance: Matter which does not
potential energy, maximum counterforce, zero kinetic resume its normal state after withdrawing the external
energy, zero velocity. force, but remains deformed forever.
 No matter is perfectly elastic or plastic; all lie between
these extremes.

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 Quartz: Example of perfectly elastic; Wax: Example of  Drawing of ink to the nib from bottom in a fountain
perfectly plastic. pen. The nib is slided in the middle, which acts as a
capillary tube. However, still pen writing is possible by
Stress gravity and it does not depend upon surface tension.
Stress is the internal reaction force per unit area produced in  Lighting candle and lamp wicks.
a matter due to an external force, trying to restore the normal  Blotting paper used to absorb spilled liquid.
state.
 Formula: Stress = F / A Viscosity
 SI unit: newton/metre² (N/m²)  Viscosity: Property of a liquid which opposes the
relative movement among different layers.
Strain  High viscosity: Honey, glycerine (flow stops rapidly).
Strain is the ratio describing the change in shape or size of a  Temperature increases: Viscosity of liquid decreases.
matter due to an external force. It is a ratio and has no unit.  Viscosity of gas increases with temperature.
 Solids lack viscosity.
Hooke's Law
For nominal strain, applied stress is directly proportional to
Pressure
strain developed. The ratio of stress to strain is a constant, Pressure is force applied perpendicular per unit area.
known as the elasticity coefficient (E).  Formula: Pressure = Force / Area
 Formula: E = stress / strain  SI unit: newton/metre² (N/m²)

Surface Tension Pressure within Liquid at Any Point

 Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface  At depth h from free surface: P = h × d × g
to acquire the least surface area possible.  d: density of liquid, g: gravitational acceleration
 Measured in: force per unit length.
 SI unit: newton/metre (N/m). Upthrust Force
 The value of surface tension depends on nature,  When a solid is put into a liquid, apparent loss in weight
temperature, and the medium present on the other side is observed due to force exerted by the liquid upward
of the liquid surface. (upthrust).
 Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature.  Centre of upthrust is the centroid of the displaced
 It becomes zero at the critical temperature. volume.
 If the liquid has negligible weight, its shape will be
completely spherical. For example – rainwater drops Sinking and Floating
and soap bubbles.  If W > F (resultant force acts inwards), object will sink.
 The reason is drops occupy that form, in which its  If W = F, object will float.
potential energy is minimum.  If W < F, object starts to rise.
 Fraction of object sunk: (Volume of sinked solid /
Cohesive and Adhesive Force Total volume of solid) = (Density of solid / Density of
 Cohesive force: Attraction between molecules of the liquid)
same matter.
 Adhesive force: Attraction between molecules of Archimedes' Principle
different matter.  It states that the upward force that is exerted on a body
 Cohesive force of water > oil & water; water drops on immersed in a liquid, whether fully or partially
oil are spherical, on water spread as thin film. submerged, is equal to the weight of the liquid that the
body displaces and it acts in the upward direction at the
Capillarity centre of mass of the displaced liquid.
 Capillary tube: Glass tube with very small diameter,
open at both ends. Young's Modulus (E)
 Capillarity: The tendency of a liquid to rise or fall as a Young's modulus (E): Modulus of elasticity, property
result of surface tension in the capillary tube. describing how easily a material can stretch and deform.
 Liquids that wet glass rise; those that do not wet fall in Defined as ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
the tube.  Stress: Force per unit area. Strain: Extension per unit
 Examples of capillarity :- length.
 Water and minerals absorbed by plant roots reached to  Young's modulus is greater for steel than rubber.
leaves and twigs through xylem tissues – which acts as  Shear modulus: Stiffness under shear stress, not
capillary tubes. longitudinal.
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 Quartz 2.05 × 10⁸ 1.54
Torricelli's Law Acrylic 2.00 × 10⁸ 1.50
Ethyl Alcohol 2.25 × 10⁸ 1.36
 Torricelli’s Law: The velocity of efflux (outflow) of a Light speed is maximum in vacuum.
liquid through a hole at depth h is given by
 Velocity of efflux = √(2gh) Refractive Index
 where g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth
of the hole.  Refractive Index (μ): Ratio of the velocity of light in
 The greater the depth, the higher the velocity of vacuum (c) to its velocity in a given medium (u):
efflux, so the deepest hole throws water the farthest. μ = c/u
 Refractive index of water ≈ 1.33
 Refractive index of glass ≈ 1.50
Avogadro’s Law  Refractive index is always >1 for any material (since
 Avogadro's Law: Under the same conditions of speed is always less than in vacuum).
temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different  Also called optical density.
gases contain equal number of molecules.  Minimum speed of light in a material corresponds to
 This law holds true for ideal gases and is its maximum optical density.
approximately valid for real gases at low pressure
and high temperature. Refraction of Light
 Light travels in a straight line in homogeneous medium.
 Refraction: When light passes from one transparent
Relative Density
medium to another, it deviates from its original path.
 Relative Density (Specific Gravity): Ratio of the density
 Angle of incidence (i): Angle between incident ray and
of a substance to that of water.
the normal at the point of incidence.
 Relative density of pure water = 1
 Angle of refraction (r): Angle between refracted ray
 Substances with relative density less than 1 will float in
and the normal at the surface.
water; those with more than 1 will sink.
 Law of refraction: Light bends towards the normal
 Example: Ships float because their effective density
when going from a low-density to a high-density
is less than that of water; iron needle sinks as its
medium, and away from the normal when going from
density is much higher than water.
high to low density.

Examples:
OPTICS - An immersed rod in water appears bent.
- A coin in water seems above its original position.
 Light is electromagnetic radiation, part of the - Twinkling of stars.
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Wavelength range of visible light: 3900 Å to 7800 Å
 Light is invisible itself, but enables visibility of objects.
 Travels in straight lines and through vacuum.
 Dual nature:
• Particle nature (particles, photons)
• Wave nature (waves, interference, diffraction)
• Speed of light in different media:

Speed of Light in Different Media

Medium Speed of Light Refractive Index
(m/s) (n)
Vacuum 3.00 × 10⁸ 1.000
Air 2.997 × 10⁸ 1.0003
Water 2.25 × 10⁸ 1.33
Ice 2.28 × 10⁸ 1.31
Glass (Crown) 1.97 × 10⁸ 1.52
Glass (Flint) 1.85 × 10⁸ 1.62
Diamond 1.24 × 10⁸ 2.42
Glycerin 1.99 × 10⁸ 1.47
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Dispersion of light MIRROR
 Dispersion: White light splits into seven colors
 Mirror two types
(VIBGYOR: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
• Plane
Orange, Red).
 Violet ray deviates the most, red the least. • Spherical
 Speed of violet light is minimum and red is maximum ➢ Concave
in glass. ➢ Convex
 Violet: lowest wavelength, highest frequency.
 Red: highest wavelength, lowest frequency.
CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRRORS
Concave Mirror
 Inward curved reflecting surface.
 Used by dentists, torches, headlights, searchlights.
 Produces a clear image.

Critical Angle & Total Internal

Reflection
 Critical Angle (θc): The angle of incidence in a denser
medium for which the angle of refraction in the rarer Convex Mirror:
medium becomes 90°.
 Depends on nature of both mediums and color of rays.  Outward curved reflecting surface.
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR): Occurs when light in  Used as rear-view/side mirrors in vehicles.
a denser medium hits a rarer medium at an angle > θc,
and is reflected completely back.
 Mirage and optical fibers work on this principle.

LENSES
 Lens: Homogenous medium with two curved surfaces
(or one curved, one plane).
Types:
 Convex (Converging) Lens: Thick in center, thin at
Reflection edge. Converges rays at one-point, positive focal length.
Used to correct hypermetropia (far-sightedness).
 When light hits a surface, it can be absorbed,  Convex images: Larger, real and inverted (for distant
transmitted, or reflected. objects), virtual and erect (for close).
 Reflection: Light bounces off an object.
 Smooth/polished surfaces reflect more.
 Silver is the best reflector.

 Concave (Diverging) Lens: Thin in center, thick at

edge. Diverges rays, negative focal length. Used to
correct myopia (near-sightedness).
 Concave images: Smaller and farther, always virtual
and erect.

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  Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: If work W is
converted into heat Q then:
 W (in J) = J × Q (in calories). J = 4.186 joules/calorie
(value of J).
 If 4.186 joules of work is done, 1 calorie of heat is
generated.
Scattering of Light
 Scattering: Deflection of light in different directions due Thermodynamics
to particles.
 Shorter wavelengths scatter more than longer. First Law of Thermodynamics
 Blue sky due to scattering of short wavelength light.  Energy is conserved. Heat given to a system is used for:
Important Values Increasing internal energy (temperature rises). Doing
 Highest energy per quantum: 200–280 nm (UV external work.
range).  Isothermal Process: Any change where temperature
 Visible range: 400–700 nm or 4000–7000 Å. remains constant during the process.
 Human eye most sensitive to yellowish-green color;  Adiabatic Process: Any change where the system does
peak sensitivity at 555 nm. not exchange heat with the surroundings. Example:
 Sound: Human ear is most sensitive between 1000– When CO₂ expands and turns dry, it is an adiabatic
5000 Hz. change.
 Persistence of vision: Image on retina remains for
1/16th of a second. Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Impression of sound: Persists for 1/10th of a second.
 The speed of light depends on the optical density of  Second law determines the direction of heat flow.
the (transparent) medium in which it is travelling.  Kelvin's Statement: Complete conversion of heat into
 Optical density of a medium is not the same as work is impossible.
physical density (physical density refers to  Clausius' Statement: Heat cannot flow from an object
mass/volume ratio). of lower temperature to an object of higher
 Refractive index is the indicator of the optical density temperature.
of a medium.
 The optical density of air depends on its temperature, Facts and Conversions
pressure, and humidity.Hence, the speed of light in  Burns by steam at 100°C are more severe than burns by
air depends on its optical density, temperature, and water at 100°C (steam contains latent heat).
pressure.  1 gram of steam at 100°C contains 540 calories more
 Atmospheric refraction (e.g. mirage) occurs due to heat than 1 gram of water at 100°C.
changes in these gradients.  -40° centigrade (Celsius) = -40° Fahrenheit.
 When light travels from one medium to another, the  In cold countries, alcohol is used in thermometers (low
frequency of the light does not change. freezing point), better than mercury for low
 However, the velocity, wavelength, and refractive temperatures.
index of the medium are changed.  Ethylene glycol is used as antifreeze in engines. Mixed
 Total internal reflection takes place when a ray of with water, the freezing point goes below 0°C,
light is travelling from a denser to a rarer medium preventing freezing.
and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical  Density (ρ) = Mass/Volume. Density decreases when
angle. volume increases (on heating). Density is inversely
 For example, diamond is denser than glass, so total proportional to volume.
internal reflection can occur in diamond more easily  Glass rod in steam: Diameter increases with its length
than in glass due to heat.
 Substances that shrink on melting: Cast iron, ice,
THERMODYNAMICS, HEAT & antimony, bismuth, brass, etc. Such solids float in their
own liquid.
RELATED CONCEPTS  Thermostat: Controls/stabilizes temperature in
devices.
Heat  Both control temperature and air speed.
 Heat: Energy transferred between objects only due to  Air conditioner: Controls both humidity and
temperature difference. Heat in an object depends on temperature (when installed in the room).Air cooler:
its mass.
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 Only controls temperature and air speed, not  Lower respiration = slower ripening and decay =
humidity. longer preservation.
 Adding impurities like salt to water increases boiling
point. Adding impurities generally decreases melting Woolen Fibers
point (e.g., salt/saltpetre reduces ice’s melting point Woolen fibers: Made of protein; poor conductor due to air
from 0°C to -22°C). between fibers.

Thermos Flask Principle WAVE MOTION

 Vacuum between the two layers prevents heat loss by
 Wave Motion: The process of propagation of a
conduction, convection, and radiation. Liquid stays
disturbance produced by some factor is called wave
hot/cold for a long time.
motion.
 Phase of Vibration: The quantity by which the position
White Colour & Heat and direction of motion of a particle oscillating in
White color: Complete reflector of light, absorbs very little periodic motion at any instant is determined is called
heat. White surfaces are cooler than black. Use white the phase of vibration at that instant.
umbrellas in summer for protection from sun.  Wavelength: In wave motion, the distance between two
consecutive particles oscillating in the same phase is
Sweating called wavelength.
Loss of water by sweating depends on temperature and  Wavelength Symbol: It is expressed by the Greek letter
humidity. lambda (λ). In transverse waves, wavelength is the
distance between adjacent crests or troughs. In
Clay Pots & Water Cooling longitudinal waves, it is the distance between two
Tiny holes in clay pots cause evaporation, which cools the successive compressions or rarefactions.
water. Surface cooling happens as water escapes.  Relation between wave speed, wavelength and
frequency:
• Wave speed (v) = Frequency (f) × Wavelength
Humidity & Pressure
(λ); v = fλ.
 Humid weather: Higher humidity.
 Atmospheric pressure: Exerted from all directions, but
we don’t feel it as blood pressure balances it. Mechanical Waves
 We feel external pressure inside water, since water  A Mechanical wave is an oscillation of matter,
pressure > normal blood pressure. transferring energy through a medium.
 Mechanical waves require elasticity and inertia of
medium.
Water Freezing in Bottles
 The oscillating material does not move far from
Water expands as it turns to ice at 0°C, so bottles break if
equilibrium.
filled and frozen.
 Mechanical waves can be Transverse or
Longitudinal.
Earth, Radiation & Clouds
 Earth absorbs heat during the day, emits heat at night
(radiation).
Transverse Waves
 Transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to
 Cloudy nights: Clouds reflect back the heat, so cloudy
the direction of energy transfer.
nights are warmer than clear nights.
 Crest: Maximum upward displacement. Trough:
Maximum downward displacement.
Reflection from Land Types  Wavelength (λ): Distance from crest to crest or trough
 Snow reflects 80–85% of sunlight. to trough.
 Sand desert: 30–40%  Examples: Vibrating rope, water ripples, etc.
 Prairie land: 20–25%
 Paddy fields: 10–20%

Longitudinal Waves
Fruits Storage & Respiration  Oscillations are in the same direction as propagation.
 Cold chamber storage: Decreases respiration rate of  Compression: Region with close particles. Rarefaction:
fruits → longer storage life. Region with far particles.
 Fruits continue to respire and use oxygen after  Wavelength: Distance between compressions or
harvesting. rarefactions.

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 Sound is a longitudinal wave. Propagation of Sound
Wave Formulas & Properties  Sound propagates very slow in gas.
Time period (T): Time for one vibration.  Sound propagates faster in a liquid than in a gas.
Frequency (n): Number of vibrations per second (Hz).  Sound speed is fastest in solids.
T=1/n  Sound does not propagate in vacuum.
Speed (v) = Frequency (n) × Wavelength (λ), or v = nλ.
Transmission of Sound Waves
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES  Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and
 Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium for liquids as longitudinal waves.
propagation.  Through solids, sound can be transmitted as both
 Examples: X-rays, Light, Radio waves, etc. longitudinal and transverse waves.
 All travel at speed of light in vacuum.
 Shorter wavelength = higher energy Frequency Range of Sound
 longer wavelength = less energy.
Sound waves are classified into three types based on
frequency range:
Name of Discoverer Wavelength Applications
Wave range
10⁻¹4 to 10⁻¹⁰ m
Gamma
Rays
Henry Becquerel
Paul Villard
It has maximum
penetrating power. (i) Audible Sound Waves
Its application is in
nuclear reaction and
artificial  Our ear is only capable to hear such sound waves.
radioactivity. Gamma  Frequency range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
rays can kill living
cells, they are used to
kill cancerous cells.
This technique is (ii) Infrasonic Waves
called Radiotherapy.
X-Rays Wilhelm Rontgen 10⁻¹⁰ to 3×10⁻⁸ Its application is in the
m field of medical and  Frequency is below the frequencies of audible sound
industries.
(i.e., below 20 Hz).
Ultraviole Johann Ritter 10⁻⁸ to 4×10⁻⁷ m Hospitals use UV
t Rays lamps to sterilize  Sources: Found in nature (whale, elephants, hippos,
surgical equipment giraffes, alligators, squid/cuttlefish/octopus,
and the air in operating
theatres. Food & drug earthquakes, avalanches, meteors).
companies also use  Many animals can hear infrasonic waves.
UV lamps to sterilize  Earthquakes produce infrasonics of low frequency
their products.
Suitable doses of before the main shock wave, which can alert animals.
ultraviolet rays cause
the body to produce

Visible – 4×10⁻⁷ m to
Vitamin D.
It is the visible
(iii) Ultrasonic Waves
Radiation 7.8×10⁻⁷ m spectrum that is
(light) visible to the human
eyes and is responsible  Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above 20,000 Hz.
for the sense of sight.  These waves are beyond the normal hearing range of
Infrared William Herschel 7.8×10⁻⁷ m to These waves are
Rays 10⁻³ m responsible for
humans.
heating of any object.  Many animals emit and use ultrasonic frequencies (e.g.,
These are used in bats, whales, dolphins, mice).
night vision cameras
and in TV remote
control.
Shortwav Heinrich Hertz 10⁻³ to 1 m These are used for the Applications of Ultrasonic Waves
e Radio transmission of radio
or & television signals.
Hertzian The microwaves used  A dog whistle (Galton whistle) emits ultrasound, used
waves in RADAR and for training and calling dogs.
(Microwa microwave oven also
ves) use Radio waves.  Widely used in industries and medicine.
Many celestial  Echocardiography (Echo Test): Ultrasound image of
objects, such as
pulsars emit radio the heart.
waves.  Used to break down kidney stones into smaller pieces
Longwave Marconi 1 to 10⁴ m Applied in the for removal.
Radio transmission of radio
& televisions  Used for cleaning zig-zag tubes.
Programmes.  SONAR (Sound Navigation & Ranging): Determines
distance, direction, and speed of underwater objects

SOUNDWAVE using ultrasound.

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Sound Intensity Electric Motor
 Electric motor: Converts electrical energy into
 Sound intensity is the power carried by sound waves mechanical energy.
per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that area.  Works opposite to a dynamo: a current in a coil in a
 SI Unit: Watt per square meter (W/m²). magnetic field produces rotation (runs machines).
 1/10th of a bel (dB, decibel) is commonly used for
Electric motors can burn out at low voltage due to
measuring intensity.
excessive current (current ∝ 1/voltage).

Echo
Tungsten, Lighting & Conductors
 Tungsten: Used in electric bulbs. Melting point:
 An echo is a sound or sounds caused by the reflection of
sound waves from a surface back to the listener. 3422°C, boiling point: 5555°C. Produces light by
 Minimum time interval for an echo: 0.1 second heating up (incandescence).
(distance between source and reflector must be at least  Lightning Conductor: Metal rod (often copper) to
16.5 meters for a clear echo). protect buildings from lightning. Charges pass to earth,
preventing destruction. Copper preferred over iron
Mach Number (doesn't oxidize as easily).
 Fuse Wire: Low melting point, high resistance; melts
 Ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the quickly at high current to protect appliances.
surrounding medium.
 Mach Number = Speed of object / Speed of sound in Lamps, Tubes & Fluorescence
air
 Neon gas is filled in discharge lamps, tubes,
• Subsonic Aircraft: Speed less than the speed of
sound. fluorescent bulbs.
• Supersonic Object: Mach Number between 1-5  Low pressure mercury vapour & argon are filled in
(e.g., missiles). fluorescent lamps (sometimes xenon, neon, krypton).
• Hypersonic Object: Mach Number more than 5  Tube light: Mercury vapour + inert gas (mainly
(e.g., BrahMos-II missile). argon), inner surface of glass is coated with phosphor
powder.
ELECTRICITY  Fluorescent tubes: Filled with argon, xenon, neon gas +
 Electric Current: The rate of flow of electric charge in mercury vapour at very low pressure/vacuum.
a conductor is called electric current. Its SI unit is
ampere (A). It is a scalar quantity. Transformers & Electrical Devices
 One ampere electric current: If 1 ampere (1A) of  Transformer: Steps up or steps down alternating
electric current flows through a conductor, every current (AC). Has two coils: Primary coil and
second 6.25 × 10¹⁸ electrons enter the wire at one end Secondary coil. Step down transformer used in phone
and the same number exit from the other. chargers.
 Electric Power: The rate of energy dissipation in an  Rectifier: Converts AC into DC.
electric circuit is called power. SI unit: watt.  Inverter: Converts DC into AC.
 Kilowatt hour unit (kWh): The amount of electrical  Transmitter: Sends electromagnetic signals, mainly
energy consumed in a circuit in one hour when power used in radio, television.
is 1 kilowatt.
• Kilowatt hour = Volt × Ampere × Hour / 1000 = Solar Cells / Photovoltaic Cells
Watt × Hour / 1000.  Solar cell: Device converting solar light into electrical
• 1 kilowatt hour = 36 × 10⁵ Joule = 3.6 × 10⁶ energy by photovoltaic effect.
Joule.  Also called PV (photovoltaic) devices.
Dynamo:
 Another name for electric generator (usually produces Earth’s Magnetic Field
direct current/DC). Uses rotating coil of wire & Earth's Magnetic Field: Generated by cyclic currents inside
magnetic field (Faraday's Law) to convert mechanical the earth's core (geomagnetic field).
energy into electrical energy.
 Both dynamos and electric motors use electromagnetic ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
induction: dynamos convert mechanical energy to  Electrical conductivity (σ): The ability of a substance
electrical energy; motors do the reverse. to conduct electric current. The ratio of current
density (J) to electric field intensity (E) = conductivity
(σ).
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 Best conductor: Silver, then copper, aluminium, iron.
Substances with very low resistivity = conductors.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 Nuclear Fusion: Two light nuclei combine to form a
 Lightning Conductor: Metal rod (copper preferred).
heavier nucleus.
 Nuclear fission is the process in which the nucleus of a
SEMICONDUCTORS heavy atom (such as Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239)
 Semiconductors: Solid substances with electrical splits into two or more smaller nuclei, along with the
resistivity between 10⁻² and 1 ohm-m at room release of a large amount of energy.
temperature. Resistivity decreases as temperature  Thermonuclear reactions: Require very high
increases. temperatures.
 Germanium and silicon used in semiconductors.  Tokamak design: Common for fusion reactors.
Transistors: Made from silicon, germanium.  Nuclear Reactor: Device for controlled fission
 Silicon mostly used now due to better properties than (moderator like H₂O, heavy water, graphite,
germanium. beryllium oxide slows neutrons). Chain reaction
 Transistor: Device for amplification/switching, made possible.
from semiconductors.  Nuclear reactor is a special type of nuclear reactor, in
which 'Uranium- 235' and 'Plutonium-239' are usually
COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR used as fuel. In this, the chain reaction is controlled.
When these explosive materials are bombarded with
neutrons, new neutrons are produced.
 Nuclear Reactor vs Nuclear Bomb: Reactor:
Controlled by moderator (chain reaction sustained).
 Bomb: No moderator (chain reaction uncontrolled).

Comparison: Nuclear Fission vs Nuclear

Fusion
Aspect Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Definition Splitting of a Combining of two light
heavy nucleus into nuclei to form a heavier
two lighter nuclei nucleus
Examples of Uranium-235, Isotopes of Hydrogen
Fuel Plutonium-239 (Deuterium and Tritium)
Energy High energy Much higher energy release
Output release than fission
By-products Radioactive waste Few or no radioactive by-
(hazardous) products
Control Can be controlled Very difficult to control
(used in nuclear (requires extremely high
reactors) temperature/pressure)
Mnemonic: BB ROY of Great Britain Visited
Chain Possible (can be Not chain-based; reaction
GateWay Reaction sustained or must be constantly sustained
uncontrolled)
Natural Does not occur Occurs naturally in stars,
Notable Scientists & Discoveries Occurrence naturally including the Sun
Discovery Scientist(s) Year Remarks (induced)
Meson Hideki 1935 Theoretical Temperature Relatively low Extremely high (~million to
Yukawa prediction; Nobel Required (~million °C) billion °C)
Prize in Physics Applications Nuclear power Hydrogen bombs, future
(1949) plants, atomic clean energy (experimental
Positron Carl D. 1932 Discovered using a bombs fusion reactors)
Anderson cloud chamber;
Victor Hess was not
involved Radioisotopes
Energy Hans Bethe 1938 Proposed proton- Radioisotopes: Used in diagnostic and therapeutic nuclear
Production in (theory) proton chain & CNO
Sun & Stars cycle; Nobel Prize in medicines.
Physics (1967)
Transuranium
Elements
Glenn T.
Seaborg
1940s
onward
Discovered
Plutonium,
Thorium & Uranium
Americium, Curium,  Thorium: Important nuclear fuel in India, found in
etc.; major work in
nuclear chemistry
states like Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Jharkhand, West Bengal.
 Radioactivity: Nuclear property.
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 Enriched Uranium: Percentage of uranium-235 is  PARAM: India's first supercomputer designed by C-
increased by isotope separation. DAC in 1991. Newer PARAM series: Param Shivay
 Heavy water (D₂O): Used as moderator/coolant in (IIT-BHU), Param Shakti (IIT-Kharagpur), Param
nuclear reactors. Brahma (IISER Pune), Param Pravega (IISc
Bengaluru), Param Ganga (IIT-Roorkee), Param
Hydrogen Bomb Kamrupa (IIT-Guwahati), Param Himalaya (IIT-
Hydrogen Bomb: Works on nuclear fusion principle Mandi), Param Utkarsh (C-DAC Bengaluru), Param
(deuterium + tritium). Note: Uncontrolled fusion reaction. Smriti (NABI Mohali), Param Yukti (JNCASR
Bengaluru), Param Seva (IIT-Hyderabad), Param
Breeder Reactor Ananta (IIT-Gandhinagar), Param Sanganak (IIT-
Kanpur), Param Porul (NIT-Trichy), Param Siddhi-AI
This is a nuclear reactor that produces more fissile material
(C-DAC Pune).
than it consumes as fuel.

INSTALLED NUCLEAR POWER Classification of Computers

 Microcomputer (Personal Computer): Desktop, Laptop,
CAPACITY (INDIA) Notebook, Tablet, Palmtop.
 Tarapur Atomic Power Station (Maharashtra): 1400  Minicomputer: Used for scientific and engineering
MW computations, business transaction processing, file
 Kaiga Atomic Power Plant: 880 MW handling, and database management. Called midsize
 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station: 1140 MW server.
 Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant (as of Oct 2023):  Mainframe computer: Used by large organizations for
2000 MW critical applications, bulk data processing, census,
statistics, resource planning.
Narora Atomic Plant  Supercomputer: Highest performance, measured in
Narora Atomic Plant: Located in Uttar Pradesh (seismic FLOPS (Floating-point operations per second). Used
belt IV). Kalpakkam: Belt II; Kaiga/Tarapur: Belt III. for weather forecasting, oil & gas exploration, physical
simulations, quantum mechanics, climate research,
molecular modelling.
INDIA'S MAIN ATOMIC RESEARCH  Supercomputers are expensive and used for big
CENTRES projects.
 Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research –  AIRAWAT-PSAI: Fastest Supercomputer in India (C-
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) DAC, Pune).
 Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and • Performance: 8.50 Petaflop/s (Rmax), 13.17
Research – Hyderabad Petaflop/s (Rpeak)
 Harishchandra Research Institute – Prayagraj • Rank: 110th (June 2024).
 Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics – Kolkata • Top 3 supercomputers worldwide: 1. Frontier
 Rawatbhata Atomic Power Station – Kota (U.S.), 2. Aurora (U.S.), 3. Eagle (U.S.).
(Rajasthan)
 Narora Atomic Power Station – Uttar Pradesh GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
 Kaiga Atomic Power Station – Karnataka
 Madras Atomic Power Station – Kalpakkam Generation Hardware Software Character Example
istics

COMPUTER & INFORMATION I

1940–1956
Use of vacuum
tube and
Use of
machine
Big size,
expensive,
(i) ENIAC
(Electronic
Magnetic Drum language limited Numerical
TECHNOLOGY Memory application Integrator
and
Calculator)
(ii) EDSAC
Development of Computers in India (Electronic
Delay
 HEC-2M (Hollerith Electronic Digital Computer): Storage
Computer technology in India started in the 1950s. Automatic
Calculator)
HEC-2M was installed in 1956 at the Indian Statistical (iii)
UNIVAC
Institute, Calcutta (now Kolkata). (Universal
 TIFRAC (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Automatic
Computers)
Automatic Calculator): First computer developed in II Use of Programming Small in IBM 1620,
India at Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1956–1963 transistor, language size, IBM 7094,
Magnetic core FORTRAN, storage UNIVAC
Mumbai. Formally commissioned in 1960. for memory, COBOL capacity 1108
high and

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 use of magnetic speed is Type Full Form Volatile Function
tape & Disk fast
III Use of Use of O.S. Very Minicompute
1964–1971 integrated (Operating small size, rs RAM-D Dynamic RAM Yes Stores data in
circuit system), use applicatio (DRAM) capacitors; needs
of High level n in
language document continuous refreshing
BASIC ation and
processing RAM-S Static RAM Yes Faster than DRAM;
IV Use of Spread sheet Fast speed Microcomput
(SRAM) does not need
1971– integrated software, and cheap ers
Present circuit, micro Data Base refreshing but more
processor & software, expensive
memory of Graphical
Semiconductor user interface
at very large RAM-E Extended RAM Yes Refers to memory
scale beyond standard limits
V Multimedia, Internet and Very Notebook, or enhanced cache
Present and Internet, optical multimedia, small, fast Palmtop
onward disk, parallel Artificial speed, (rarely used term)
processing intelligence easy in
hardware software, use application
of all high multifacete
level d
languages as application ROM – Read Only Memory
C, C++, Java, s (sound,
Dot Net visual &
text)  ROM is non-volatile memory – data is retained even
when power is turned off.
Note:  Stores firmware or bootstrap programs (e.g., BIOS).
There have been supercomputers in all generations of  Data is mostly read-only and pre-programmed.
computers. As the definition of a supercomputer is simply
any computer with a very high level of performance
compared to a general-purpose computer. So, the very Types of ROM:
fastest computers of any generation are supercomputers.
Type Full Form Volatile? Function

Main Parts of Computer ROM Read Only No Permanent, non-

Memory editable storage
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): during
manufacture
• a) Control Unit,
• b) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). PROM Programmable No Can be
 Memory Unit: Read Only programmed
▪ a) Primary Memory (RAM, ROM), Memory once after
manufacture
▪ b) Secondary Memory (Hard Disk, CD ROM,
DVD, Pen Drive, Blu-ray Disc). EPROM Erasable No Can be erased
 Input Unit (keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.) Programmable using UV light
 Output Unit (printer, monitor, speakers, etc.). ROM and
reprogrammed
 Memory Capacity:
• Byte, Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes, EEPROM Electrically No Can be erased
• Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB, Erasable and rewritten
• Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB, Programmable electrically (used
• Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB. ROM in BIOS, flash
memory)

Types of Memory
Computer Software
RAM – Random Access Memory  System Software: Operating system, provides a
platform (e.g. Windows, macOS, Ubuntu, Linux,
 RAM is volatile memory – data is lost when power is Android).
turned off.  Application Software: User-specific tasks (word
 It temporarily stores data for currently running processing, spreadsheets, database, graphics, browsers).
programs and processes.
 RAM provides fast read/write access and is used as Programming Languages
main memory.  Computer understands only machine language (0s and
1s, binary code).
Types of RAM:
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 Examples: COBOL, BASIC, ALGOL, C, C++, Java,
Prolog, PASCAL, C-Sharp, RPG, LISP, SNOBOL.
SCIENTISTS & INVENTIONS

Computer Networks Albert Einstein (1879–1955)

 Local Area Network (LAN): connects computers within
• German-born physicist.
a limited area (home, lab, office).
• Developed the special and general theories of
 Wide Area Network (WAN): covers large geographical relativity.
distance. • Won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): covers city or explanation of the photoelectric effect.
campus, formed by uniting router, switch, hub. • Considered the most influential physicist of the 20th
Century.
World Wide Web (www) • In 1915, Einstein published the General Theory of
Relativity explaining the law of gravitation and its
 Combination of all resources and users on the Internet
relation to the forces of nature
using Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
 Tim Berners-Lee invented the Web in 1989 at CERN,
Switzerland.
Famous Scientists – Key Contributions
 Web documents are in HTML, supporting links,
Scientist Main Contribution / Invention Native
graphics, audio, video. Land
Archimedes Principle of Buoyancy, Principle Greek
of Lever
E-mail Galileo Galilei Telescope, Principle of inertia Italy
 Invented by Ray Tomlinson. Christian Huygens Wave theory of light, Pendulum Holland
 Electronic mail is a method of exchanging messages Clock, Discovery of Saturn’s
moon Titan
between computers. Isaac Newton Laws of motion, Law of universal England
gravitation, Reflecting telescope
Other Important Facts Michael Faraday Principles of electromagnetic
induction
England

 IC chips for computers are usually made of: Silicon. James Clerk Electromagnetic Principle, Light - England
 First Computer: Charles Babbage Maxwell An electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Electromagnetic Waves, Germany
 Electronic Computer: Dr. Alan M. Turing Hertz Photoelectric effect
 Digital Computer: Britain Jagdish Chandra Investigation of Radio and India
 First Digital Computer with Ic chips: IBM System/360 Bose Microwave optics
W. C. Rontgen X-Ray (Invention) Germany

J. J. Thomson Discovery of Electrons England
SUMMARY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES Marie Sklodowska
Curie
Discovery of Radium &
Polonium, Study of Natural
Poland

Radioactivity
Albert Einstein (Only person to win Nobel Prize Germany
in both Physics & Chemistry)
Theory of relativity, Photoelectric
effect explanation
Victor Francis Discovery of Cosmic rays Austria
Hess
Robert Andrews Measurement of elementary America
Millikan electric charge
Ernest Rutherford Discovery of Atomic nucleus, New
Proton, α, β rays, laws of Zealand
radioactive decay, identified α-
particles as helium nuclei
Niels Bohr Quantum mechanical model of Denmark
Hydrogen atom
Chandrasekhara Discovery of Raman Effect India
Venkata Raman (Inelastic scattering of light by
molecules)
Louis Victor de Wave Properties of matter France
Broglie
Meghnad Saha Saha ionization equation India
Satyendra Nath Boson - a class of particle named India
Bose after him, Quantum Statistics
Wolfgang Ernst Exclusion Principle Austria
Pauli
Enrico Fermi Architect of nuclear age, atomic Italy
bomb, Controlled nuclear fission
Werner Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty Germany
Heisenberg Principle

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 Paul Dirac Quantum Mechanics, Quantum England  Interplanetary – Mangalyaan (Mars), Shukrayaan‑1
electrodynamics (Venus)
Edwin Hubble Astronomy, extra galaxy America
discovery, Expansion of Universe  Solar – Aditya‑L1 (Sun’s corona)
Ernest Orlando Invented Cyclotron (particle America  Human Spaceflight – Gaganyaan, Axiom‑4
Lawrence accelerator) participation (Shubhanshu Shukla)
James Chadwick Discovery of Neutron England  Robotic / Scientific – XPoSat (X-ray polarimetry),
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces, Japan
prediction of the pi meson
SpaDeX (dock/undock)
Homi Jahangir Indian Nuclear Physicist, Father of India  Earth Observation – Cartosat, RISAT, Oceansat,
Bhabha Indian Nuclear Programme, NISAR (joint mission), RHUMI‑1
Cosmic Radiations
Lev Davidovich Quantum theory of condensed Russia
Landau matter & liquid Helium Major Indian Missions – Timeline &
C. S. Dhawan Chandra Shekhar limit and India
structure & development of stars Highlights
John Bardeen Transistor, Theory of America
Superconductivity (only person to
win Nobel Prize in Physics twice: Mission Year Objectives & Highlights
1956 for transistor, 1972 for BCS Chandrayaan-1 2008 3D lunar mapping; first
Theory) detection of lunar water
C.H. Townes MASER and LASER America Mangalyaan 2013 First successful Mars
Abdus Salam Electroweak unification theory Pakistan (Mars Orbiter) orbit on first attempt
Astrosat 2015 India’s first space
observatory (multi-
Other Key Scientist Facts wavelength)
Chandrayaan-2 2019 Orbiter functional;
 Charles Darwin (1809–1882) lander failed
 Ramanujan (1887–1920) RISAT-2BR1, 2019–20 All-weather earth
 Einstein: Proposed special theory of relativity in 1905 Cartosat-3, imaging; 25 cm
and general theory in 1915. EOS-01 resolution
 C.V. Raman (1888–1970): Birth centenary celebrated Chandrayaan-3 2023 First soft landing near
in 1988. lunar south pole
Aditya-L1 2023 (L1 Solar corona & space
Jan 2024) weather study
Nuclear Science in India XPoSat 2024 First polarimetric X-ray
studies (POLIX,
 Dr. Raja Ramanna: XSPECT)
SpaDeX 2024–25 Demonstrated
• Major contributor to India’s Atomic Bomb.
autonomous docking &
• Supervised first nuclear test (Smiling Buddha) un-docking
in 1974. INSAT-3DS, Feb & Meteorological &
• Served as Director General of DRDO and as EOS-08 Aug 2024 infrared/UV earth
Scientific Advisor to Defence Minister (1978–81). observation
Gaganyaan 2025– First Indian human
(planned) 2027 mission to LEO
Expensive Scientific Materials (with Shukrayaan-1 2028 Venus orbiter to study
Discovery Year & Cost/gram) (Proposed) atmosphere
Chandrayaan-4, TBD Lunar sample-return;
LUPEX Lupolar exploration
Material Discovery Cost per gram
NISAR July 2025 Joint NASA-ISRO radar
(Year) (US $) (Planned) imaging satellite
Tritium 1934 30,000
Rhodium 1803 58
Californium-252 1950 27 million
Launch Vehicles
Endohedral 1985 167 million
Fullerene Vehicle Payload & Orbit Highlights
SSLV ≤ 500 kg to 500 km Quick deployment;
planar orbit EOS-08 launched via
INDIAN SPACE MISSIONS SSLV-D3 in Aug 2024
PSLV 1.75 t to SSO, 1.4 t to Versatile; launched
GTO Mangalyaan, Cartosat,
Types of Space Missions Chandrayaan-1
GSLV Mk II Up to 2.5 t to GTO Used for GSAT
satellites; uses
 Orbital – Communication, navigation, observation (e.g., cryogenic engine CE-
INSAT/GSAT, NavIC, EOS, Astrosat) 7.5
 Lunar – Chandrayaan series (orbiters, landers, rovers) GSLV Mk III 4 t to GTO, 8 t to Used for
(LVM3) LEO Chandrayaan-2/3,

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 OneWeb, planned for  CROPS Module: ISRO’s experiment aboard
Gaganyaan
Gaganyaan test module. Demonstrated seed
RLV-TD Experimental Reusable tech;
PUSHPAK landed
germination (cowpea) in microgravity—vital for life-
autonomously in 2024 support in space.
NGLV Up to 10 t to GTO Uses green fuel;  Artemis Accords: India joined in June 2023. Ensures
supports Indian Space
Station; cost-effective peaceful lunar/Mars exploration. Promotes data
sharing and cooperation.

Infrastructure & Space Station  Eurodrone Program: India given observer status.
Provides insights into UAV technologies for indigenous
development like Tapas-BH and Archer-NG.
 Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu): New spaceport for
 Evolved LISA (ESA–NASA): Space-based
SSLVs
gravitational wave observatory using three spacecraft
 Bhartiya Antariksh Station:
flying in triangular formation with 1 million km arms.
• Planned by 2035
• 5-module Indian space station in LEO  Project Gaganyaan's Test Vehicle Abort Missions:
Demonstrated safe astronaut escape under emergency
• ₹20,000 crore allocated in 2023
conditions.
• Project Soorya: NGLV + Indian Space Station
 SUIT (Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope): Key
instrument aboard Aditya-L1 for UV imaging of Sun’s
photosphere and chromosphere.
Private Sector & Collaborations
 NICES (National Information System for Climate
and Environment Studies): ISRO initiative for long-
Startups:
term climate data using EO satellites. Aids India’s Paris
 Skyroot: Vikram-S (2022), private launcher Agreement compliance.
 Agnikul: Agnibaan, built India’s first private
 Bluebird Satellite: A foreign commercial payload
launchpad launched by ISRO in 2025 to showcase India's global
 Pixxel: Hyperspectral satellites (Firefly) launch capabilities.
 Dhruva Space: CubeSat services
 Firefly by Pixxel: India’s first private hyperspectral
 Bellatrix: Green propulsion systems
satellite constellation. Useful in agriculture, mining,
and climate monitoring.
Collaborations:  Axiom Space: Private ISS missions in partnership with
NASA: NISAR, astronaut training NASA. India’s first astronaut aboard Axiom-4 boosted
CNES: Gaganyaan life-support India–NASA human spaceflight cooperation.
JAXA: LUPEX rover  ISRO’s Launch Record: Over 100 launches as of 2025;
ESA: Tracking & science support PSLV holds record for launching 104 satellites in a
Roscosmos: Training Gaganyaan astronauts single mission.
Bhutan: India-Bhutan SAT (2022)  GSLV appears fixed in the sky: This is due to satellites
placed in geostationary orbits—ideal for
Other Important Facts communication purposes.
 Geostationary Orbit: 36,000 km altitude, remains fixed  SpaDeX (Space Docking Experiment): Validated
relative to Earth. India's autonomous orbital docking tech, essential for
 Brown Dwarf: Between planet and star; emits infrared. future space stations and Gaganyaan modules.
 White Dwarf: Dense remnant of sun-like stars.
 Trojan Asteroids: Share orbit with a planet at Lagrange
Points.
DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
 Super Blue Moon: Two full moons in a month; second Defence Manufacturing & Innovation
is closest to Earth.
 Van Allen Radiation Belt: A torus of energetic charged
particles held around Earth by its magnetic field. Can iDEX & Defence Manufacturing Initiatives
damage spacecraft and pose risks to astronauts.
 RHUMI-1: India’s first 3D humidity profiling  iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence): Operates
satellite. Enhances weather forecasting and disaster under the Defence Innovation Organisation (DIO),
preparedness. formed by HAL & BEL to foster innovation in the
defence sector.
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 iDEX-Prime: Special program supporting deep-tech  January 2025: INS Surat, Nilgiri, and Vaghsheer
startups; offers funding up to ₹10 crore for advanced commissioned into the Indian Navy.
defence technologies.
 ADITI Scheme (2024): Allocated ₹750 crore to support
Drones and UAVs
30 advanced tech projects (including AI, quantum
technologies, and sensors).
 Defence Industrial Corridors: Established in Uttar  MQ-9B Predator: Armed, long-endurance UAV
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu to boost the Make in India acquired from the US for strategic surveillance and
initiative in defence manufacturing. strike.
 SRIJAN Portal: Over 14,000 items indigenised and  Tapas-BH: Indigenous MALE UAV (Medium Altitude
3,000+ items under the Positive Indigenisation List to Long Endurance) developed by DRDO.
promote self-reliance.  Heron TP, Hermes 900: Israeli UAVs with strategic
 Defence Output (2024): Achieved ₹1.27 lakh crore; roles in surveillance and reconnaissance.
target set for ₹3 lakh crore with ₹50,000 crore exports  Nagastra-1: Loitering munition with parachute
by 2029. recovery capability for precise strikes.
 Tata-Airbus Aircraft Plant: Located in Vadodara for  Swarm drones: AI-based kamikaze drones designed
production of C-295 aircraft; deliveries to begin from for mass attack and target saturation.
2026.  FWV-200B: VTOL UAV with 7-hour endurance and
 INDUS-X: A collaborative India–US innovation 800 km range for multipurpose use.
bridge for promoting defence startups and academic
partnerships.
Missile Classification
Combat Aircraft and Helicopters By Range:

 LCA Tejas Mk1A: Indigenous fighter jet equipped  SRBM (Short-Range Ballistic Missiles, <1000 km):
with AESA radar and electronic warfare (EW) Prithvi-II, Agni-I
systems.  MRBM (Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles, 1000–
 LCH Prachand: India’s first indigenous attack 3000 km): Agni-II, Agni-P
helicopter for high-altitude warfare.  IRBM (Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles, 3000–
 Apache AH-64E & Chinook CH-47F: US-origin 5500 km): Agni-III, Agni-IV
helicopters for attack and logistics roles, respectively.  ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, >5500
 Rafale: French multi-role fighter equipped with km): Agni-V, Agni-VI (proposed)
advanced Meteor and SCALP missiles.  Tactical Missiles: Shaurya, Prahaar
 Sukhoi Su-30MKI: The backbone of IAF; integrated
with BrahMos missile for enhanced capability. By Trajectory:
 MiG-29UPG, Mirage-2000, Jaguar, MiG-21 Bison:
Modernized or in the process of being phased out.  Ballistic Missiles: Agni, Prithvi, Shaurya, K-series
 Cruise Missiles: BrahMos (supersonic), Nirbhay
(subsonic), Rudram-1
Naval Platforms – Ships & Submarines
 Hypersonic Missiles: HSTDV, BrahMos-II (under
development)
 INS Vikrant: India’s first indigenous aircraft carrier;
commissioned in 2022.
Indian Missile Systems
 INS Vagir, Vaghsheer: Scorpene-class submarines
under Project-75 for enhanced underwater capability.
 INS Imphal, Surat: Project-15B destroyers equipped
Ballistic Missiles:
with BrahMos missiles.
• Agni-I to Agni-V: Serve as strategic deterrents with
 INS Vindhyagiri, Nilgiri: Stealth frigates (under
nuclear capability.
Project-17A) with advanced stealth and weapons.
• Prithvi-II, Dhanush: Short-range battlefield missiles.
 INS Kiltan, Abhay: Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW)
corvettes for coastal defence. • Shaurya: Quick-response tactical missile for rapid
deployment.

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Cruise Missiles:  BMD Phase-II: AD-1 and AD-2 interceptors to
counter ICBM-class threats.
• BrahMos, BrahMos-A (air-launched), Nirbhay
• Rudram-1: Anti-radiation missile for Suppression of
Important Points to remember
Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD/DEAD).
 Agni-P: Canisterised MRBM tested in 2023.
 Astra Mk-II: 150 km AAM under user trials (2024).
Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs):
 Pralay Missile: Tactical SRBM inducted in 2023.
• Akash, QRSAM, VL-SRSAM, Barak-8, XRSAM  Helina/Dhruvastra: Successful trials in Siachen-like
(under development) conditions.
 SANT ATGM: Air-launched anti-tank missile for
helicopters and UAVs.
Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs):
 BrahMos-ER: Extended-range (~800 km) version
• Nag, HELINA, MPATGM, SANT, Spike, Nag Mk2 deployed.
 VL-SRSAM: Naval air defence missile tested in 2023.
Air-to-Air Missiles (AAMs):  SEBEX-2: Thermobaric explosive; twice as powerful
as TNT.
• Astra Mk-I (~110 km), Astra Mk-II (~150 km),  Zorawar Tanks: Indigenous amphibious tanks for
Python-5 (<20 km) Himalayan deployment.
 GAURAV Glide Bomb: Air-launched, long-range
precision bomb.
Air Defence Systems &  ABHED: Lightweight bulletproof jackets by DRDO-
Countermeasures IIT Delhi.
 VSHORADS: Infrared-homing, man-portable air  SMART: Supersonic missile-assisted torpedo for anti-
defence system (tested in 2023). submarine warfare.
 Akashteer System: BEL’s integrated air defence  FOBS (Fractional Orbital Bombardment System):
management system for network-centric operations. Strategic missile concept
 C-Dome: Naval version of Israel’s Iron Dome for
shipborne missile defence.
 Bhargavastra: Micro-missile system to neutralize
swarm drone threats.

DRDO Strategic Projects

 IGMDP (Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme, 1983–2008): Developed Agni, Prithvi,
Akash, Nag, Trishul missiles.
 Mission Shakti (2019): ASAT (Anti-Satellite) test;
India became 4th country with this capability.
 Ballistic Missile Defence: Includes PAD, AAD, PDV,
XR-SAM for layered defence.
 Rudram Series: Missiles targeting enemy radars and
communication systems.
 HSTDV (Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator
Vehicle): Demonstrated in 2020; forms basis for
hypersonic missile development.
 Mission SCOT: NASM-SR (Naval Anti-Ship Missile –
Short Range) successfully tested (~55 km).
 Scramjet: DRDO-developed cooled scramjet engine
(2024) for hypersonic propulsion.
 Pinaka: Guided Multiple Barrel Rocket Launcher
(MBRL) with 120–200 km range.

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 PHYSICS FORMULAS TABLE Lens Formula 1/f = 1/v -
1/u
meter (m) f = focal
length
Physical Formula SI Unit Value Mirror 1/f = 1/v + meter (m) v = image
Quantity Formula 1/u distance, u =
Speed/Velocit v=d/t m/s d = distance, object
y (v) t = time distance
Acceleration a = Δv / t m/s² Δv = change Magnification m = h'/h = - h' = image,
(a) in velocity (m) v/u h = object, v
= image
Force (F) F=m×a N (Newton) m = mass, a dist, u =
= object dist
acceleration
Refractive n = c/v Dimensionles c = speed of
Momentum p=m×v kg·m/s Index (n) s light in
(p) vacuum, v =
Work (W) W=F×d Joule (J) F = force, d in medium
= Heat (Q) Q = m c ΔT Joule (J) c = specific
displacemen heat
t
Latent Heat Q = mL Joule (J) L = latent
Power (P) P=W/t Watt (W) W = work, t (L) heat
= time
Specific Heat Q = mcΔT J/kg·K
Energy (E) E=P×t Joule (J) (c)
Kinetic KE = (1/2) Joule (J) Heat Transfer Q = kA(T1- Joule (J) k = thermal
Energy (KE) m v² (Conduction) T2)t/d conductivity
Potential PE = m g h Joule (J) h = height, g Heat Transfer Q = εσAT⁴t Joule (J) ε=
Energy (PE) = 9.8 m/s² (Radiation) emissivity, σ
Gravitational F = G m₁ N (Newton) G= = Stefan–
Force (F) m₂ / r² 6.67×10⁻¹¹ Boltzmann
N·m²/kg² const
Universal g = GM / R² m/s² Earth: g ≈ Stefan– P = σAT⁴ Watt (W) σ=
Gravitation 9.8 m/s² Boltzmann 5.67×10⁻⁸
(g) Law W·m⁻²·K⁻⁴
Pressure (P) P=F/A Pascal (Pa) F = force, A Einstein’s E = m c² Joule (J) c = 3×10⁸
= area Equation m/s (speed
Density (ρ) ρ=m/V kg/m³ m = mass, V of light)
= volume Photoelectric hν = φ + Joule (J) φ = work
Buoyant FB = ρ g V N (Newton) V = volume Equation KEmax function
Force (FB) displaced de Broglie λ = h/mv m h = Planck’s
Wave Speed v=fλ m/s f= Wavelength const =
(v) frequency, λ 6.63×10⁻³⁴
= J·s
wavelength Binding BE = [Zmp Joule (J) Z = protons,
Frequency (f) f=1/T Hertz (Hz) T = time Energy (BE) + (A-Z)mn A = mass
period - M]c² number, M
= nucleus
Ohm’s Law V=IR Volt (V) I = current mass
(A), R =
resistance Simple T = 2π √(l / s (second) l = length
(Ω) Pendulum (T) g) (m), g = 9.8
m/s²
Electrical P=VI Watt (W)
Power (P) Spring Force F = -k x N (Newton) k = spring
(Hooke’s constant
Charge (Q) Q=It Coulomb (C) Law) (N/m), x =
Capacitance C=Q/V Farad (F) extension
(C) (m)
Magnetic F=BIl N (Newton) B = mag. Power P = I²R = Watt (W)
Force (F) sinθ field (T), l = (Electrical) V²/R
length (m), θ Resistors in Req = R1 + Ohm (Ω)
= angle Series R2 + ...
Centripetal Fc = m v² / N (Newton) r = radius Resistors in 1/Req = Ohm (Ω)
Force (Fc) r Parallel 1/R1 + 1/R2
Coulomb’s F = k q₁ q₂ / N (Newton) k = 9×10⁹ + ...
Law (F) r² N·m²/C² Capacitors in 1/Ceq = Farad (F)
Snell’s Law n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ Dimensionles Law of Series 1/C1 + 1/C2
sinθ₂ s refraction + ...

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Capacitors in Ceq = C1 + Farad (F) Modulus of E = σ/ε Pascal (Pa) σ = stress, ε
Parallel C2 + ... Elasticity = strain
Electric Field E = F/q = V/m Hydraulic F1/A1 = -
(E) V/d Press F2/A2
Electric V = W/q Volt (V) (Pascal’s
Potential (V) Law)
Electric p = q × 2a C·m a = distance Reynolds Re = ρvd/η - η = viscosity
Dipole from center Number (Re)
Moment (p) to charge
Magnetic Flux Φ=B·A· Weber (Wb) B = mag.
(Φ) cosθ field, A =
area (m²)
Faraday’s ε = -dΦ/dt Volt (V)
Law (EMF)
Transformer Vp/Vs = - V = voltage,
Equation Np/Ns N = number
of turns
Wave v=fλ m/s v = speed, f
Equation = frequency,
λ=
wavelength
Grating d sinθ = nλ m d = slit
Equation spacing
Lens Power P = 1/f Dioptre (D) f in meters
(P)
Boyle’s Law P1V1 = - (T constant)
P2V2
Charles’ Law V1/T1 = - (P constant)
V2/T2
Ideal Gas PV = nRT J R = 8.314
Law J/mol·K
Root Mean vrms = m/s k=
Square Speed √(3kT/m) Boltzmann
constant
Escape ve = m/s Earth ≈ 11.2
Velocity sqrt(2GM / km/s
R)
Orbital vo = m/s
Velocity sqrt(GM/r)
Torque (τ) τ = rF sinθ N·m
Angular L = Iω kg·m²/s I = moment
Momentum of inertia, ω
(L) = angular
speed
Work Done W = PΔV Joule (J)
by Gas
Efficiency (%) η= %
(Wout/Qin)
× 100
Half-life (t₁/₂) t₁/₂ = s λ = decay
0.693/λ constant
Hydrostatic P = ρgh Pascal (Pa)
Pressure
Bernoulli’s P + (1/2)ρv² Pascal (Pa)
Theorem + ρgh =
constant
Young’s Y= Pascal (Pa)
Modulus (Y) Stress/Strai
n
Surface T = F/l N/m F = force, l
Tension (T) = length

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 Note: Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as precisely 1/12

CHEMISTRY of the mass of an atom of Carbon-12.

Constitution of Atomic Nucleus

ATOMIC STRUCTURE  The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region
consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an
atom.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory  The proton & neutron jointly called nucleon.
 In the beginning of 19th century, Dalton proposed that  It was discovered by Ernest Rutherford (1911) based
all matters are composed of atoms which are indivisible on the Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment (1909).
and indestructible building blocks.  The nucleons are close-bound together to form a
 All atoms of an element are identical. nucleus by the nuclear force.

Drawbacks of Dalton’s Atomic Theory Atomic Number (Z)

It was proved later that atom is not indivisible. An atom can  Atomic number of an element is the number of
be subdivided into electrons, protons and neutrons. But protons in the nucleus of its atom.
remember that atom is the tiniest particle that takes part in a  The atomic number of Hydrogen is 1, it means it
chemical reaction. has one proton in its nucleus.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF Mass Number (A)

ATOM  The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s
nucleus is known as its mass number.
Electron  It determines the atomic mass of atoms.
 An electron is a negatively charged sub-atomic particle.  A mass number of atom = No. of protons + No. of
 It can either be free (not attached to any atom) or bound neutrons in nucleus of an atom.
to the nucleus of an atom.  It represents the total number of nucleons in the nucleus
 Electrons in atoms exist in spherical shells of various of an atom.
radii, representing energy levels.  The mass number is not a fundamental character of the
 The charge on an electron (e) is (-) 1.6022 × 10⁻¹⁹ element.
coulomb.
 The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1837 Atomic Weight
that of the proton or 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg.  The atomic weight of an atom is approximately equal to
 It was discovered by J.J. Thomson (1897). its mass number.
 Atomic mass unit of the electron is 0.0005486.  Atomic weight = No. of protons in nucleus + No. of
neutrons in nucleus of an atom
Proton
 A proton is a positively charged sub-atomic particle. Its Isoelectronic
symbol is p or p⁺.  The ions and atoms with an equal number of electrons
 The charge on a proton is (+) 1.6022 × 10⁻¹⁹ coulomb. are known as isoelectronic.
 Its weight is 1.6726 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.  The electronic configuration of these ions and atoms are
 Its atomic mass unit is 1.00277. the same. For example –
 It was first discovered by Goldstein as anode rays Na⁺ ––> 2,8
(1886) and finally identified and named by Rutherford Mg²⁺ ––> 2,8
(1919). F⁻ ––> 2,8
Note: The number of electrons is equal to the number of (Each ion/atom with same electronic configuration of 10
protons in an atom with equal charge of opposite nature. electrons)
Hence, the atom is neutral.
Isotopes
Neutron  Isotopes are atoms of a chemical element that have the
 It is a neutral sub-atomic particle so its name is same atomic number but with different atomic mass.
neutron.  The place of isotopes is same in the periodic table as
 It is represented by symbol n or n⁰. they have the same atomic number.
 Its mass is slightly larger than that of proton i.e. 1.0087.  Isotopes of Hydrogen (three isotopes):
 It was discovered by James Chadwick (1932).  Protium (¹H¹): 1 proton, 0 neutrons, Atomic Mass 1
 Deuterium (¹H²): 1 proton, 1 neutron, Atomic Mass 2
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 Tritium (¹H³): 1 proton, 2 neutrons, Atomic Mass 3 internal composition transforms into a
 Isotopes of oxygen: ¹⁶O, ¹⁷O, ¹⁸O. remains same. new substance,
having different
chemical
Isobars composition.
Isobars are atoms of different chemical elements having the Nature Reversible Irreversible
same number of nucleons (Atomic mass), but different
Original Can be recovered Cannot be
atomic numbers of the element. Matter recovered
Involves Change in physical Change in physical
Isotones properties of the and chemical
 Different element's atom with the same number of substance, i.e. shape, properties and
size, colour etc. composition of the
neutrons is called Isoelectronic or Isotones. substance.
Product No new product is New product is
Radioactivity Formation formed. formed.
 Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon which occurs in Energy Very little energy (or Absorption and
unstable elements. no energy) is either evolution of
 These elements have spontaneous disintegration absorbed or evolved. energy take place
during reaction.
character.
 Such elements are called radioactive substances. Examples (i) Melting of wax (i) Adding vinegar to
(ii) Melting of ice baking soda
 α, β, γ rays are emitted from the atoms of radioactive (iii) Freezing of water (ii) Bleaching a stain
substances; these are known as radioactive rays. (iv) Vaporization of (iii) Fermenting of
water grapes
 Radioactivity is a nuclear reaction, not a chemical (v) Dissolving sugar in (iv) Burning of
reaction. water magnesium wire and
(vi) Chopping in wood
 It was discovered by Henry Becquerel in Uranium (vii) Crumpling of paper
paper
(v) Nail rusting
(1896). In 1898, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre
(vi) Sour of milk
Curie discovered a radioactive element Polonium. (vii) Cooking of food
 In 1902, Marie Curie & Soddy discovered Radium
from the ore of Uranium mineral pitch blend (U₃O₈,
UO₂).
 Velocity: α < β < γ SOLUTION
 Ionising Power: α > β > γ  In chemistry, a solution is a special type of homogeneous
mixture composed of two or more substances.
Discoveries of Fundamental Particles  Other characteristics of solutions:
 Discovery of pi meson – 1947 (by Cecil Powell)  The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by
the naked eye.
 Discovery of neutron – 1932 (by James Chadwick)
 Discovery of electron – 1897 (by J.J. Thomson)  A solution does not allow beams of light to scatter.
 Discovery of proton – 1886 (by Goldstein)  A solution is stable.
 From a solution, the solute cannot be separated by
filtration.
Higgs Boson
The Higgs Boson is the fundamental particle associated with
the Higgs field, a field that gives mass to other fundamental Solvent
particles such as electrons and quarks.
In the mainstream media, the Higgs boson has often been  Solvents are molecules that have the ability to dissolve
other molecules, known as solutes.
called the 'God Particle' from the 1993 book The God Particle
 A solvent can be solid, liquid or gas.
by Nobel Laureate Leon Lederman.
 The molecules of the solvent work to put the solute
molecules apart.
COMPARISON CHART OF  Eventually, the molecules of solute become evenly
distributed throughout the solvent.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHANGES
Basis for Physical Change Chemical Change
Types of Solution
Comparison  Gaseous Solution:
Meaning Physical change refers Chemical change ▪ If the solvent is gas, only gases are dissolved
to a change in which is a process in under a given set of conditions.
the molecules are which the ▪ Example: Air (Oxygen and other gases
rearranged but their substance dissolved in Nitrogen).

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 Liquid Solution:  A semipermeable membrane has spaces between the
▪ If the solvent is liquid, almost all gases, liquids, solid portions of its structure that enable certain
and solids can be dissolved. substances or molecules to pass through but are
▪ Examples: designed to restrict others that are of larger size.
• Gas in liquid: Oxygen in water.
• Liquid in liquid: Alcoholic beverages METALS, MINERALS, ORES
(ethanol in water).
• Solid in liquid: Sucrose in water, sodium
chloride in water.  The earth’s crust is the main source of elements.
 Solid Solutions:  Among non-metals, oxygen and then silicon; among
▪ If the solvent is solid, gases, liquids, and solids metals, aluminium is abundant.
can be dissolved.  Metals are found in two states:
▪ Examples:  Free state
• Gas in solid: Hydrogen dissolves in  Combined state
palladium (hydrogen storage).  Less reactive metals like gold and platinum occur in
• Liquid in solid: Mercury in gold forming free state.
amalgam; hexane in paraffin wax.  More reactive metals are found in combined state.
• Solid in solid: Alloys like bronze (copper  Some metals (copper, silver, iron) found in both states.
and zinc).
Minerals
Dilute Solution
A dilute solution is a solution that can accept more solute,  Minerals: State in which metals and their compounds
until it becomes saturated, or in which there is a occur in earth’s crust.
relatively small amount of solute dissolved in the
solution.
Ores
Concentrated Solution  Ores: Minerals from which economically beneficial
A concentrated solution is a solution that contains a large metals or gems can be extracted.
amount of solute relative to the amount that could  Usually oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides,
dissolve. sulphates.

Saturated Solution Minerals and Ores of Some Metals

A saturated solution is a solution that cannot dissolve any Metal Mineral/Ores Composition
more of the substance that’s been mixed into it. Sodium  Rock Salt NaCl,
(Na)  Trona, Na₂(HCO₃)(CO₃)·2H₂O,
 Chilli Saltpetre, NaNO₃, Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O,
Solubility Na₂Ca(SO₄)₂,
 Borax,
 Solubility is the amount of a substance (solute) that  Glauberite, Na₂SO₄·10H₂O
dissolves in a unit volume of a liquid substance
 Glauber’s Salt
(solvent) to form a saturated solution under specified
conditions of temperature and pressure. Potassium  Sylvine, KCl,
(K)  Camallite, KCl·MgCl₂·6H₂O,
 Solubility is usually expressed as moles of solute per K₂Mg(SO₄)₂·6H₂O
100 grams of solvent.  Schoenite
(Picromerite)
Magnesium  Magnesite MgCO₃, MgCO₃·CaCO₃,
Osmosis (Mg)  Dolomite KCl·MgCl₂·6H₂O,
 Osmosis is the movement of solvent (such as water) MgSO₄·H₂O,
 Camallite MgSO₄·7H₂O
through a semi-permeable membrane into a solution  Kieserite
of higher solute concentration that tends to equalize  Epsom Salt
the concentration of solute on the two sides of the
membrane. Calcium  Limestone CaCO₃,
(Ca)  Calcite CaCO₃,
 Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O,
Semipermeable Membrane  Fluorspar CaF₂

 A semipermeable membrane is any biological or Aluminium  Bauxite Al₂O₃·2H₂O

synthetic membrane that allows certain molecules or (Al)  Cryolite Na₃AlF₆,
ions to pass through while restricting others.  Corundum Al₂O₃,
AlO(OH)
 Diaspore

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 Tin (Sn) Cassiterite (Tinstone) SnO₂ Magnesium +
Manganese
Lead (Pb)  Galena PbS,
German Copper + Nickel + Tableware, marine fittings,
 Cersusite PbCO₃
Silver Zinc plumbing, heating coils
 Matlockite PbFCl (high electrical resistance)

Copper  Chalcopyrite CuFeS₂, Alnico Iron + Aluminium + Permanent magnets

(Cu) (Copper Pyrite) Nickel + Cobalt
 Chalcocite Cu₂S, Nichrome Nickel + Iron + Heating elements
 Cuprite Cu₂O, Chromium +
Cu₂(CO₃)(OH)₂, Manganese
 Malachite
Cu₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂
 Azurite
Silver (Ag)  Native Silver Ag,
Ag₂S (Silver Glance),
Karat (Gold Purity)
 Argentite
AgCl (Horn Silver)  A karat is a unit of purity for gold.
 Cerargyrite
 24 Karat gold is pure gold.
Zinc (Zn)  Zinc Blende ZnS (Black Jack),
ZnFe₂O₄,  For making jewellery, metals like copper or silver are
 Franklinite
ZnCO₃, mixed with gold as pure gold is too soft.
 Calamine
ZnO (Red Zinc)  Each karat indicates 1/24th of the whole.
 Zincite
Mercury  Cinnabar HgS
(Hg) Sodium
Manganese  Pyrolusite, MnO₂,
 Sodium is a soft, silvery-white metal. It is so soft that it
(Mn)  Manganite, MnO(OH),
can be cut with the edge of a coin.
 Hausmannite Mn₃O₄
 Sodium is a very active metal. It cannot be kept in free
Iron (Fe)  Magnetite Fe₃O₄, state and is kept in kerosene oil. When kept in open air,
 Haematite Fe₂O₃, it reacts with oxygen and forms oxide.
 Limonite FeO(OH)·nH₂O,  Sodium metal has a high binding affinity towards
FeCO₃, FeS₂
 Siderite water. It reacts with water to produce a considerable
 Iron Pyrites amount of hydrogen and heat. This heat causes the
hydrogen gas to ignite.
Alloys
 An alloy is a uniform mixture of two or more
chemical elements, at least one of which is a metal.
Uranium and Lamps
 Alloy properties differ from the original metal.  The heaviest natural element is uranium, with atomic
weight 238.03 and density 19.05 grams per cubic cm.
 Steel: Made by mixing carbon (0.5% to 1.5%) with
iron.  Sodium lamp: Emits yellow light.
 Sterling silver: 92.5% pure silver and 7.5% other  Mercury lamp: Emits white-blue light.
metals (usually copper). Used in jewellery, silverware,  Fluorescent lamp: Emits a mixed light almost similar
decorations. to sunlight.
 Sodium Vapour Lamp: Often used for street lighting.
Its light is monochromatic and does not split when
LIST OF SOME ALLOYS, THEIR passing through water droplets.
COMPONENTS AND USES
Gold
Name of Components Uses  Gold has the lowest chemical activity among metals,
Alloy
due to which it is found in free state.
Brass Copper + Zinc (Cu Making utensils, decorative
+ Zn) materials
Steel Iron + Carbon (Fe + Buildings, infrastructure, Gypsum
C) tools, ships, automobiles,  Gypsum is a mineral in which micro elements sulphur
appliances, weapons
and calcium are found in abundance.
Stainless Steel + Chromium + Utensils, surgical tools,
Steel Nickel + Carbon medical equipment,
 Chemically, it is calcium sulphate with two molecules
architecture, automotive, of water.
aerospace  Chemical formula: CaSO₄·2H₂O
Bronze Copper + Tin (Cu + Bearings, spark-free tools,
Sn) coins, medals, sculpture,
musical instruments Limestone
Solder Lead + Tin (Pb + Joining two or more metals  Limestone is a sedimentary rock, mostly composed of
Sn) by heating calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
Duralumin Aluminium + Aircraft construction,  Also contains impurities like silica, alumina, and iron.
Copper + cookware

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 Facts about Iron
Plaster of Paris  Galvanized iron does not rust because galvanized iron
 Plaster of Paris is calcium sulphate hemihydrate has the ability to undergo oxidation.
(CaSO₄·1/2H₂O).  Oxygen and moisture are required for the corrosion
 Made by heating gypsum. (rusting) of iron.
 Used as bandages in surgery and for making statues and
molds.
Rennin and Tannin
 Rennin and Tannin are plant substances.
Asbestos (Mica)  Tannin is used in leather purification and varnish, not
 Mica is an important non-metallic mineral. related to rusting.
 Conductor of heat and a bad conductor of electricity.
 Used in electrical utility industries for its high Soldering
insulation capacity.
 Solder alloy contains about 68% lead and 32% tin.
 Can withstand high voltage and has low energy
 Copper, brass, bronze, German silver are all dual
dissipation.
components.
 High dielectric strength and chemical stability; used in
capacitors and insulators for high voltage equipment.
CARBON
Mercury
 Mercury is a metal which exists in liquid state at Carbon has three main allotropes:
normal temperature.
 Widely used in thermometers because of its high rate  Graphite
of thermal expansion.
 Diamond
 Records even the smallest changes in temperature.
 Buckminsterfullerene
 Boiling point: About 356.6°C.
 Main reasons for using mercury in thermometers:
▪ Opaque and shiny: Easy to read.
Graphite:
▪ High thermal conductivity: Records temperature
quickly.  Also called plumbago (old name for pencil lead).
▪ Does not stick to glass and is not very volatile, so  Crystalline form of carbon; atoms in a hexagonal
it records temperature accurately. structure.
 Most stable form of carbon under standard conditions.
 Converts into diamond under very high pressure &
Bauxite temperature.
 Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O) is the main ore of aluminium,  Soft; used in lead pencils.
found as hydrated oxide of aluminium.  Used as a dry lubricant where wet lubricants (like oil)
can’t be used.
 Good conductor of electricity.
Diamond
 Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
Diamond:
 In diamond, carbon atoms are bonded in a tetrahedral
lattice arrangement.
 Solid carbon; atoms in diamond cubic crystal structure.
 Used as an abrasive (e.g. in saw blades, drill bits) for
Marble cutting, drilling, grinding.
 Marble is a metamorphic stone composed of pure  Highest index of refraction and highest luster; most
calcite (crystalline calcium carbonate). valuable gemstone.
 Highest thermal conductivity among materials.
 Used to inscribe words on glass.
Manikya or Ruby  Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used for glass marking or
 Manikya/Ruby is a pink or red colored gemstone. abrasion.
 Color is mainly due to chromium.  Carat: Mass unit for diamonds (1 carat = 200 mg).
 Main component: Alumina (Al₂O₃) with small amounts
of chromium ions (Cr³⁺). Buckminsterfullerene:
 Fullerene with formula C₆₀.

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 Cage-like, fused-ring structure (soccer ball): 20 Properties of Deuterium
hexagons + 12 pentagons; carbon atom at each vertex.
 Used for drug delivery in body (traps & transports  Isotope of hydrogen.
molecules).
 Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas.
 Used as lubricant and catalyst.
 Insoluble in water.
 Tube fullerene is called a nanotube.
 Diatomic molecule.
 Prepared mainly by electrolysis of heavy water.

Solid Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice):

Heavy Water (D₂O)
 Called dry ice; sublimates directly from solid to gas at  Oxide of deuterium.
–78.5°C.  Discovered by Harold C. Urey (1931), G.N. Lewis
 Used for preserving frozen food where mechanical (1933).
cooling is unavailable.  Valuable uses:
 Leaves no residue. 1. Neutron moderator in atomic reactors (slows
neutrons, acts as coolant).
2. Preparation of deuterium and its compounds.
Coal Types
 Effects on living beings:
o Concentrated heavy water is harmful; slows
Type Carbon % physiological reactions.
Lignite 25–35% o Inhibits plant growth.
o Stops seed germination in its presence.
Sub-bituminous 35–45%
 First heavy water plant in India: Nangal (Punjab),
Bituminous 45–85% 1962; others at Baroda, Tuticorin, Kota, Hazira,
Anthracite >80% Manuguru.

 Carat is used to calculate the weight of a diamond.

▪ 1 carat = 0.2 grams
Soft and Hard Water
▪ 0.2 grams = 200 milligrams
Soft Water
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS  Only contains sodium ions; free from
 Hydrogen: Symbol H, atomic number 1, electronic calcium/magnesium salts.
configuration 1s¹.  Gives froth easily with soap.
 Lightest element in the periodic table (atomic weight
1.008).
Hard Water
 Occupies a unique position in the periodic table.
 Properties are like alkali metals (Li, Na, K) and
 Contains dissolved minerals of calcium & magnesium
halogens (F, Cl, Br).
(carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate).
 Does not froth easily with soap.
Isotopes of Hydrogen  Rainwater is naturally soft; hardens after dissolving
minerals underground.
Three isotopes:  Soap: sodium salt of stearic acid (C₁₇H₃₅COOH).

1. Protium: ¹H (A = 1) – No neutron (stable) Hydrogen Peroxide (H₂O₂)

2. Deuterium: ²H (A = 2) – One neutron (stable)  Chemical compound, formula H₂O₂.
3. Tritium: ³H (A = 3) – Two neutrons (radioactive;  Discovered by Louis Jacques Thenard (1818).
emits beta radiation as it decays)
• Tritium is very rare in nature; made artificially in Properties
atomic reactors.
• Deuterium discovered (1931) by Harold C. Urey
 Pale blue-green liquid, appears colourless in dilute
(Nobel, 1934), with F. Brickwedde & G. Murphy.
solution.
• Tritium existence proved by Bleakney & Gould  More viscous than water.
(1934); first produced by Rutherford, Oliphant, Hartck
in 1934 by bombarding deuterium with high-energy  Soluble in water, alcohol, ether.
deuterons.  Weak acid.
 Relative density: 1.47.
 Boiling point: 150.2°C, Freezing point: –0.43°C.
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Uses Compound Common Name
Sodium carbonate Washing soda
 Antiseptic and germicide; cleans wounds.
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda
 Used for bleaching silk, wool, hair, ivory.
 Preservation of milk, wine, etc. Copper sulphate Blue vitriol
 Used as oxidizer/fuel. Sodium thiosulfate Hypo
Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda
Reverse Osmosis Sodium carbonate Washing powder
 Process of converting salt water into pure water is Calcium sulphate hemihydrate Plaster of Paris
called reverse osmosis.
Calcium oxychloride / hypochlorite Bleaching powder
 Nickel catalyst is used in hydrogenation of vegetable
oils.

ACID, BASE AND SALT

INERT OR NOBLE GASES Acid
 The word acid comes from Latin "acidus" (means sour,
 Helium (He)
refers to sharp odour and taste).
 Neon (Ne)
 Arrhenius definition: Acid is a compound that can
 Argon (Ar)
release a proton or hydrogen ion (H⁺) in water.
 Krypton (Kr)
 Bronsted-Lowry definition: Acid is any hydrogen-
 Xenon (Xe)
containing material which can donate a proton.
 Radon (Rn)

Properties of Acids:
Helium
 Mixture used by deep-sea divers to breathe in place of  pH below 7.0 in solution.
air because helium is less soluble in blood at high  Sour taste.
pressures.  Release H⁺ ions in water.
 May also use oxygen and nitrogen (Nitrox), or  Turns blue litmus red.
oxygen, nitrogen and helium (Trimix) in various
cases.  Substances with these properties are acidic.

NITROGEN GAS Classification of Acids:

 Chemical element, symbol N, atomic number 7.
 Gas at room temperature and pressure; about 78% of • Strong acids: Highly corrosive, cause burns. Examples:
Earth’s atmosphere. HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃.
 Substance available in the highest quantity as an
• Weak acids: Mildly corrosive, usually not harmful to
element.
skin. Examples: citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid.
 Colorless, odorless, tasteless, almost inert.
 Soil in which insectivorous plants grow is deficient in
nitrogen. Sources of Some Natural Acids :

Nitrous Oxide Name of Acid Source

 Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is called laughing gas. Tartaric Acid Grapes, Tamarind, Citrus, Bananas
 Used as anesthesia during surgery. Acetic acid Vinegar
Citric acid Lemon, Orange, citrus fruits
Aqua Regia Oxalic acid Tomato, Spinach, Broccoli
 Aqua regia / Nitro Hydro Chloric Acid: Mixture of Lactic acid Curd
nitric acid (HNO₃) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Malic acid Apple
 Very corrosive acid.
Ascorbic acid Amla, Guava, Papaya, Orange
 Can melt even noble metals like gold and platinum.
 Used by goldsmiths for making jewellery. Formic acid Stings of ants, stinging nettle

COMMON COMPOUNDS TABLE Uses of Acids:

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 Tartaric, lactic, acetic, malic acid: edible. Chemical Indicators
 Oxalic acid: removes rust.
 Any substance giving a visible sign (usually
 Conc. Nitric acid: used for explosives & purification of
colour change) of acid/base.
gold/silver.
 Examples: turmeric, litmus, shoe flower petals.
 Aqua regia (3:1 HCl:HNO₃): dissolves platinum/gold,
cleans glassware.
 Carbonic acid: found in soft drinks. Natural Indicator – Litmus:
 Certain acids (e.g. aspirin): used as painkillers, to  Made from lichens; available in red and blue papers.
reduce fever.  Acids turn blue litmus red; bases turn red litmus blue.
 Shoe flower turns acid solution magenta, basic green.
Role of acids in the human body:
 Acids have several roles (e.g. hydrochloric acid helps Acid-Base Indicators Table:
digestion, amino acids build proteins, nucleic acids Indicator Change with acid Change with
(DNA/RNA) for life, fatty acids for growth, carbonic base
acid for pH balance). Blue litmus Red No change
Red litmus No change Blue

Base Turmeric No change Turns into red

Methyl orange Turns into red Turns into yellow
 Arrhenius: Base dissociates in water to form OH⁻ ion.
Phenolphthalein No change Turns into pink
 Bronsted-Lowry: Base is any substance that can
(Colourless)
accept a proton.

Properties of Bases: IMPORTANT CHEMICALS & FACTS

 Bitter taste
Calcium Oxychloride
 Calcium hypochlorite / calcium oxychloride is an
 Slippery feel
inorganic compound.
 Conduct electricity in water  Also called bleaching powder.
 Alkali: a soluble base containing OH⁻ ions.  Chemical formula: Ca(ClO)₂
 pH above 7.0  Light yellow powder, emits strong chlorine smell.
 Turns red litmus blue  Removes colors or stains, usually by oxidation.

Some bases: Sodium Thiosulfate

 Sodium thiosulfate (hypo) is a colorless crystalline
 Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂): limewater element.
 Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH): cleans glass  Used in photography and as an antichlor.
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): soap making  Antichlor agents neutralize excess chlorine.
 Potassium hydroxide (KOH): soap making
 Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂): “milk of Silver Bromide
magnesia”, laxative, antacid  A layer of silver bromide is coated on photographic plates.

pH Scale Polymerization
 pH: logarithmic scale (0–14), measures  Polymerization is a reaction in which more than one
acidity/alkalinity (potential of hydrogen). molecule of the same type join to form a larger molecule
(polymer).
 pH < 7: acidic
 The participating molecules are called monomers.
 pH > 7: alkaline
 pH = 7: neutral (pure water). Lactic Acid
 After strenuous physical work, body feels tired due to
accumulation of lactic acid in muscles.
 Note: Lactic acid (milk), acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid
(lemon), butyric acid (butter).

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Acetic Acid or Ethanoic Acid  Cowdung contains immense energy, which is
extracted by ‘fermentation process’ in biogas plant.
 Responsible for sour taste and pungent smell of
vinegar.
 Aqueous solution of acetic acid. LPG / Petroleum Gas
 Produced by fermentation of ethanol.
 Main component: Butane.
 Liquefied petroleum gas = mixture of hydrocarbons
Nitrochloroform like propane, butane, isobutane.
 Used as antimicrobial, insecticide etc.  Used as cooking gas (in homes) and as a fuel for
vehicles.
 The mixture is liquefied at very high pressure.
T.N.T.  Odorant added to detect leakage.
 Trinitroglycerine (TNT) is an explosive liquid.
 Also called Nobel’s oil, chemically an organic nitrate Gasohol
compound.
 Gasohol or E10: mixture of 10% anhydrous ethanol
Glycerol and 90% gasoline.
 Organic compound, forms nitroglycerin in presence of
concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid. Geothermal Energy

R.D.X.  Arises from planet’s original formation, radioactive

decay of minerals, solar energy absorbed at the
 Research Department Explosives / Royal Demolition surface.
Explosives.  Non-conventional energy source.
 Also called cyclonite.
 A powerful explosive discovered by George Friedrich
Henning (Germany). Hydrocarbon Vision 2025
 Policy for conservation of petroleum products
Natural Gas (hydrocarbons) in India.
 Natural gas is a fossil fuel, burns easily and produces  Emphasizes expanding energy efficiency.
heat.
 Mainly contains methane and small quantities of Benzoic Acid
ethane, propane etc.
 Aromatic carboxylic acid, white solid, formula:
Octane Number C₆H₅COOH.
 Reveals anti-knock properties of petrol.  Salt (sodium benzoate) used as a food preservative.

Major Components of Honey

Cetane Number
 Used to test diesel fuel quality.  Fructose: 38.2%
 Diesel ignites through compression (not sparking), so  Glucose: 31.3%
diesel that ignites quickly has a higher cetane number.  Sucrose: 1.3%
 Maltose: 7.1%
 Water: 17.2%
Carburetor
 Carburetor is a device used in internal combustion Potassium Bromide
engines.
 Its function: to mix air with fuel for proper combustion  KBr, a salt, used as stimulant and in epilepsy
of fuel. treatment.
 Only used in petrol engines.
Carbon Monoxide
Biogas Plant
 Very poisonous gas.
 The main component of biogas: methane gas  Binds with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin,
(produced by fermentation process in biogas plant from blocking oxygen, can cause death.
cowdung).

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Eugenol Eosin
 Major component of clove oil.  Used as red ink.
 Natural pain reliever and toothache medicine.  Tetrabromofluorescein; most red inks are dilute
solutions of eosin.
Urea
White Phosphorus
 Organic compound, formula: CO(NH₂)₂.
 About 46.7% nitrogen present in the form of amide.  Emits yellow-green light in dark, smells like garlic.
 Also called carbamide.  Used as war weapon (smoke curtains).

Di-ammonium Phosphate Smoke Curtains

 DAP: Fertilizer with chemical formula (NH₄)₂HPO₄.  Made from colloidal dispersions of titanium oxide and
 Contains 46–53% phosphorus and 18.21% nitrogen. dyes.
 Used in war to hide and deceive the enemy.
Ozone
Dry Cell
 Unstable; when mixed with water, releases oxygen
atom and kills bacteria (oxidation).  Electrochemical cell where chemicals are not in
solution but in paste form.
Fire Alarm  Zinc vessel + manganese dioxide, ammonium
chloride, carbon rod.
 Cannot be recharged.
 Uses photo cells (photovoltaic cell).  Used in torch, transistor, radio.
 Converts light energy into electrical energy.

Reversible Reaction
Pyrethrin
 Reactions that occur in both directions (forward and
 Natural organic substance in pyrethrums (flowers). backward).
 Used as insecticide.

Major Chemical Substances and Their

Aluminum Phosphide Applications/Impacts
 Inorganic compound; fumigant, rodenticide.
List - I List - II
Freon Refrigerant
Herbicide Tetraethyl lead antiknock agent
Benzene hexachloride insecticide
 Used in agriculture to destroy weeds. Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguisher
 Example: Sodium chlorate (NaClO₃). Kevlar synthetic fiber
Taxol anti-cancer drug
Crookes Glass Zinc phosphide rodenticide
Nitrocellulose explosive
 Made by mixing cerium and rare earth metals. Sulfur dioxide acid rain
 Absorbs ultraviolet rays, used in sunglasses. Fluoride pollution teeth
Methyl Isocyanate Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Copper Sulphate Ozone depletion skin cancer

 Blue vitriol, used as fungicide, algaecide, etc. Physical Change

Radioactive Dating  Change in state that is reversible; object can regain its
original form when the factor is removed.
 Example: Water to vapor.
 Age of rocks determined by radioactive dating
process.

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Pasteurization CLASSIFICATION OF
 Sterilizes milk by killing pathogens, increases storage HYDROCARBONS
life.  On the basis of structure, hydrocarbons can be broadly
 Discovered by Louis Pasteur. classified into two classes:
 Open chain compounds
Other facts  Cyclic or closed chain compounds

 Magnesium – Fireworks
 Uranium – Atomic bomb
 Tungsten – Electric bulb
 Zinc – Galvanization
 Carbon tetrachloride – Fire extinguisher
 Liquid ammonia – Refrigerant
 Hydrogen peroxide – Wound dressing
 Acetone – Nail polish remover

Eosine SATURATED HYDROCARBONS

(ALKANES)
 Most red inks are dilute solutions of eosin.
 Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are bonded
to each other with a single covalent bond (–C–C–)
Cloud Seeding are called saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes.
 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ (–ane suffix).
 Modifying weather to create rain using silver iodide, Example: methane, ethane, propane, etc.
dry ice.  Also known as paraffin because these are less reactive
in normal conditions with acids and other reagents.
Lightning Conductor
 Metal rod (copper/aluminium), protects buildings from
Methane (CH₄)
lightning.  Methane is the first member of open chain saturated
hydrocarbons.
 Methane is the primary constituent of natural gas;
Zinc Oxide released from crude oil production, industrial activities, and
biological processes (e.g., ruminants like cows).
 Also called Yashad Pushp (Philosopher’s Wool).  Also known as Marsh gas due to production in wetlands by
 Used in cosmetics, ink, ointments. decomposition of organic materials by bacteria.

Hemoglobin Some Alkanes and their Molecular

Iron-containing protein that transports oxygen in blood Formula
of vertebrates and some invertebrates. Molecular Formula Name
CH₄ Methane
C₂H₆ Ethane
C₃H₈ Propane
C₄H₁₀ Butane
C₅H₁₂ Pentane
C₆H₁₄ Hexane
C₇H₁₆ Heptane
C₈H₁₈ Octane
C₉H₂₀ Nonane
C₁₀H₂₂ Decane
C₂₀H₄₂ Icosane

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Properties of Alkanes Acetylene (C₂H₂)
 Non-polar compounds.
 Weak Van der Waals forces between bonds.  Formed when calcium carbide reacts with water:
▪ C₁ to C₄ are gases, C₅ to C₁₇ are liquids, and C₁₈ CaC₂ + 2H₂O → HC≡CH + Ca(OH)₂
and onwards are solids at 298K (25°C).  Colourless, odourless, less soluble in water.
▪ Alkanes are generally non-reactive with acids,  Boiling point: –84°C.
bases, oxidising, or reducing agents.  Impure acetylene has garlic smell.
 Lighter than air; acetylene + oxygen mixture explodes
violently on ignition.
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons with carbon atoms bonded with two (C=C) or
three (C≡C) covalent bonds and have a tendency to gain Uses of Acetylene
more hydrogen are unsaturated hydrocarbons.  Used in carbide lamps, acetylene gas lamps, and
oxyacetylene flame for welding/cutting metals.
Alkenes  Used in ripening fruits; not advisable due to
carcinogenic properties.
 Contain a double bond between carbon atoms.
 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ (–ene suffix). CYCLIC OR CLOSED CHAIN
 Also called olefins.
Name and Molecular Formula of Some COMPOUNDS
 Hydrocarbons containing the ring of carbon atoms are
Alkenes called cyclic ring compounds.
Molecular Formula Name  Further classified into homocyclic and heterocyclic
C₂H₄ Ethylene (ethene) compounds.

C₃H₆ Propylene (propene)

Homocyclic Compounds
C₄H₈ Butylene (butene)
 Only carbon atoms in the ring.
Ethylene (C₂H₄)  Two types:
 Aromatic hydrocarbons: Alternate C–C and C=C
 Prepared by heating ethyl alcohol at 170°C in the
bonds, similar to benzene ring (e.g., benzene,
presence of concentrated sulphuric acid.
naphthalene).
 Acts as a dehydrating agent.
 Alicyclic hydrocarbons: No alternate C–C and C=C
 Reaction: bonds, properties similar to aliphatic compounds (e.g.,
C₂H₅OH C₂H₄ + H₂O cyclohexane, cyclopentane).
 Colourless, sweet smell, less soluble in water; atomic
weight = 28.
 Density: 1.25 gm/litre at NTP. Heterocyclic Compounds
 Boiling point: –105°C.
 Composed of carbon atoms and other elements
(N, O, S, etc.).
Uses of Ethylene  Examples: Furan, Pyridine.
 Used by some plants as a natural plant hormone in
ripening.
 Used as an anaesthetic and to manufacture polythene. ALCOHOL
 Present in mustard gas (sulphur mustard), a chemical
warfare agent.  Alcohol: Organic compound with a hydroxyl (–OH)
group on an aliphatic carbon atom (R–OH).
 Alcohols are hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons.
ALKYNES
 Hydrocarbons containing a triple bond between carbon Molecular Formula and Names of Some
atoms are alkynes. Alcohols:
 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂.
 First member: acetylene or ethyne (C₂H₂).  Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) – CH₃OH
 Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) – C₂H₅OH
 n-Propyl Alcohol – CH₃CH₂CH₂OH
 Isopropyl Alcohol – (CH₃)₂CHOH

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 n-Butyl Alcohol – CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂OH Properties of Ethyl Alcohol:
 Isobutyl Alcohol – (CH₃)₂CHCH₂OH
 Colourless, inflammable liquid.
Methyl Alcohol (Methanol or Carbinol):  Boiling point: 78.1°C; Melting point: –114.1°C.
 Special odour (alcoholic), sharp taste.
 Chemical formula: CH₃OH  Soluble in water and organic solvents.
 Also known as wood alcohol or wood naphtha (earlier  Neutral compound (does not affect water pH); neutral
produced from wood). to acid-base indicators.
 Now made by hydrogenation of carbon monoxide.  Forms solid CaCl₂·3C₂H₅OH with anhydrous calcium
 Simplest alcohol; contains a methyl group bonded to a chloride.
hydroxyl group.
 Physical properties: Light, volatile, colourless, Uses of Ethyl Alcohol:
flammable liquid; distinctive odour similar to ethanol.
 Polar liquid at room temperature.
 Alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, whisky, etc.).
 Boiling point: 64.7°C (148.5°F); Solidifies at –93.9°C
 Antiseptic for sterilizing wounds.
(–137°F).
 Used in cough syrups, digestive syrups, tonics.
 Highly toxic: Ingestion can cause metabolic
 Mixed with petrol as motor fuel ("power alcohol").
disturbances, blindness, neurological dysfunction,
 Antifreeze: Ethanol-water mixture has lower freezing
death.
point; used in radiators.
 Not suitable for drinking; used to denature ethyl
 Used in preparation of chloroform, iodoform.
alcohol.
 Used as hypnotic (induces sleep).
 Soluble in water and many organic solvents.
 Preparation of methylated spirit.
 Increases acidity of body after ingestion.
 Preservation of biological specimens.
 Forms crystalline solid CaCl₂·3C₂H₅OH with
 Used in spirit level and alcohol thermometers
anhydrous calcium chloride.

Uses of Methyl Alcohol: ORGANIC ACIDS

 Solvent for paint, celluloid, shellac, etc.  Carboxylic acid: Organic compound with a carboxyl
 Fuel: Mixed with petrol as fuel for automobiles. group (–COOH).
 Preparation of dyes, perfumes, medicines.  General formula: R–COOH (R = rest of molecule).
 Used in production of formaldehyde, formic acid,  Found widely in nature (e.g., amino acids, acetic acid
acetic acid, etc. in vinegar).
 Preparation of methylated spirit (mixture of methyl +  Salts/esters of carboxylic acids: Carboxylates.
ethyl alcohol, undrinkable).
 Used in antifreeze (40% methyl + 60% water).
Types of Carboxylic Acids
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol):  Monocarboxylic acid: One carboxyl group (e.g., acetic
acid, CH₃COOH).
 Chemical formula: C₂H₅OH  Dicarboxylic acid: Two carboxyl groups (e.g., adipic
 Commonly known as alcohol. acid).
 Found in fruits, plants, fragrant oils as esters.  Tricarboxylic acid: Three carboxyl groups (e.g., citric
 Main component of wines ("spirit of wines"). acid).
 Made by fermentation or chemical breakdown of  Fatty acids: Carboxylic acids with long aliphatic chains
sugars by yeast ("grain alcohol"). (e.g., palmitic acid, stearic acid).
 Fatty acids usually have even numbers of carbons (e.g.,
Absolute Alcohol: DHA, EPA).
 Fatty acids are important in triglycerides,
phospholipids, cholesterol esters.
 100% ethanol.  Main dietary source of energy for animals and cell
 Rectified spirit: 95.6% ethanol + 4.4% water membranes.
(azeotropic mixture).
 Used as solvent and for precipitating DNA.
 Highly hygroscopic, colourless, volatile. Formic Acid (HCOOH)

Power Alcohol:  Simplest monocarboxylic acid; obtained from ants.

 Present in stings of ants and nettles.
 Antibacterial, food preservative, cosmetic additive.
• Mixture of petrol, ethanol, small amount of benzene;  Strong odour, colourless liquid.
used as motor fuel.  Freezing point: 8.3°C; Boiling point: 100.8°C.
 Corrosive, makes blisters on skin.

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 Miscible with water, alcohol, ether.  Formula: (O₂N)₃C₆H₂OH
 Acidic phenol, made from phenol + conc. nitric acid.
 Used as explosive, antiseptic, burn treatments, dyes.
Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH)  Light yellow, crystalline solid.

 Also called ethanoic acid.

 Most important among carboxylic acids. Dynamite
 Vinegar: 5% solution of acetic acid from
fermentation/oxidation of natural carbs.  Invented by Alfred Nobel (1867).
 Sour taste due to acetic acid.  Made by absorbing nitroglycerine in
 Anhydrous (glacial) acetic acid: <1% water, solidifies sawdust/kieselguhr.
at 16–17°C.  Used in mining, quarrying, construction,
 Boiling point: 118°C; Melting point: 16.6°C. demolition.Blasting Gelatin
 Colourless, pungent smell, corrosive.  Mixture: 7% nitrocellulose + 93% nitroglycerine.
 Miscible with water, alcohol, ether.  Used in quarries, mining as explosive.

Dicarboxylic Acids RDX

 Have two –COOH groups.  Discovered by George Friedrich Henning
 General formula: HO₂C–R–CO₂H (R = (Germany).
aliphatic/aromatic).  Formula: (O₂NNC₂H₂)₃
 Similar behaviour to monocarboxylic acids.  Also called cyclonite, cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine.
 Plastic explosive; white solid, odourless/tasteless.
 Known as hexogen (Germany), T-4 (Italy), cyclonite
THE EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES (USA).
 Used as C-4 plastic explosive agent.
 Explosive: Substance that can be made to explode by
impact, heat, or fire. Gun Cotton (Nitrocellulose)
 Explosives contain highly reactive chemicals that store
potential energy, released as a blast.
 Highly flammable compound; made by nitrating
 Good explosive properties:
cellulose (cotton/wood fibers).
• Should not be volatile.
 Used in rockets, propellants, printing inks, celluloid,
• Should not be hygroscopic. leather finishing.
• Should be stable.  Mixture with camphor used for billiard balls.
• Should decompose rapidly (detonation).

Examples of Explosives FOOD PRESERVATION,

NUTRITION, MEDICINE, ETC.
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Food Preservation
 Made by adding nitric acid to toluene.
 Formula: C₇H₅(NO₂)₃ Definition: Process to stop, control, or slow spoilage,
 Yellow solid material. ensuring safety and maintaining nutrition, value, texture, and
 Used in military shells, bombs, grenades. flavor.
 Also used in deep well blasting, chemical
manufacturing, dye-stuffs, photographic chemicals.
 Amatol: TNT mixed with ammonium nitrate. Principles:

Removal/inactivation of microorganisms
Trinitroglycerine (TNG) / Nitroglycerine /
Nobel oil  By removing air, moisture, lowering/increasing
temperature, or increasing salt, sugar, acids.
 Dense, colourless, oily, explosive liquid.
 For leafy vegetables, remove water from leaves to
 Made by nitrating glycerol with fuming nitric and
sulphuric acid. prevent microorganism survival.
 Used to make dynamite.
Inactivating enzymes
 Shock-sensitive; degrades to unstable forms over time.
 Change temperature or moisture to inactivate enzymes
Trinitrophenol (TNP) / Picric Acid (e.g., blanching peas in boiling water).

Methods:
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 Pasteurization: Heating milk at 63°C for 30 min or  Disinfectants: Antimicrobial, applied to non-living
72°C for 15 sec kills bacteria. surfaces (e.g., phenol, methylphenol, chlorine,
bleaching powder, formaldehyde).
 Freezing: Low temperature slows food spoilage.
 Tranquillizers: Calm the CNS, reduce anxiety/sleep
 Strong concentrations: High salt/sugar inhibits
bacteria. aid (e.g., reserpine from Rauwolfia, barbiturates like
seconal, luminal).
 Canning: Heating food under pressure (~121°C) to
destroy endospores.  Antibiotics: Inhibit/destroy microorganisms; obtained
from living cells or synthesized (penicillin first
 Organic acids: Benzoic, sorbic, propionic acid discovered by Alexander Fleming, 1929).
preserve food (added as salts—sodium benzoate,
potassium sorbate, sodium propionate).  Anaesthetics: Induce insensitivity to pain, reversible
effect.
 Drying: Removing water (dehydration/desiccation)
prevents bacteria, yeast, and mold growth. • General anaesthetics: Reversible loss of
 Reduced oxygen: Slows metabolism and aging, delays consciousness.
spoilage. • Local anaesthetics: Loss of sensation in a limited
area.
Food Preservatives
 Definition: Chemicals added to inhibit/destroy DETERGENT AND SOAP
microorganisms.

 Examples:
Detergent:
 Detergent is a water-soluble cleansing organic
• Sodium metabisulphite (Na₂S₂O₅): Used in jams,
compound that combines with impurities and dirt to
pickles.
make them soluble.
• Sodium benzoate (C₆H₅COONa): Used for soft
 Differs from soap as it does not form scum with salts
drinks and acidic foods.
in hard water.
• Sorbic acid (C₆H₈O₂) and salts: Preserves  Removes dirt and grease from porous surfaces
cheese, pickles, fish, etc. (fabrics, clothes, non-treated wood) and non-porous
• Epoxides: (ethylene oxide, propylene oxide) for surfaces (metals, plastics, painted wood).
dry fruits/spices.  Soap is only for soft water; detergent works for both
soft and hard water (salts of detergents are soluble in
Drugs hard water).
 Definition: Natural/synthetic substances altering body  Chemically: Detergent is the salt of strong base and
function, used for diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of strong acid with high molecular weight; the anion has a
disease. long chain of 12–18 carbon atoms.Example: Sodium
Classifications: Lauryl Sulphate (anionic surfactant with 12 carbon
atoms).
 Antipyretics: Reduce fever (e.g., aspirin,
paracetamol).  Aqueous solution of detergent is neutral—safe for
delicate fabrics.
 Analgesics: Relieve pain without loss of consciousness.
 Solution of soap is alkaline (due to hydrolysis)—not
• Non-narcotic: Aspirin, paracetamol. suitable for delicate clothes.

• Narcotic: Morphine, codeine (small doses relieve Soap:

pain, promote sleep).
 Soap = salts of fatty acids.
 Antiseptics: Prevent microbial growth on living tissues
(e.g., alcohol, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, boric acid, • Fatty acids = saturated monocarboxylic acids with
mercuric chloride, potassium permanganate, long carbon chains (e.g., palmitic acid
iodoform). C₁₅H₃₁COOH, stearic acid C₁₇H₃₅COOH).

• Garlic also has antiseptic properties.  Made by saponification:

• Fat/oil + alkali (NaOH/KOH) + heat → soap +

glycerol.

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 Common soaps: Mixtures of higher fatty acids (C₁₀ to Zinc Zn 30 65.37
C₁₈) via saponification. Silver Ag 47 107.87
Iodine I 53 126.90
 Saturated fats = hard soap; vegetative oils Tungsten W 74 183.85
(unsaturated fats) = soft soap. Iridium Ir 77 192.22
Platinum Pt 78 195.09
Raw Materials Used in Manufacturing of Gold Au 79 196.97
Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Soap: Lead Pb 82 207.19
Radium Ra 88 226.03
 Vegetable oils or fats: Peanut, mahua, castor oil, Uranium U 92 238.03
coconut oil. Neptunium Np 93 237.05
Plutonium Pu 94 244.06
 Caustic soda/potash: NaOH or KOH (for
saponification).
CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE
 Fillers (add utility):

• Sodium rosinite: Increases forming capacity in Fertilizers

laundry soap.

• Glycerol: Prevents rapid drying in shaving soaps. Substance Chemical Formula Common Name /
Use
• Sodium silicate: Increases durability and prevents Urea CO(NH₂)₂ Nitrogen fertilizer
rapid drying; increases hardness. Ammonium nitrate NH₄NO₃ Nitrogen fertilizer,
explosives
• Sulphur: Used to produce anti-acne soap bars.
Ammonium sulphate (NH₄)₂SO₄ Nitrogen fertilizer
Calcium ammonium Ca(NO₃)₂ + NH₄NO₃ CAN, fertilizer
ELEMENTS, THEIR ATOMIC nitrate

NUMBER AND MOLAR MASS Single super

phosphate
Ca(H₂PO₄)₂·H₂O +
CaSO₄·2H₂O
Phosphatic fertilizer

Potassium chloride KCl Muriate of potash,

Element Symbol Atomic Molar Mass (g fertilizer
Number mol⁻¹) Potassium sulphate K₂SO₄ Potash fertilizer
Hydrogen H 1 1.008
Di-ammonium (NH₄)₂HPO₄ DAP, phosphatic
Helium He 2 4.00 phosphate fertilizer
Lithium Li 3 6.94
Zinc sulphate ZnSO₄ Micronutrient
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 fertilizer
Boron B 5 10.81
Carbon C 6 12.01
Nitrogen N 7 14.01 Food Preservatives
Oxygen O 8 16.00
Fluorine F 9 19.00
Neon Ne 10 20.18 Substance Chemical Common Name / Use
Formula
Sodium Na 11 22.99
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Sodium benzoate C₆H₅COONa Preserves jams, juices
Aluminium Al 13 26.98 Sodium nitrite NaNO₂ Preserves meat
Silicon Si 14 28.09 Sodium nitrate NaNO₃ Meat preservation
Phosphorus P 15 30.97
Sodium Na₂S₂O₅ Preserves juices, wines
Sulphur S 16 32.07 metabisulphite
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45
Potassium C₆H₇KO₂ Cheese, bakery, yogurt
Argon Ar 18 39.95 sorbate
Potassium K 19 39.10 Citric acid C₆H₈O₇ Sour flavor, preservative
Calcium Ca 20 40.08
Calcium Ca(C₂H₅COO) Bread, cakes, bakery
Scandium Sc 21 44.96 propionate ₂
Titanium Ti 22 47.90
Vanadium V 23 50.94
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Nutrition
Manganese Mn 25 54.94
Iron Fe 26 55.85
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Substance Chemical Formula Common Name / Use
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 Glucose C₆H₁₂O₆ Instant energy, ORS
Copper Cu 29 63.54

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Sucrose C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Table sugar Gunpowder KNO₃ + S + C Fireworks, propellant
(black powder)
Lactose C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Milk sugar
Vitamin C C₆H₈O₆ Ascorbic acid, immunity Household/Industry
Vitamin D₃ C₂₇H₄₄O Cholecalciferol, bones
Vitamin B₁₂ C₆₃H₈₈CoN₁₄O₁₄P Cobalamin, anemia Substance Chemical Common Name / Use
Vitamin B₆ C₈H₁₁NO₃ Pyridoxine Formula

Iron (II) sulphate FeSO₄ Iron supplement Washing soda Na₂CO₃·10H₂O Water softening, cleaning
agent
Baking soda NaHCO₃ Baking, antacid, cleaning

Medicine Bleaching powder CaOCl₂ Disinfectant, water

purification
Vinegar (acetic CH₃COOH Preservative, food ingredient
Substance Chemical Formula Common Name / Use acid)

Paracetamol C₈H₉NO₂ Analgesic/Antipyretic Common salt NaCl Cooking, food preservation

Aspirin C₉H₈O₄ Painkiller Plaster of Paris CaSO₄·½H₂O Bandages, casts, sculptures

Ibuprofen C₁₃H₁₈O₂ NSAID Alum K₂SO₄·Al₂(SO₄)₃ Water purification,

·24H₂O aftershave, dye fixative
Penicillin C₁₆H₁₈N₂O₄S Antibiotic
Epsom salt MgSO₄·7H₂O Medicine, agriculture, foot
Amoxicillin C₁₆H₁₉N₃O₅S Antibiotic soak
Chlorampheni C₁₁H₁₂Cl₂N₂O₅ Antibiotic Boric acid H₃BO₃ Antiseptic, eyewash,
col insecticide
Streptomycin C₂₁H₃₉N₇O₁₂ Antibiotic Hydrogen H₂O₂ Antiseptic, bleaching,
Morphine C₁₇H₁₉NO₃ Pain management peroxide wound cleaning

Omeprazole C₁₇H₁₉N₃O₃S Anti-ulcer Dettol (main C₈H₉ClO Disinfectant (chloroxylenol)

ingredient)
Diazepam C₁₆H₁₃ClN₂O Sedative
Phenol C₆H₅OH Disinfectant, antiseptic,
Adrenaline C₉H₁₃NO₃ Cardiac stimulant plastics
Formalin CH₂O (40% in Preservative, embalming
(solution) H₂O) fluid
Fuels
Other Important Chemicals
Substance Chemical Common Name / Use
Formula
Methane CH₄ Natural gas, CNG, biogas Substance Chemical Formula Common Name / Use

Ethane C₂H₆ CNG, LPG Freon-12 CCl₂F₂ Refrigerant

Propane C₃H₈ LPG, cooking gas Teflon (C₂F₄)ₙ Non-stick cookware (PTFE)

Butane C₄H₁₀ LPG PVC (C₂H₃Cl)ₙ Pipes, bottles (Polyvinyl

chloride)
Octane C₈H₁₈ Petrol component
Kevlar — Bulletproof vests (aramid fiber)
Ethanol C₂H₅OH Spirit, alcoholic drinks, sanitizer,
fuel blend DDT C₁₄H₉Cl₅ Insecticide

Hydrogen H₂ Clean fuel Pyrethrin — Insecticide (from

chrysanthemum)
Petrol — Gasoline (mixture, C₅–C₁₀
hydrocarbons)
Diesel — Fuel (mixture, C₁₀–C₂₀
hydrocarbons)
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL SUGARS
LPG C₃H₈, C₄H₁₀ Cooking/heating gas Artificial Sweetness Common Possible Health
Sugar (vs. Uses Concerns
Sugar)
Explosives Aspartame ~200 times
sweeter
Diet sodas,
sugar-free
Not for people
with
gum, phenylketonuria
Substance Chemical Formula Common Name / Use desserts (PKU)
Saccharin ~300–400 Beverages, Linked to bladder
TNT C₇H₅N₃O₆ High explosive
times toothpaste, cancer in old
(Trinitrotoluene)
sweeter canned studies (now
RDX C₃H₆N₆O₆ Military explosive foods considered safe)
Nitroglycerin C₃H₅N₃O₉ Dynamite Sucralose ~600 times Baking, soft May affect gut
sweeter drinks, bacteria
Ammonium NH₄NO₃ Fertilizer, explosive
nitrate protein bars

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Acesulfame- ~200 times Soft drinks, Contains Potassium KMnO₄ Potassium
K sweeter baked methylene permanganate manganate(VII)
goods, chloride (in Sodium carbonate Na₂CO₃ Sodium carbonate
chewing trace); debated Washing soda Na₂CO₃·10H₂O Sodium carbonate
gum safety decahydrate
Neotame ~7,000– Baked Chemically Baking soda NaHCO₃ Sodium
13,000 goods, similar to hydrogencarbonate
times beverages, aspartame but Calcium carbonate CaCO₃ Calcium carbonate
sweeter dairy safe for PKU
Plaster of Paris CaSO₄·½H₂O Calcium sulfate
products
hemihydrate
Advantame ~20,000 Frozen FDA-approved;
Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O Calcium sulfate
times desserts, new, long-term dihydrate
sweeter drinks, effects unclear
baked Bleaching powder CaOCl₂ Calcium
oxychloride
goods
Alum K₂SO₄·Al₂(SO₄)₃·24H₂O Potassium
aluminium sulfate
dodecahydrate
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES ARRANGED IN
Epsom salt MgSO₄·7H₂O Magnesium sulfate
INCREASING ORDER OFALCOHOL BY VOLUME heptahydrate
(ABV%) Common salt NaCl Sodium chloride

Beverage ABV% Range Lime (quicklime) CaO Calcium oxide

Slaked lime Ca(OH)₂ Calcium hydroxide
Beer (Light) 3% – 4%
Caustic soda NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Beer (Regular) 4% – 6%
Caustic potash KOH Potassium
Cider 4% – 8% hydroxide
Wine (White) 9% – 13% Ferric chloride FeCl₃ Iron(III) chloride
Mead 10% – 14% Ferrous sulphate FeSO₄·7H₂O Iron(II) sulfate
Wine (Red) 12% – 15% heptahydrate
Champagne 12% – 13% Zinc sulphate ZnSO₄ Zinc sulfate
Sake 12% – 16% Ammonium NH₄Cl Ammonium
chloride chloride
Fortified Wine 15% – 22%
Ammonium (NH₄)₂SO₄ Ammonium sulfate
Vodka 35% – 50% sulphate
Rum 35% – 50% Silver nitrate AgNO₃ Silver nitrate
Gin 35% – 50% Potassium K₂Cr₂O₇ Potassium
Brandy 35% – 60% dichromate dichromate
Whiskey 40% – 50% Potassium K₂CrO₄ Potassium
Absinthe 45% – 74% chromate chromate
Sodium Na₂S₂O₃·5H₂O Sodium thiosulfate
Everclear 60% – 95%
thiosulphate pentahydrate
Borax Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O Sodium tetraborate
decahydrate
INORGANIC ELEMENTS &
COMPOUNDS COMMON ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Compound Chemical IUPAC Name Uses
Element/Compound Chemical Formula IUPAC Name Formula
Hydrogen H₂ Dihydrogen Methane CH₄ Methane Fuel (CNG, biogas),
chemical industry,
Oxygen O₂ Dioxygen domestic gas
Ethane C₂H₆ Ethane Used to produce
Nitrogen N₂ Dinitrogen ethylene, refrigerant gas
Ozone O₃ Trioxygen Propane C₃H₈ Propane LPG for cooking/heating,
fuel for engines
Water H₂O Oxidane Butane C₄H₁₀ Butane LPG, lighter fuel,
refrigeration
Hydrogen peroxide H₂O₂ Hydrogen peroxide Ethylene Ethene Ripening agent,
C₂H₄
production of plastics
Ammonia NH₃ Azane (polyethylene)
Nitric acid HNO₃ Nitric acid Acetylene C₂H₂ Ethyne Welding (oxy-acetylene),
synthesis of chemicals
Sulphuric acid H₂SO₄ Sulfuric acid Benzene C₆H₆ Benzene Manufacture of dyes,
plastics, drugs, detergents
Hydrochloric acid HCl Hydrogen chloride
Toluene C₆H₅CH₃ Methylbenzene Solvent, manufacture of
Phosphoric acid H₃PO₄ Phosphoric acid TNT, paints, and
chemicals
Boric acid H₃BO₃ Trihydroxyborane Phenol C₆H₅OH Phenol Antiseptic, production of
plastics, resins, drugs
Carbon dioxide CO₂ Carbon dioxide Manufacture of dyes,
Aniline C₆H₅NH₂ Benzenamine
Carbon monoxide CO Carbon monoxide drugs, rubber chemicals
Ethanol C₂H₅OH Ethanol Alcoholic beverages,
Sodium chloride NaCl Sodium chloride antiseptic, solvent, fuel
blend

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 PERIODIC TABLE
Acetic acid CH₃COOH Ethanoic acid Vinegar (food
preservative), synthetic
fibers, solvents
Formic acid HCOOH Methanoic acid Preservative, dyeing
textiles, ant sting/bee
venom
Oxalic acid C₂H₂O₄ Ethanedioic Cleaning agent,
acid bleaching, rust remover,
ink manufacture
Urea CO(NH₂)₂ Carbamide Fertilizer, in
creams/lotions, animal
feed
Glucose C₆H₁₂O₆ D- Source of energy in body,
glucopyranose IV fluids, instant energy
drinks
Sucrose C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ α-D- Table sugar, food
glucopyranosyl- sweetener
β-D-
fructofuranosid
e
Glycerol C₃H₅(OH)₃ Propane-1,2,3- Used in cosmetics,
triol medicines, explosives
(nitroglycerin)
Acetone (CH₃)₂CO Propanone Nail polish remover,
solvent, cleaning agent
Chloroform CHCl₃ Trichlorometha Solvent, anesthetic
ne (historical), production of
freon
Formaldehy HCHO Methanal Preservative, disinfectant,
de production of
resins/plastics
Aspirin C₉H₈O₄ 2- Pain reliever, anti-
Acetoxybenzoic inflammatory, blood
thinner
acid
Paracetamol C₈H₉NO₂ N-(4- Analgesic, antipyretic
hydroxyphenyl) (fever and pain reducer)
acetamide
Citric acid C₆H₈O₇ 2- Food preservative,
hydroxypropane flavoring, cleaning agent
-1,2,3-
tricarboxylic
acid
Lactic acid C₃H₆O₃ 2- Food preservative,
hydroxypropan yogurt, cosmetics,
muscle metabolism
oic acid
Glyceraldeh C₃H₆O₃ 2,3- Biochemical research,
yde dihydroxypropa metabolism intermediate
nal
Fructose C₆H₁₂O₆ D- Fruit sugar, sweetener,
fructofuranose used in processed foods

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 Ichthyology Study of fishes.
BIOLOGY Herpetology Study of reptiles and amphibians (snakes,
turtles, lizards, frogs, crocodiles).
Ornithology Study of birds.
Dermatology Branch of medicine dealing with skin, nails,
SUBDIVISIONS OF BIOLOGY and hair.
Nutrition Study of food and its influence on health.
 The word Science comes from the Latin word 'scientia', Gerontology Study of ageing, including biological,
meaning 'knowledge'. social, and psychological aspects.
 Science is the systematic knowledge of the physical or Ethology Study of animal behaviour.
material world gained through observation and Bionics Study of mechanical systems that function
like living organisms or parts of living
experimentation.
organisms.
 Science has been classified into:
Biostatistics Application of statistical and mathematical
• (1) Natural Science methods to biological data and phenomena.
• (2) Social Science Craniology Study of the shape and size of the cranium.
 Natural Science is further classified into: Serology Study of blood serum and immune
• (i) Physical Science responses.
• (ii) Biological Science Cytogenetics Study of chromosomes and their role in
 Biological Science is divided into many branches and heredity.
sub-branches. Mycology Study of fungi.
 Lamarck and Treviranus introduced the term 'biology' Phycology Study of algae.
independently in 1802. Lichenology Study of lichens (symbiotic associations).
Agronomy Branch of agriculture dealing with crop
Branch/Sub- Definition / Field of Study production and soil management.
branch Apiculture Raising of bees for honey and pollination.
Zoology Study of different living and extinct Poultry Breeding and rearing of birds.
animals. Pisciculture Rearing and breeding of fish for food.
Botany Study of plants and their life. Algaculture Aquaculture involving the farming of algae
Paleontology Study of history of life on Earth as based on species.
fossils. Viticulture Cultivation and harvesting of grapes.
Paleobotany Study of plant fossils. Vermiculture Cultivation of earthworms, especially for
Ecology Study of organisms in their natural habitat composting.
(Bionomics) and their adaptations to surroundings; also Sericulture Rearing of silkworms for silk production.
called ecology. Horticulture Science of growing fruits, vegetables,
Genetics Study of heredity or how characteristics of flowers, and ornamental plants.
living things are transmitted from one Olericulture Cultivation of vegetables.
generation to the next. Pomology Study of fruits and fruit growing.
Physiology Study of normal functions of living Arboriculture Cultivation of trees and shrubs.
creatures and their parts. Snailiculture Snail farming for human consumption and
Embryology Study of the development of embryos. slime (cosmetics).
Cytology Study of structure and function of cells. Hydroponics Growing plants in mineral nutrient
Histology Study of tissues (microscopic structure). solutions, without soil.
Morphology Study of shape and size of organisms. Aeroponics Growing plants with roots hanging in air,
Anatomy Study of internal structures of organisms. sprayed with nutrients.
Anthology Study of flowers.
Agrostology Study of true grasses (family

Palynology
Poaceae/Gramineae).
Study of pollen grains and spores,
EVOLUTION OF LIFE
especially in geological or archaeological
contexts. Formation of Earth and Primitive
Epidemiology Study of occurrence, distribution, and
determinants of health and diseases in Conditions
populations.  Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion
Pathology Science of the causes and effects of of matter from the solar nebula.
diseases.
 Primitive Earth had no ozone layer; hence high UV
Immunology Study of the immune system and immunity.
radiation reached the surface.
Parasitology Study of parasites (viruses, bacteria, fungi,
worms, insects), their hosts, and the  Atmosphere was reducing, rich in gases like H₂, CH₄,
relationship between them. NH₃, CO₂, H₂O.
Virology Study of viruses.  Earth’s surface had hot dilute oceans, which became the
Bacteriology Study of bacteria. medium for chemical evolution.
Entomology Branch of zoology that deals with insects.
Malacology Study of the Mollusca (snails, slugs,
octopus, squids, etc.).

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Origin of Life: Theories  Some external sources must have been acting on the
mixture for reactions. These external sources might be:
(i) solar radiations such as ultraviolet rays (UV rays),
Oparin-Haldane Theory (Most Accepted) X-rays etc.,
(ii) energy from electrical discharges like lightning,
 Life evolved from non-living matter via chemical (iii) high energy radiations are other sources of
evolution under primitive Earth conditions. energies (probably unstable isotopes on primitive
 Also known as Abiogenesis or Materialistic Theory Earth).
There was no Ozone layer at that time in the
(book: 'Origin of Life' by A.I. Oparin).
atmosphere.
 Prebiotic soup or hot dilute soup formed in early  A soup like broth of chemicals formed in oceans of
oceans. the early Earth, from which living cells are believed to
have appeared, was termed by Haldane as prebiotic
Other Theories soup, also called hot dilute soup. Thus, the stage was
Theory Proponent Key Idea set for combination of various chemical elements.
Divine Origin Various Life created by
Once formed, the organic molecules accumulated in
supernatural power water, because their degradation was extremely slow
Cosmozoic Theory Richter, Arrhenius Life came from outer in absence of any life or enzyme catalysts.
space  The formed molecules accumulated in ocean bounded
Catastrophism Cuvier Life periodically by a covering forming coacervates which have the
destroyed & recreated capacity to self-replication.
Spontaneous Aristotle Life originated
Generation spontaneously
Modern Theory Oparin & Haldane Life originated BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
through chemical
evolution
Organic Evolution
Fundamental Presumptions and Principles
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION  The fundamental presumption of organic evolution is
(CHEMOGENY) the modification of living organisms during their
descent, generation by generation from common
Atomic Phase ancestors.
 Present-day animals and plants have evolved by a
 Primitive Earth had atoms of essential elements (H, C, process of gradual change in earlier simple forms of
N, O, P, S). life, which took place over millions of years.
 Atoms arranged by weight: Heavy (Fe, Ni), Medium  Organic evolution convincingly explains the origin of
(Na, Si, Al), Light (H, O, N, C). life and the diversity of plants and animals.
 The heaviest atoms of iron, nickel, copper, etc. were  Three universally accepted theories of evolution:
collected in the centre of the Earth. 1. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
 Medium weight atoms of sodium, potassium, silicon, Character (Lamarckism)
magnesium, aluminium, phosphorus, chlorine, fluorine, 2. Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)
sulphur etc. were collected in the core of the Earth. 3. Mutation Theory (Hugo de Vries)
 The lighter atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen,
carbon etc. formed the primitive atmosphere. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Formation of Inorganic Compounds Character (Lamarckism)
 Lamarckism is the first theory of organic evolution,
proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), a
Atoms formed molecules: H₂, NH₃, CH₄, H₂O, CO₂.
French biologist.
Ammonia and water were among the earliest molecules.
 Lamarck’s famous book: Philosophie Zoologique
(1809).
Formation of Organic Molecules  He announced in 1801 the Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired Characters.
 Energy from UV rays, lightning, volcanic heat catalyzed  Key ideas:
reactions. • Internal forces of life tend to increase the size of
 Formed amino acids, sugars, nitrogenous bases, etc. the organism, and because of an "inner want",
 Coacervates formed - self-replicating macromolecule new structures appear.
clusters.
• Direct environmental effects over living
organisms.

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 • Use or disuse of organs. • Lived during late Jurassic period (~150 million
• Inheritance of acquired character. years ago).
Examples: • Considered a connecting link between reptiles and
• Long neck of giraffe: Developed gradually due to birds.
lack of surface vegetation.  Dinosaurs:
• Aquatic birds: Developed webbed feet due to lack • Lived during the Mesozoic (Middle Life Era),
of food on land. which is divided into Triassic (251–199.6 mya),
• Flat fishes: Lost their hind limbs. Jurassic (199.6–145.5 mya), Cretaceous (145.5–
• Wading birds (e.g., Jacana): Developed long legs 65.5 mya).
by sustained stretching to keep body above water. • Giant reptiles (dinosaurs, pterosaurs, marine
reptiles) were common.
 Cro-Magnon:
Theory of Natural Selection
• Lived between 35,000 and 45,000 years ago (based
(Darwinism) on radiometric dating).
 Charles Darwin explained natural selection in his book • Had powerful bodies and large brains (brain
"On the Origin of Species" (1859). capacity ~1600 cc).
 This theory is the foundation of evolutionary biology. • Name coined by Louis Lartet; first discovered in
 Elements included: Southwestern France (1868).
• Universal occurrence of variation • Considered the latest direct ancestor of modern
• Overproduction (rapid multiplication) humans (Homo sapiens).
• Struggle for existence (intra- and inter-specific,
and environmental) Key Theories
• Survival of the fittest (Natural Selection): Theory Proponent Core Idea
Organisms with advantageous traits survive; Lamarckism J.B. Lamarck Use/disuse of
others perish. organs leads to
• Inheritance of useful variations: Favorable inherited change
traits are passed to the next generation. Darwinism Charles Darwin Natural
 Neo-Darwinism: A modern version integrating selection and
Darwin’s theory with genetics (Gregor Mendel's work). survival of the
 Modern synthetic theory (by T. Dobzhansky, R.A. fittest
Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, S. Wright, E. Mayr, G.L. Mutation Theory Hugo de Vries Sudden
Stebbins) integrates mutation, mutations form
variation/recombination, heredity, natural selection, new species
and isolation. Neo-Darwinism Modern Combines
Scientists genetics,
mutation,
Mutation Theory selection,
 Proposed by Hugo de Vries, in his book "The isolation
Mutation Theory" (1901).
 He observed mutations in the plant Evening Primrose Evolution Timeline
(Oenothera lamarckiana). Event Approx. Time
 Key points:
Earth formed 4.54 bya
• Mutations are sudden, heritable changes.
Life formed 4.0 bya
• Mutations can appear in many individuals of a
Prokaryotes 3.8 bya
species.
• All mutations are inheritable. Eukaryotes 2.0 bya
• Useful mutations are selected by nature; lethal or Multicellular organisms 1.5 bya
useless mutations are eliminated. Dinosaurs 252–66 mya
• Accumulation of variations can produce new Archaeopteryx 150 mya
species, sometimes from a single mutation. Cro-Magnon 35,000–45,000 years ago

Important Fossil Facts Chronological Order of Epochs

 Archaeopteryx: Correct Order: Paleocene > Eocene > Oligocene >
• Looked like a bird, but had teeth and tail like Miocene > Pliocene > Pleistocene > Holocene
reptiles.
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Additional Important Dimensions  Cyanobacteria: Photosynthetic prokaryotes (e.g.
 Big Bang Theory – Origin of Universe Anabaena), produce oxygen.
 Endosymbiotic Theory – Origin of eukaryotes  Archaebacteria: Extremophiles (e.g. Methanogens),
 Redi’s Experiment – Disproved spontaneous generation ancient lineage, live in extreme environments.
 RNA World Hypothesis – RNA as first genetic material  Reproduction by binary fission or spore formation.
 Fossil Dating Methods – Radiocarbon (C-14),  Nutrition: Autotrophic (photosynthetic &
Potassium-Argon chemosynthetic) and heterotrophic.
 Vestigial Organs, Homologous & Analogous Organs
 Human Evolution Chain – Australopithecus to Homo Kingdom Protista
sapiens
 Year of Miller-Urey experiment: 1953  All unicellular eukaryotes; do not form tissues.
 First membrane-bound cells: 3.8 bya  Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Diatoms,
 Mutation theory propounder: Hugo de Vries Dinoflagellates, Euglena, Slime moulds.
 Connecting link between reptiles and birds:  Some cause diseases: Plasmodium (malaria),
Phytophthora (late blight in potato).
Archaeopteryx
 Synthetic theory contributors: Mayr, Dobzhansky,
Stebbins Kingdom Fungi
 Prehistoric man with 1600 cc brain: Cro-Magnon
 Era of Dinosaurs: Mesozoic  Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, lack chlorophyll and
vascular tissues.
 Gas ratio in Miller experiment: CH₄:NH₃:H₂ = 2:1:2
 Examples: Yeast (unicellular), Molds (hyphae),
Mushrooms (fruiting bodies).
 Reproduce sexually and asexually; Study of fungi is
TAXONOMY AND KINGDOM Mycology.
 Lichen: Symbiosis between algae and fungi.
CLASSIFICATION  Mycorrhiza: Symbiosis between fungi and plant
roots.
Taxonomy and Binomial Nomenclature  Dimorphic fungi (e.g. Penicillium marneffei) exist as
both mold & yeast.
 Taxonomy: System of naming and organizing living
organisms based on shared characteristics. KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) is known as the
'Father of Modern Taxonomy'.  These living organisms are eukaryotic, multicellular,
 He formalized the Binomial Nomenclature system for and have cell walls made of cellulose.
naming organisms.  They are autotrophic and perform photosynthesis
(have chloroplasts).
 Divisions: Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,
WHITTAKER’S FIVE KINGDOM Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.

CLASSIFICATION (1969) Special Plant Types:

Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms  Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes):
• Insectivorous plant, able to synthesize its own
 Whittaker classified all life into 5 Kingdoms: food.
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia. • Grows in nitrogen-deficient soil and traps insects
 Based on cell type, body organization, mode of for nitrogen.
nutrition, and reproduction.  Xerophytes:
• Plants adapted to dry environments (e.g.,
deserts).
Kingdom Monera • Examples: Cactus, calotropis, aloe, pineapple,
some gymnosperms.
 Includes single-celled prokaryotic organisms (no • Adaptations:
nuclear membrane). ▪ Reduced permeability of epidermis, leaves
 Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-green as spines, succulence, water storage, deep
roots.
algae), Mycoplasma.
 Phreatophyte:
 Mycoplasma: Smallest living cell, lacks cell wall, • Deep-rooted plants obtaining water from
causes atypical pneumonia. phreatic zone.
• Roots reach up to 25–30 meters underground.
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 Hydrophytes: • Fruit with fleshy interior and hard or firm rind
• Aquatic plants or macrophytes, adapted to water (melon, squash, cucumber).
environments.  Retting:
• Most common adaptation is aerenchyma. • Microbial process for separating fibres from stem
 Halophytes: (used for hemp, jute).
• Salt-tolerant plants; grow in saline or high  Cork:
salinity areas (e.g., mangroves, seashores). • Bark of Quercus suber (oak).
 Epiphytes:  Bud:
• Grow on other plants but do not parasitize. • Undeveloped/embryonic shoot in plants or in
• Obtain nutrients from air, rain, debris (e.g., zoology, refers to growth that can become a new
orchid). individual.

Floral and Plant Organs: Plant Pigments and Compounds:

 Flower:  Papaya (Carica papaya):
• Reproductive organ of flowering plants • Enzyme papain aids digestion; caricaxanthin
(angiosperms). gives yellow color.
• Function: Mechanism for union of gametes.  Red apples:
 Modified stems/roots: • Anthocyanin pigment.
• Ginger, potato, garlic, suran: Rhizome, tuber,  Carotene:
bulb, corm respectively. • Yellow/orange pigment in carrot.
• Shakarkand (Sweet potato): Family  Lycopene:
Convolvulaceae, edible root. • Red pigment in tomato.
• Sugarcane, potato, ginger: Modified stems.  Xanthophyll:
• Shalgam (Turnip), carrot, sweet potato: • Pigment in turmeric, beet, leafy greens.
Modified roots.
 Pea: Plant Sulphur Compounds & Effects:
• Dicotyledonous herbaceous plant; tendril for
support; family Leguminosae.
 Garlic/Onion:
• Allicin and allyl methyl sulphide
Other Plant Facts:
(responsible for smell and health effects).
 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum): Family • Cysteine sulfoxide causes unpleasant
Poaceae/Gramineae; stem cutting for propagation. breath.
 Cloves: • Sulfenic acid produces tears.
• Aromatic flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum  Capsaicin:
(family Myrtaceae). • Compound responsible for chilli's heat;
• Health benefits: Digestion, fighting bacteria,
chemical formula C₁₈H₂₇NO₃.
fighting cancer, regulating blood sugar.
 Saffron: • Measured by Scoville scale.
• Derived from Crocus sativus (family Iridaceae).
• Crimson stigma and styles; used as spice, Ecological Terms:
coloring agent.
 Okra (Ladies’ finger):  Producers: Autotrophs, make food via
• Flowering plant valued for green seed pods; photosynthesis.
capsule is the pod.  Consumers: Heterotrophs, depend on producers/other
 Turmeric (Curcuma longa): consumers.
• Rhizome (modified stem) is edible; contains  Herbivores: Primary consumers (plant eaters).
curcumin (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant).  Carnivores: Secondary consumers (animal eaters).
 Sorosis:  Decomposers: Break down dead organic matter
• Fruits derived from multiple flowers (e.g., (saprophytic).
Mulberry, Pineapple, Jackfruit).
 Nut:
• Indehiscent fruit with hard shell (e.g., Cashew,
Singhara).
 Lychee:
• Single genus in Sapindaceae; fleshy aril.
 Pome:
• Fleshy fruit with tough core (apple, pear).
 Pepo:

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  Heterothermic (cold-blooded) animals: Body temp.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA changes with environment (fish, reptiles, amphibians).
 Nocturnal animals: Active at night, e.g., mosquito,
 Animalia kingdom includes all invertebrates and bat, owl, kiwi.
vertebrates.  Eye-aye: Largest nocturnal primate, uses echolocation.
 Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms.
 Most animals consume organic material, breathe
oxygen, can move, and reproduce sexually. Other Notable Animal Types
 Over 1.5 million living animal species have been
described (over 1 million insects), but it’s estimated  Fish:
that there are over 7 million animal species in total. • Include flying fish, catfish, pipe fish, paddle fish,
gold fish, globe fish, dogfish.
Major Phyla and Examples • Seahorse (Hippocampus): A bony fish.
• Gills: Main respiratory organ.
• Fish exchange gases using gills; in winter, ice
 Arthropoda is the largest phylum, includes species in forms at the top of water, fish survive in the water
all habitats (60% of all known species). below.
 Crabs: Class Malacostraca (Phylum-Arthropoda).  Amphibia (Class-Amphibia):
 Arachnida (Phylum-Arthropoda):
• Vertebrates able to live in water and on land.
• Have two body regions: cephalothorax and
• Modern examples: turtles, crocodiles, snakes,
abdomen.
• 6 pairs of appendages (4 pairs of legs, 2 pairs of amphibians.
mouth part appendages—chelicerae and
pedipalps). Reptiles and Snakes
• Examples: Scorpions, Spiders.
 Ticks and mites: Order Acarina (Arachnida).  King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah):
 Insecta (Phylum-Arthropoda):
• World’s longest venomous snake.
• Includes all insects.
• Found in South-East Asia and India.
• Three body segments: head, thorax, abdomen.
• Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
• 3 pairs of legs.
• Females lay 20–50 eggs (oviparous) and show
 Glowworm (Arachnocampa luminosa):
parental care.
• Famous for bioluminescence due to an enzyme  Non-poisonous and poisonous snakes:
luciferase.
• Most snakes are non-poisonous, but some
 Mosquitoes:
(krait, cobra, viper) are poisonous.
• Female: Mouthparts are elongated, adapted for
• Fangs: Deliver venom.
sucking blood.
• Venom may contain multiple toxins.
• Male: Mouth adapted for sucking nectar.
• Cobra & krait: Neurotoxic & cardiotoxic
 Insect respiratory system:
venom.
• Trachea for breathing; malpighian tubules for
• Viper: Vasculotoxic & haemotoxic venom.
excretion.
• Snake gland is homologous to salivary gland of
vertebrates.
Other Animal Groups
Mammals and Birds
 Echinodermata:
• Marine animals with radial symmetry (e.g.,
 Bats: Only mammals with true flight (Order
starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea
Chiroptera).
cucumbers, sea lilies).
 Smallest bat: Kitti’s hog-nosed bat ("bumblebee bat"),
• Second-largest group of deuterostomes.
smallest mammal by length.
• Mostly oviparous but some are viviparous.  Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus): Largest
 Cephalopoda (Mollusca): marine mammal (up to 33m, 180 metric tons, lifespan
• Octopus is a member, also called Devilfish. 80–90 years).
• Giant squids (Architeuthis dux) and colossal  Sperm whale: Largest toothed whale (up to 55 feet,
squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni) are the 35–45 tons), carnivorous.
largest invertebrates.  Cetacea: Order for sea lion, seal, phoca, walrus,
dolphins.
 Dolphin: Very intelligent animal.

Thermoregulation and Adaptations Special Cases

 Homeothermic (warm-blooded) animals: Maintain  River Ganga Dolphin: National Aquatic Animal of
stable body temperature (birds, mammals). India (Platanista gangetica).

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 Sea cow: Herbivorous aquatic mammal.  Most plant and animal cells are 1–100 µm in size and
 Echidna & Platypus: Egg-laying mammals. require a microscope.
 Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus): Largest Asian  Cell discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 (in his book
antelope. 'Micrographia').
 Apes: Hylobatidae (gibbons) & Hominidae  Cell Theory by Schleiden and Schwann (1839): All
(chimpanzees, gorillas, humans, etc.). organisms are made of cells, and all cells arise from
 Humans: Largest brain size, advanced cognitive pre-existing cells.
abilities, cranial capacity: 1200–1700 cm³.  Cells first appeared ~3.5 billion years ago.

Frequently Asked TYPES OF CELLS

 Blue-green algae = Cyanobacteria (prokaryotic).
 Mycoplasma is smallest living cell, lacks cell wall.
Prokaryotic Cells
 Cloves = dried flower buds (family Myrtaceae),
saffron = stigma of Crocus flower.  Lack true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
 Papaya enzyme = Papain; Red apple = Anthocyanin  DNA lies in a nucleoid region without a membrane.
pigment.  No histone proteins; ribosomes are present in
 Cactus = Xerophyte, Phreatophyte = deep-rooted cytoplasm (70S type).
plant, Halophyte = salt-tolerant.  Found in Bacteria and Archaea (including
 Pitcher plant = Insectivorous; Nepenthes traps insects cyanobacteria).
for nitrogen.
 Examples of rhizome, tuber, bulb, corm: Ginger, Eukaryotic Cells
Potato, Garlic, Suran.
 Archaebacteria: Extremophiles like methanogens
(present in ruminants and wetlands).  Have a defined nucleus and organelles within plasma
 Octopus = Mollusc (Devilfish); Starfish = membrane.
Echinoderm; Jellyfish = Cnidarian (not true fish).  Examples: Protozoa, fungi, plants, animals.
 King Cobra: Oviparous, parental care, neurotoxic  Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than
venom, vulnerable species. prokaryotes.
 Scoville Scale measures capsaicin in chillies.  Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S (except in
 Sulfenic acid in onion causes tears. mitochondria/chloroplasts where it's 70S).
 Dolphin = Cetacea; Ganga dolphin = Platanista
gangetica (National aquatic animal). CELL ORGANELLES AND
 Cork = from bark of Quercus suber (oak).
STRUCTURES
CELL Cell Wall
 Present in plant, fungal, and algal cells; absent in
animal cells.
 Plant cell wall: cellulose; fungal cell wall: chitin.
 Provides support, protection, and filtration.
 Plasmodesmata: Cytoplasmic connections in plant cell
walls for cell-to-cell communication.

Plasma Membrane
 Semipermeable membrane made of lipid bilayer and
proteins.
 Controls movement of molecules into and out of the
cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Rough ER (RER): Has ribosomes; site of protein
 Cell (Latin: 'Cella') means small room; it's the basic synthesis.
structural and functional unit of life.  Smooth ER (SER): Synthesizes lipids, steroids;
 Study of cells is called Cell Biology or Cellular Sarcoplasmic Reticulum stores calcium in muscle
Biology. cells.
 Human body has approximately 40 trillion cells.

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Ribosome NUCLEUS
 Site of protein synthesis.  Discovered by Robert Brown (1831).
 Free-floating or attached to RER.  Controls cell function via DNA.
 Prokaryotic ribosome: 70S; Eukaryotic: 80S.  Double-membraned (nuclear envelope); contains
nucleolus.
Mitochondria  DNA also found in mitochondria and chloroplast.

 Known as 'Powerhouse of the Cell'. PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH

 Double membrane with own DNA.
 Site of ATP production during respiration (Krebs (PCD)
Cycle in matrix).
 PCD = programmed cellular suicide (e.g., in embryo
digit formation).
Golgi Apparatus  Types: Apoptosis and Autophagy.
 Essential for development and immunity in both
 Modifies, stores, and ships proteins/lipids; unit: plants and animals.
cisternae.
 Discovered by Camillo Golgi.
Important Facts
Lysosome  DNA is also found in mitochondria and chloroplast
(besides nucleus).
 Called 'Suicidal bag of cell'.  Viroids = smallest infectious RNA; Prions = infectious
 Contain hydrolytic enzymes; degrade waste and proteins.
pathogens.  Mycoplasma has no cell wall; smallest free-living
 Active in acidic pH. cell.
 Plant cells: cell wall present, large vacuole; Animal
Centrosome cells: no cell wall, many small vacuoles.
 Plasma membrane is made of both lipids and
proteins.
 Present in animal cells; absent in typical plant cells.  Powerhouse of cell = Mitochondria.
 Organizes microtubules; forms spindle during cell  Protein synthesis: Ribosome + Rough ER.
division.  Krebs Cycle = max ATP production; occurs in
mitochondrial matrix.
Vacuole  Plastids: found only in plant cells.
 Peroxisomes: degrade toxic substances using catalase
enzyme.
 Stores water, waste; large in plant cells.
 Plasmodesmata: allow communication between plant
 In animals: small vacuoles; In plants: large central
cells.
vacuole.

Peroxisome HEREDITY
 Contain catalase enzyme; break down hydrogen  Heredity is the process of passing traits and
peroxide. characteristics from parents to their offspring.
 Present in both plant and animal cells.  The offspring get their features, characteristics, and
genetic information from their mother and father.
 Heredity and genetics are the reasons why organisms
Plastids (Plant Cells Only) look similar to their parents.
 Genetics is the branch of biology that studies genes,
 Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis (contains genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms.
chlorophyll and DNA).  During sexual reproduction, genetic variation occurs
 Chromoplast: Colored pigments (e.g., carotenoids). due to errors in DNA copying. This variation is
 Leucoplast: Storage of starch, oil, and proteins. crucial for evolution and is the basis of heredity.
 Variation can also happen through asexual
reproduction, but these are usually less noticeable.
Cytoskeleton  Variation is caused due to gene mutations, gene-
environment interactions, and different combinations
 Network of microtubules and microfilaments. of genetic material.
 Provides shape, support and facilitates intracellular
transport.

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Gregor Johann Mendel (The Father of  Pentose sugar: DNA contains deoxyribose sugar;
RNA contains ribose sugar.
Genetics)  DNA is the hereditary material in humans and most
organisms.
 Acquiring characteristics or traits from one  DNA was first identified by Friedrich Miescher in
generation to the next is called inheritance. 1869.
 Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the Father of  Double Helix Model of DNA was proposed by Watson
Genetics. He performed extensive research on pea and Crick in 1953.
plants (Pisum sativum).  DNA contains genes for development, functioning,
 Mendel was a priest in the Church of Brunn city growth, and reproduction.
(Austria).  Transcription: DNA to RNA; Reverse transcription:
 His research on plant breeding and hybridization led RNA to DNA.
to the formulation of the laws of inheritance:
• Law of Dominance
• Law of Segregation
Human Chromosomes
• Law of Independent Assortment
 Humans are unisexual animals.
 Each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes (total
Genome 46).
 22 pairs are autosomes (in both males and females).
 A genome is the entire set of DNA in an organism,  The 23rd pair are sex chromosomes (XX in females,
containing all genes. XY in males).
 Each gene contains the information needed to build and  Offspring with XY are male; with XX are female.
maintain the organism.
 In humans, the genome contains over 3 billion DNA Some Terms about Heredity
base pairs in all cells with a nucleus.
 Gene: Basic unit of inheritance; sequence of DNA that
Gene Mapping carries genetic material.
 Chromosomes: Thread-like structures of nucleic acids
 Gene Mapping is the method used to locate genes on and protein; carry genes.
chromosomes and find their distances.  Genotype: The genetic identity of an organism (set of
 This helps in placing molecular markers on their alleles).
respective genome positions.  Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical
characteristics.
 Alleles: Different forms of the same gene; located on
Transposable Elements (TEs) chromosomes; can affect traits.
 Dominant alleles: Allele that shows its effect even if
 Transposable elements or jumping genes are DNA only one copy is present (denoted by a capital letter,
sequences that can move within the genome. e.g., T).
 Sometimes TEs cause mutations and can alter cell  Recessive alleles: Allele that shows its effect only if
identity and genome size. both copies are present (denoted by a small letter, e.g.,
 Discovered by Barbara McClintock (Nobel Prize, t).
1983).  Homozygous: Both alleles for a gene are the same (TT
 Spotted seeds in maize are due to these jumping or tt).
genes.  Heterozygous: Two different alleles for a gene (Tt).
 Nearly half of human DNA is made of jumping genes.
 Their movement can sometimes create new mutations
causing diseases. BIOFERTILIZERS
Nucleic Acid  Chemical fertilizers have helped increase crop
production, but their overuse is harmful because:
 The term nucleic acid refers to DNA • They cause air and water pollution
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). • They deplete minerals from the soil
 Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids: each  There is a need to shift to organic farming using
consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and biofertilizers.
a nitrogenous base.  Biofertilizers: Increase nutrients for host plants when
 Nitrogenous bases are of two types: Purine and applied to seeds, soil, or plant surface by colonizing
Pyrimidine. the rhizosphere or plant interior.
• Purines: Adenine and Guanine (in both DNA • Use microbes instead of chemicals to enhance
and RNA) soil nutrition
• Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine (in DNA), • Less harmful and does not cause pollution
Uracil (in RNA)

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Types of Biofertilizers  Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the
shape, structure, and relationship of parts of the
organism.
1. Bacteria  Skeletal and Muscle system serves as a framework for
2. Fungi the body of all vertebrates including humans.
3. Cyanobacteria  The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilages,
ligaments, and other tissues that perform essential
Bacteria functions.
 Bone tissue or Osseous tissue is the major structural
and supportive connective tissue of the body.
 Nitrogen-fixing nodules on legume roots (e.g., by
Rhizobium bacteria) are a major source of biofertilizer. • Bones are organs made up of bone tissue as well
as marrow, blood vessels, epithelium, and nerves.
• These nodules help fix atmospheric nitrogen into
forms that plants can use (symbiotic association). • Helps in movement and protects internal organs.
 Rhizobium culture is added to fields to ensure enough  Cartilage is a resilient and semirigid connective tissue
nitrogen supply. found in the skeleton in areas of flexibility and smooth
 Leghemoglobin (a haeme protein in root nodules) surface support movement.
helps supply enough oxygen for nitrogen fixation.  Ligaments are fibrous and dense connective tissues that
 Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (e.g., Pantoea connect bone to other bones.
agglomerans, Microbacterium levaniformans,  Tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of fibrous
Pseudomonas putida) can solubilize insoluble connective tissue that connects muscle to bone, or
phosphate for plant use. muscle to muscle, and is designed to withstand tension.
 Azotobacter acts as a biofertilizer in non-legume
crops (e.g., cotton, wheat, mustard, maize, etc.), Major Functions of the Skeletal System:
especially in sugarcane, wheat, millets, maize,
sorghum.
 Body support
 Facilitation of movement
Fungi  Protection of the internal organs
 Storage of mineral and fat
 Symbiotic associations between plants and fungi are  Blood cell formation
called Mycorrhizae.  Bones serve as sites for fat storage and blood cell
production.
• The plant supplies sugars (produced by
 The unique semi-solid tissue that fills the interior of
photosynthesis) to the fungus.
most bones is called bone marrow:
• The fungus supplies water and minerals (e.g.,
• Yellow bone marrow: contains adipose tissue and
phosphorus) to the plant.
triglycerides stored as energy for other tissues.
• Benefits include:
• Red bone marrow: where production of blood
1. Tolerance to drought and salinity
cells (hematopoiesis) takes place.
2. Resistance to root pathogens
3. Overall plant growth and development
Types of Skeleton:
Cyanobacteria / Blue-Green Algae
Exoskeleton:
 Blue-green bacteria found in water and on land; help
in fixing atmospheric nitrogen.  Hard outer layer that covers, supports, and protects the
• Examples: Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Anabaena body of invertebrate animals (e.g., insects, crustaceans).
 Some cyanobacteria can fix nitrogen under anaerobic  Exoskeleton of vertebrates includes scales in fishes and
conditions using specialized cells (heterocysts). reptiles, feathers in birds and hair/nails/hoofs/horns in
• Heterocysts may form when nitrogen is scarce. mammals. Made of α-keratin protein.
 The Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis is very important for
rice fields.
• Azolla provides food to Anabaena.
Endoskeleton:
• Anabaena fixes nitrogen and provides N₂ to
Azolla.  Hard frame that supports the body of a vertebrate
animal from the inside, made of bones and cartilages.

HUMAN ANATOMY AND (i) Bone:

PHYSIOLOGY • Composed chiefly of calcium phosphate and
calcium carbonate.
Skeletal and Muscle System • Storage area for calcium, playing a role in calcium
balance.

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 • Collagen is the main structural protein found in the  Pelvic Girdle: 2 (os innominatum)
organic matrix of bone.  Forelimb (arms): 60 (humerus – 2, radius – 2, ulna – 2,
carpal – 16, metacarpal – 10, phalanges – 28)
 Hindlimb (legs): 60 (femur – 2, tibia – 2, fibula – 2,
(ii) Cartilage: patella – 2, tarsal – 14, metatarsal – 10, phalanges – 28)
 Femur (thigh bone): longest bone in human skeleton.
 Resilient and smooth elastic (semirigid) tissue, a
rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of
bones at joints. Arthritis (Joint Disease):
 Major components: glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans,
collagen fibers.  Arthritis: Pain, swelling, and stiffness in a joint.
 Cartilage does not contain blood vessels (avascular) or  Osteoarthritis: Most common, cartilage wears away.
nerves (aneural).  Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): Autoimmune,
 Nutrition supplied to chondrocytes (only cells in healthy symmetrical.
cartilage) by diffusion.  Gout: Uric acid crystals in joint.
 Arthroplasty: Surgical replacement of a damaged joint.
Endoskeleton of Human:
WATER PERCENTAGE IN THE
 Internal skeleton made of hard, mineralized tissues,
enabling movement by muscle attachment.
HUMAN BODY
 Total bones in adult human: 206 bones (axial and
appendicular skeleton).  Adults: 55–70% (men: ~60–65%, women: ~55–60%)
 Infants: ~75–78% (drops to 65–70% by one year)
 Brain & Heart: 73% water
(a) Axial Skeleton:  Lungs: 83% water
 Skin: 64% water
 Cranium (skull): 8  Muscles/Kidneys: 79% water
 Face: 14  Bones: 31% water
 Ears: 6 (3 in each ear: malleus, incus, stapes)  Adult male needs about 3 liters water/day, female about
 Hyoid: 1 2.2 liters.
o Stapes is the smallest bone in human.  Functions of water: Vital nutrient, regulates
temperature, transports food, flushes waste, lubricates
joints, forms saliva, acts as shock absorber.
(b) Vertebral Column:
 Usually 26 vertebrae: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
• Cervical Vertebrae – 7 (first: atlas vertebra)
• Thoracic Vertebrae – 12
HUMAN BODY
• Lumbar Vertebrae – 5
• Sacrum Vertebra – 1 (5 fused)  99% of mass is made of six elements:
• Coccyx Vertebra – 1 (4 fused) • Oxygen (O): 65.0%
• Carbon (C): 18.5%
• Hydrogen (H): 9.5%
(c) Ribs: • Nitrogen (N): 3.2%
• Calcium (Ca): 1.5%
 12 pairs (total 24), paired on right and left. • Phosphorus (P): 1.0%
 First 7 pairs attached to vertebrae and sternum (called  About 0.85% is potassium, sulphur, sodium,
true ribs). chlorine, magnesium.
 8–10th pairs: attached to sternum indirectly (called  All 11 above are necessary for life.
false ribs).  Calcium phosphate compound is found in maximum
 11th & 12th pairs: do not connect to sternum (called amount in human bone.
floating ribs).

(d) Sternum:
HUMAN TOOTH
 Function: Mechanically break down food for
 Breastbone (1), flat bone, keystone of rib cage. swallowing/digestion.
 Types: Incisors (cut), Canines (tear), Premolars/Molars
(e) Appendicular Skeleton: (crush/grind).
 Primary set: 20 (develop ~6 months, lost by 12 years).
 Total bones: 126  Permanent set: 32 (16 upper, 16 lower), includes
 Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle): 4 (scapula – 2, wisdom teeth.
clavicle – 2)  Enamel: Hardest substance in body.

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 Demineralization: Caused by acids from bacteria Pancreas and Pancreatic Juice
feeding on sugars.
 Second largest gland; mixed gland (endocrine +
Notable Muscles and Bones: exocrine).
 Enzymes:
 Sartorius: Longest muscle (thigh). • Amylase – starch → disaccharides
 Stapedius: Smallest muscle (<2 mm, in middle ear). • Trypsin – proteins → peptides
 Masseter: Strongest muscle (jaw muscle). • Lipase – fats → fatty acids + glycerol
 Femur: Longest bone. • Nuclease – nucleic acids → nucleotides
 Stapes: Smallest bone.  Called complete digestive juice.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Small Intestine

 Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble food  Length: 6.7 – 7.6 m; parts:
molecules into small, water-soluble molecules. • Duodenum (25 cm) – receives bile & pancreatic
 It includes: juice.
• Mechanical digestion (physical breakdown) • Jejunum (2.5 m) – absorption of nutrients,
• Chemical digestion (enzyme-based breakdown) magnesium.
• Ileum (3.5 m) – completes digestion, secretes
succus entericus.
Human Digestive System  Enzymes in ileum:
• Erepsin – peptides → amino acids.
Comprises the alimentary canal (~30 feet/9 m long) and • Maltase, Sucrase – sugars → monosaccharides.
accessory organs (tongue, salivary glands, liver, • Lipase – fats → fatty acids & glycerol.
pancreas, gall bladder). • Nucleotidase – nucleotides → base + sugar +
phosphate.
Digestion in the Mouth
Absorption of Digested Food
 Saliva: 99.5% water + electrolytes, enzymes (ptyalin,
lipase), lysozyme.  Occurs mainly in ileum.
 Starts carbohydrate digestion.  Villi increase surface area.
 Amylase converts starch → maltose & dextrin.  Nutrients absorbed into blood and lymph.
 Daily production: 0.75 – 1.5 L.

Large Intestine and Defecation

Oesophagus
 Absorbs water, forms faeces.
 Muscular tube (~25 cm) connecting pharynx to  Bacteria produce gases (methane, NH₃, CO₂, etc.).
stomach.
 Uses peristaltic movement to push food.
Caecum & Appendix
Stomach  Caecum: absorbs fluids & salts.
 Appendix: vestigial in humans, functional in
 Muscular sac; stores and churns food. herbivores for cellulose digestion.
 Secretes:
• HCl – acidic medium, kills bacteria.
• Pepsin – protein → peptones/polypeptides. Enzymes – Nature and Function
• Renin – curdles milk.
• Lipase – acts on fats.  All enzymes are proteins; biological catalysts.
• Mucin – protects stomach lining.  Examples: Zymase (Glucose → alcohol + CO₂),
Trypsin, Lipase, Pepsin.
Liver and Bile
Important Points
 Largest gland (1.5 kg).
 Functions: urea formation, bile production, glycogen  Digestion starts in mouth (Amylase → carbs).
storage, RBC breakdown.  Most digestion occurs in small intestine.
 Bile (800–1000 ml/day): 97% water, bile salts,  Enzyme-based questions: Lipase, Pepsin, Trypsin.
bilirubin, emulsifies fats.  Gallstones affect fat digestion (bile flow blocked).
 Stored in gallbladder.  Enzyme nature: All are proteins

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 Hormone vs Enzyme: (e.g., Gastrin is a hormone).  Lactobacillus bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid;
these bacteria are used to manufacture curd and cheese.
 Starch and cellulose are both of plant origin. Starch is
Digestive Glands and Their Secretions composed of glucose molecules linked in long chains.
Cellulose is also a long chain of glucose molecules.
Gland Secretion Function  The iodine test is used to test for the presence of starch
Salivary Ptyalin Starch → Maltose (blue-black colour indicates starch).
Glands  Cellulose does not turn blue-black in presence of
Stomach Pepsin, HCl Protein digestion, iodine.
acidic medium
Liver Bile Fat emulsification Fats:
Pancreas Amylase, Complete food
Lipase, digestion  Fats are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
Trypsin oxygen.
Small Maltase, Final digestion to  In fats, the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen atom is less.
Intestine Sucrase, absorbable forms  Fats are formed by the chemical reaction of one
Erepsin molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty
acids.
 Fats are the source of stored energy. Fats are broken
VITAMINS AND NUTRITION down in the body to release glycerol and fatty acids;
glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver.
Food:  9.0–9.3K calories energy is produced by the total
combustion of one gram of fat.
 Fats provide almost 15–20% energy to the total energy
 Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional requirement of the body.
support for an organism.  Percentage of fat in a healthy human is about 7% of
 It is usually of plant or animal origin and contains
total body weight.
essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats,  Fats are classified into two groups based on carbon
proteins, vitamins, and minerals. atom bonds in their fatty acids:
 The substance is ingested by an organism and
1. Saturated fats
assimilated by the organism’s cell to provide energy,
2. Unsaturated fats
maintain life, or stimulate growth.

Saturated Fats:
Components of Food:
 Saturated fatty acids have all or predominantly single
 The major components of our food are: bonds.
1. Carbohydrates  Saturated fatty acids are important because they elevate
2. Fats blood lipid levels.
3. Proteins  Saturated fatty acids are not essential; body can
4. Minerals (salts) synthesize them.
5. Nucleic Acids  Saturated fatty acids in the diet raise plasma
6. Vitamins cholesterol; PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids)
7. Water lower it.
 Examples of saturated fatty acids:
Carbohydrates: • Butyric acid (butter)
• Lauric acid (coconut oil, palm kernel oil, breast
 A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon milk)
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually • Myristic acid (cow’s milk, dairy)
with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (empirical • Palmitic acid (butter, palm oil, meat)
formula Cₓ(H₂O)ᵧ). • Stearic acid (meat, cocoa butter)
 Carbohydrates are the main component of food and
source of immediate energy to the body. Unsaturated Fats:
 Approximately 55–75% energy is provided by
carbohydrates to the total energy requirement of the
body.  Unsaturated fats have at least one double or triple
 It is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles in the bond in the fatty acid chain.
form of glycogen, which gives energy on requirement.  Monounsaturated if one double bond;
 One gram of glucose gives 4.5K calories energy on polyunsaturated if more than one.
oxidation.  Found in fish, corn, walnuts, sunflower seeds,
 Lactose is a natural sugar (a carbohydrate). It is milk soybeans, cotton seeds, olive oil, sunflower oil.
sugar, responsible for the mildly sweet taste of milk.  Diet high in unsaturated fats is linked to low
cholesterol.

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 Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. Vitamins:
 Examples:
• Palmitoleic acid (macadamia nuts)
 Vitamins are organic compounds required in small
• Oleic acid (olive oil, canola oil)
amounts; cannot be synthesized in body (with
• Myristoleic acid (whale blubber) exceptions); obtained from plants or diet.
• Linoleic acid (peanut oil, chicken fat, olive oil)  Classified into two groups:
• Linolenic acid (linseed oil) 1. Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K (stored in
 α-Linolenic acid is omega-3 fatty acid that prevents liver/adipose)
accumulation of fat in blood vessels. 2. Water-soluble vitamins: B group, C (not stored,
 Arachidonic acid is omega-6 fatty acid (liver, brain, excreted)
glands).
 Hydrogenation is a process to convert unsaturated
fats to saturated (used to make margarine, vanaspati Main Vitamins, Deficiency Diseases, and Sources:
ghee).
Vitamin Deficiency Sources
Disease
Trans Fats: Vitamin A (Retinol) Night blindness, Carrot, milk,
xerophthalmia, cheese, butter,
 Trans fats are artificial fats created by adding skin infection egg, cod liver oil
hydrogen to liquid vegetable oil to make it solid. Vitamin B₁ Beri-beri, growth Cereals,
 Trans fats raise bad LDL cholesterol and lower good (Thiamin) retardation legumes,
HDL cholesterol. soybeans, milk,
yeast, green veg
 Associated with type 2 diabetes.
Vitamin B₂ Cheilosis, glossitis, Milk, egg white,
(Riboflavin) dermatitis, liver, kidney,
Proteins: digestive disorders yeast, meat,
green leafy veg
Vitamin B₃ (Niacin) Pellagra Egg, meat, fish,
 Proteins are essential nutrients; building blocks of milk, yeast,
tissues. vegetables,
 As fuel, proteins provide 4.0K calories/gram. mushroom
 Amino acids are the structural units of proteins. Vitamin B₅ Paraesthesia, Yeast, meat,
 There are 10 essential amino acids and 10 non- (Pantothenic Acid) burning sensation fish, egg milk,
essential amino acids. legumes
Vitamin B₆ Anaemia, skin Milk, yeast,
(Pyridoxine) problem, muscular cereals, egg,
Essential Amino Acids: twisting gram, yolk
Vitamin B₇ (Biotin) Skin disease, fall Meat, wheat,
 Cannot be synthesized in the human body, must be of hair vegetables, fruits
obtained from diet. Vitamin B₉ (Folic Anaemia, growth Green
 List: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, Acid) retardation vegetables,
methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, histidine, legumes, yeast,
arginine. liver
 Arginine and histidine are essential for juveniles only. Vitamin B₁₂ Pernicious Meat, fish, egg,
(Cobalamin) anaemia, nervous curd, bacteria of
system intestine
Non-essential Amino Acids: abnormality
Vitamin C Scurvy (bleeding Amla, citrus
(Ascorbic Acid) gums) fruits, tomato,
 Can be synthesized in the human body.
green leafy veg
 List: asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid,
Vitamin D Rickets, Cheese, fish,
glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine. (Calciferol) osteomalacia egg, yolk,
 α-Keratin: Protein found in hair, skin, nails, horn, sunlight
hoof, beak. Vitamin E Sterility, weak Vegetable oils,
 Tyrosine: Helps in synthesis of neurotransmitters (Tocopherol) reproductive wheat, soybean
(adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine). organs & muscles
Vitamin K Increased blood Green leafy
(Naphthoquinone) clotting time vegetables,
Water: bacteria of
intestine
 In milk, water percentage is about 87%. Milk is a
Complete Diet.
 Nursing mothers: At least 65g protein/day; other
 Milk is a complete diet for all ages.
females: 45–46g/day.
 Deficiency of proteins leads to marasmus and
 Protein deficiency: Causes marasmus and
kwashiorkor.
kwashiorkor.
 Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K
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 Water-soluble vitamins: B group, C (except B₁₂ can be Mechanism of Breathing
stored)
 Vitamin C is essential for collagen synthesis and
immunity.  Breathing involves inspiration (inhalation) and
 Vitamin D is required for calcium absorption. expiration (exhalation).
 Vitamin K helps in blood clotting.  Inspiration: Active process; external intercostal
muscles and diaphragm contract, thoracic cavity
expands, air rushes in.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  Expiration: Passive process; muscles relax, thoracic
volume decreases, air is expelled.
 There are three major parts of the respiratory system:  In females, ribs play a more significant role in
the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. inspiration (to protect the fetus).
 The airway includes the nose, mouth, pharynx,  Normal rate: 15–25/min in adults, 35/min in infants.
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carrying
air between the lungs and body’s exterior. Gas Exchange and Transport
 Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung.
The right lung is bigger and has three lobes, while the  Gas exchange: Oxygen (O₂) enters blood from lungs,
left has two (shares space in the chest with the heart). carbon dioxide (CO₂) removed from blood to lungs,
 Lungs are the functional units of the respiratory happens mainly by diffusion at the alveoli-capillary
system. Their function is to extract oxygen from the interface.
atmosphere, transfer it to the bloodstream, and release  Alveoli: Primary sites of gas exchange.
carbon dioxide from the blood into the air (gas  Blood: 97% of O₂ transported by hemoglobin (in
exchange). RBCs), 3% dissolved in plasma. 20 mL O₂/100 mL
 Air is breathed in through the nose or mouth. The blood.
nasal cavity has a mucous membrane that filters and  CO₂: 20–25% transported as bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻),
traps pollutants and harmful substances. Air then 70% as bicarbonate, remaining as dissolved
moves to the pharynx (throat) and into the trachea gas/plasma.
(windpipe).  Hemoglobin binds O₂; carbon monoxide binds 250x
 The trachea divides into the right and left primary more tightly than O₂ (dangerous).
bronchi, then to secondary (lobar) bronchi, tertiary  Hypoxia: Low oxygen in tissues. Hypoxemia: Low
(segmental) bronchi, and finally bronchioles, ending oxygen in blood.
at alveoli (~15 crore in each lung).
 Lungs are encased in a serous membrane called the
pleura (two layers: visceral and parietal), with pleural Cellular Respiration
fluid reducing friction during breathing.
 The diaphragm is the main muscle of respiration,  Cellular respiration: Biochemical process releasing
contracting to expand the thoracic cavity and pull air energy from food molecules for life functions.
into the lungs. Intercostal muscles between ribs assist  Types:
with breathing. • Anaerobic respiration (no oxygen): Glucose →
 Pulmonary respiration is the process of breathing alcohol + CO₂ + 56 Kcal energy. Found in yeast,
through the lungs. muscles during intense activity.
• Aerobic respiration (with oxygen): Glucose + O₂
Respiratory Volumes → CO₂ + H₂O + 686 Kcal energy. Main pathway
for most animals.
 Tidal volume: Volume of air inhaled/exhaled with each
breath; about 500 mL in humans. Stages:
 Vital capacity: Maximum volume of air forcibly
inhaled/exhaled (3.5–4.5 liters). Higher in athletes,
mountaineers, and women, older people, smokers have (i) Glycolysis
lower vital capacity.
 Residual volume: Volume of air left in lungs after  Glucose → pyruvic acid.
forceful expiration (~1200 mL).  Occurs in cytoplasm.
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): 2500–3000 mL.  Net gain: 2 ATP molecules per glucose.
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): ~1100 mL.  Also called EMP Pathway (Embden, Meyerhof,
 Dead space: 150 mL (in nasopharynx, trachea, Parnas).
bronchi—no gas exchange).
 Total lung capacity: Sum of all volumes after maximal
inhalation.
(ii) Krebs Cycle
 Discovered by Hans Krebs.
 Occurs in mitochondria (eukaryotes) or cell membrane
(prokaryotes).

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 Complete oxidation of pyruvic acid; produces CO₂,  Blood low in oxygen enters the right atrium (from
water, energy. body), moves to right ventricle, then to lungs (for
 Net gain: 36 ATP per 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. oxygenation).
 Total gain in aerobic respiration: 38 ATP per glucose. Oxygenated blood returns to left atrium, moves to left
ventricle, and is pumped out via the aorta to the body.
 Resting heart rate: about 72–75 beats/min.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ)  Tachycardia: Heart rate >100/min (due to stress, drugs,
or disease).
 RQ = Volume of CO₂ evolved / Volume of O₂  Cardiac cycle: One complete heartbeat—includes
consumed diastole (ventricles relax/fill) and systole (ventricles
• For fats: 0.7 contract/pump).
• For proteins: 0.8  Double circulation: Blood passes through the heart
• For carbohydrates: 1.0 twice per cycle (separates oxygenated/deoxygenated
 Measured by Ganong’s respirometer. blood for efficiency).
 William Harvey first described blood circulation.
 Dr. Christian Barnard performed the first successful
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM heart transplant (1967).
 Natural pacemaker: Sinoatrial node initiates
 The circulatory system is a network consisting of electrical impulses in right atrium.
blood, blood vessels and the heart. This network  Artificial pacemaker: Device that regulates heart rate
supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other in cases of bradycardia (slow heartbeat) or heart
nutrients, transports hormones and removes block (signal disruption).
unnecessary waste products.  Jarvik-7 (artificial heart): Mechanical pump replacing
 There are two main types of circulatory systems: open damaged heart; invented by Robert Jarvik; Barney
circulatory systems and closed circulatory systems. Clark was the first recipient (1982).
 Open circulatory systems are systems where internal
organs and body tissues are surrounded by circulatory
fluid, e.g., in crustaceans, insects, mollusks and other
Blood Pressure
invertebrates.
 Closed circulatory systems have the blood closed at all  Blood pressure is the pressure of blood on the walls of
times within vessels of different size and wall thickness. arteries as the heart pumps it around the body. It is a
In this type of system, blood is pumped by a heart vital part of how heart and blood circulation works.
through vessels and does not normally fill body cavities.  The normal blood pressure of human is 120/80 mm
Large and more active animals, including all Hg. The top number refers to the amount of pressure in
vertebrates, have a closed circulatory system. arteries during the contraction of the heart muscle. This
 Fishes have 2-chambered hearts. is called systolic pressure. The bottom number refers to
 Amphibians & Most Reptiles have 3-chambered blood pressure when heart muscle relaxes. This is called
hearts. diastolic pressure.
 Crocodiles, Birds, and Mammals have 4-chambered  High blood pressure is when blood pressure is
hearts. persistently higher than normal.
 Blood pressure that’s high over a long time is one of the
main risk factors for heart disease. As humans get older,
Human Heart the chances of having persistently high blood pressure
increases.
 The human heart is a muscular organ that pumps  It is very important to get blood pressure checked
blood via blood vessels, delivering oxygen/nutrients and regularly, and if it is persistently high it needs to be
removing wastes. controlled.
 It is about the size of a large fist, weighing 250–300  Uncontrolled high blood pressure can lead to a heart
grams in adults. attack or stroke. It may attack kidneys.
 Located between the lungs, in the mediastinum of the  The medical name for high blood pressure over a long
chest. period of time is hypertension.
 Pericardium: Double-walled sac with pericardial fluid  The causes of high blood pressure are as follows:
for protection and lubrication. • family history
 The heart wall has three layers: epicardium, • eating patterns including salty foods
myocardium, endocardium. • alcohol and tobacco intake
 Has four chambers: two upper (atria/auricles) and • weight gain
two lower (ventricles). • low physical activity
 Right heart: right atrium + right ventricle; left heart: • mental tension
left atrium + left ventricle; separated by septum.  Low blood pressure is when blood pressure is much
 Valves ensure one-way blood flow, preventing below the normal range. In this condition flow of blood
backflow. to the organs of the body is inadequate. The medical
 Pacemaker cells (in sinoatrial node) set the heart’s term for low blood pressure is hypotension.
rhythm; electrical signals pass through the conduction  Low blood pressure alone, without symptoms or signs,
system. usually is not unhealthy.
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 The symptoms of low blood pressure include light-  Plasma also contains blood clotting factors, vitamins,
headedness, dizziness, blurred vision and fainting. enzymes, hormones, antibodies and other proteins.
These symptoms are most prominent when individuals 
go from the lying or sitting position to the standing
position (Orthostatic hypotension).
 Low blood pressure that causes an inadequate flow of
(B) Blood corpuscles
blood to the body's organs can cause strokes, heart
attacks and kidney failure. The most severe form of low  There are three types of blood corpuscles in human
blood pressure is shock. blood:
 Common causes of low blood pressure include a • (a) Red Blood Corpuscles (Erythrocytes)
reduced volume of blood, dehydration, heart disease • (b) White Blood Corpuscles (Leucocytes)
and medications. • (c) Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 The blood pressure is measured by an apparatus called
sphygmomanometer.
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles (Erythrocytes)
Blood Vessels  Mature RBCs in humans are flexible, oval, biconcave
disks, lacking a nucleus (except Camel/Llama) and
 The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and most organelles for maximum haemoglobin storage.
function to transport blood throughout the body.  About 2.4 million new RBCs are produced per second
 The most important types, arteries and veins, carry in adults.
blood away from or towards the heart respectively.  RBCs form in bone marrow (in liver during embryo
 Around this, there is a layer of vascular smooth muscle, stage) and circulate for 100–120 days before being
which is highly developed in arteries. recycled by macrophages. One circulation takes about
 Semilunar valves are found in veins which only permit 60 seconds.
the flow of blood towards the heart and not in the  RBCs make up about 40–45% of blood volume.
opposite direction. No such valve is found in arteries.  RBC count: Males ~55 lakh/µL, Females ~50
 Arteries from the heart branch into small passages lakh/µL, People in hilly areas ~70–75 lakh/µL.
called arterioles and then into capillaries. Capillaries  Spleen is called the blood bank; it recycles old RBCs.
merge into venules (to bring blood into the venous  Haemoglobin (iron-containing protein) in RBCs
system), which merge into veins leading back to the transports oxygen in nearly all vertebrates (except some
heart. fish like Channichthyidae) and some invertebrates.
 Haemoglobin delivers oxygen from lungs/gills to
tissues for aerobic respiration and energy production
Blood (metabolism).
 Normal haemoglobin: 12–18 g/100 ml blood.
 It is a fluid, a specialized form of connective tissue.  Anaemia: Low RBC or haemoglobin; heart works
 Its pH is about 7.4 (alkaline solution). harder to supply enough oxygen.
 The amount of blood in the human body is generally  Polycythemia/erythrocytosis: Excess RBCs thicken
equivalent to about 7% of body weight. Its average blood, raising the risk of clots, stroke, or heart attack.
density is around 1060 kg/m³. The average adult has a  Haemoglobin is also called the respiratory pigment.
blood volume of roughly 5-6 litres.
 Blood is essential to life. It circulates through the body
and delivers essential substances like oxygen and (b) White Blood Corpuscles (Leucocytes)
nutrients to the body’s cells. It also transports metabolic
waste products away from those cells. There is no  White blood corpuscles (WBCs) are the cells of the
substitute for blood. It cannot be made or manufactured. immune system that are involved in protecting the
Generous blood donors are the only source of blood for body against both infectious diseases and foreign
patients in need of a blood transfusion. invaders.
 All WBCs are produced and derived from multipotent
cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem
Components of the Blood cells.
 All WBCs have nuclei, which distinguishes them from
 The main components of the blood are: the other blood cells (RBCs and Platelets).
o (A) Plasma  White blood cells make up merely about 0.7-1% of the
o (B) Blood cells or corpuscles total blood volume in a healthy adult, but body’s
immunity depends on it.
(A) Plasma  Normally white blood cell’s number is near about 4000-
11000 per microlitre of blood.
 The life of white blood cells is generally a few hours to
 Plasma is the relatively clear, yellow tinted water a few days.
(about 91-92%), sugar, fat, protein and salt solution  The WBCs have been classified into two classes:
which carries the blood corpuscles. • (i) Granulocytes
 Normally about 55% of our blood volume is made of • (ii) Agranulocytes
plasma.
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Granulocytes: Blood Antigen Antibody Remarks
Group
 Their cytoplasm contains granules. Divided into 3 parts: A A b–
• Eosinophils: About 2.4% of the WBCs. B B a–
Implicated in allergic disorders and immune AB A, B – Universal
responses. recipient
• Basophils: The least common of the granulocytes O – a, b Universal Donor
(0.5%). Contain anticoagulant heparin and
vasodilator histamine.  There is an agglutination reaction between similar
• Neutrophils: Most abundant granulocytes (60- antigen and antibody (for example, antigen-A
65%). First line of defense in innate immunity. agglutinates the antibody-a and antigen-B agglutinates
the antibody-b).
Agranulocytes:  Due to the absence of antigen in blood group O, it is
universal donor and due to the absence of antibody in
blood group AB, it is universal recipient.
 No granules in their cytoplasm. Two types:
• Lymphocytes: Main types of immune cells. B
lymphocytes make antibodies, T lymphocytes Blood Group of Blood Group of Impossible
help kill tumour cells and help control immune Parent Progeny (Possible)
responses. O×O O A, B, AB
• Monocytes: Largest of all WBCs. Become O×A O, A B, AB
macrophages when move into tissues. A×A O, A B, AB
 Leukaemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow. It O×B O, B A, AB
leads to overproduction of abnormal white blood cells. A×B O, A, B, AB
O×AB A, B O, AB
(c) Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes) A×AB A, B, AB O
B×AB A, B, AB O
 Platelets are tiny blood cells formed in the bone AB×AB A, B, AB O
marrow.
 Platelets have no cell nucleus.
 They generally live for almost 8 to 10 days. Rh-Factor
 Normal platelet count is 1,50,000 to 4,50,000 per
microlitre.  In 1937 Landsteiner and Wiener discovered another
 Platelets help body in forming clots to stop bleeding. antigen in blood of monkey Rhesus, hence the name
Rh-factor was given to this antigen.
 Rh-factor is an inherited protein found on the surface
Production of Blood Cells of RBCs. If blood has that protein, the blood is Rh-
positive and if blood lacks that protein, the blood is Rh-
 In the human adult, the bone marrow alone produces negative.
all of the RBCs, 60-70% of the WBCs (i.e., the  Rh-positive is the most common blood type.
granulocytes), and all of the platelets.  During blood transfusion, the same Rh-factor must
 Monocytes (20-25% of the WBCs) are produced by the
reticuloendothelial tissues of the spleen, liver, lymph
nodes, and other organs. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Blood Group  Excretion is a process by which metabolic waste is
eliminated from an organism.
 In vertebrates, this is primarily carried out by the
 Blood Group was discovered by Landsteiner in 1900. lungs, kidneys, and skin.
 Blood Group is a classification of blood, based on the  Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life.
presence and absence of antibodies and inherited
antigenic substances.
 The antigen is present on the surface of RBC while
antibody is present in the plasma.
 The antigen is a glycoprotein. It is of two types, Classification of animals on the type of
antigen-A and antigen-B.
 In the absence of antigen, a special type of protein is nitrogenous waste:
found in plasma known as antibodies. It is of two
types, antibody-a and antibody-b.  Animals are classified into three groups on the basis of
 On the above basis, the human blood group has been the type of nitrogenous waste:
classified into four groups: • Ammonotelic animals: Their main nitrogenous
waste is ammonia (e.g., certain protozoans,
polychaete annelids, crustacean arthropods,
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 molluscs, fresh-water teleost fishes, tadpoles of  A dialyzer is an artificial filter containing fine fibres,
amphibians, and crocodiles). also known as a semipermeable membrane.
• Ureotelic animals: Main nitrogenous waste is  Its function is to remove excess waste and fluid from
urea (e.g., elasmobranch fishes, amphibians, and the blood when the patient’s kidneys can no longer
mammals). perform that task.
• Uricotelic animals: Main nitrogenous waste is  The process of purifying blood in the body is called
uric acid (e.g., insects, some gastropods, lizards, dialysis.
snakes, birds).
Other Excretory Functions
Excretion of nitrogenous waste in
humans:  Alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver breaks down
alcohol.
 The nitrogenous waste in humans is excreted by  The liver detoxifies drugs and unknown substances.
kidneys.  Sweat glands: Excrete water, salt, and some waste.
 The kidneys are bean-shaped organs present on each  Skin is an excretory organ, excreting water, salt, and
side of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. urea via sweat.
 Humans have two kidneys, each supplied with blood by
the renal artery. NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The kidneys remove nitrogenous waste from the blood
in the form of urea as well as salts and excess water,
excreting them in the form of urine.  The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves
 This is done with the help of about one million and specialized cells known as neurons that transmit
nephrons present in each kidney. Nephrons are the signals between different parts of the body; essentially,
structural and functional unit of the kidney. it is the body’s electrical wiring.
 The filtered blood is carried away from the kidney by  Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system; each
the renal vein. neuron is made of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and a
 Each kidney is attached to a ureter (tube carrying single axon.
excreted urine to the urinary bladder).  Nerve cells are the longest cells of the body.
 The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until  Neurons communicate via synapses.
urination.  All animals except sponges and placozoans have
 The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the neurons.
external environment through an opening called the
urethra. Types of Neurons:
Functions of Kidney:  Sensory neurons (Afferent): Respond to stimuli and
send signals to the spinal cord or brain.
 Elimination of waste from the bloodstream by the  Motor neurons (Efferent): Carry signals from the
production of urine. brain/spinal cord to effector organs (muscles, glands).
 Maintaining volume and ionic balance of extracellular  Interneurons: Connect neurons within the brain or
fluid. spinal cord.
 Maintaining pH and osmolarity of extracellular fluid.
 Regulating blood pressure. Divisions of Nervous System:
 Excreting toxic metabolic by-products such as urea,
ammonia, and uric acid.
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal
cord.
Other Important Points:  Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the
CNS.
 Kidney stones: Excess waste crystallizes as kidney
stones (calcium oxalate). May cause pain and require Peripheral Nervous System is divided
treatment.
 Urea is formed in the liver but is separated from blood
into:
in the kidney by ultrafiltration.
 Urine volume: Normal range for 24-hour volume is  Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control (skeletal
800-2000 ml, average about 1.5 liters/day. muscles).
 Urine pH: About 6.0 (acidic).  Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary control
 Urine color: Pale yellow due to urobilin. (internal organs).
 In urine: About 91-96% water, urea 2.6%, ions, salts, • Sympathetic: "Fight or flight", increases heart
very small amount of uric acid and other waste. rate, blood flow to muscles, etc.
• Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest", reduces
heart rate, increases digestion, etc.
Dialyzer or Artificial Kidney • Enteric: Controls gastrointestinal tract.
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Cranial and Spinal Nerves Parathyroid Glands:
 Cranial nerves: 12 pairs, connect brain to head/neck  Four glands on the thyroid's dorsal side.
regions.  Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH): Regulates
 Spinal nerves: 31 pairs, connect spinal cord to the calcium in blood.
body.  Hyposecretion: Muscle cramps, osteoporosis.

HUMAN BRAIN Adrenal Glands (Suprarenal):

 Command center of the nervous system.  Located above the kidneys; each has an outer cortex
 Consists of cerebrum (largest part; controls thought, and inner medulla.
voluntary movement), cerebellum (balance,  Cortex: Secretes
coordination), and brainstem (vital functions). • Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone):
 Medulla oblongata: Controls vital functions— Sodium/chloride balance.
heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, etc. • Glucocorticoids (Cortisol): Stress response,
 Reflex Action: Immediate, involuntary reaction to glucose/fat/protein metabolism.
stimuli controlled by spinal cord and brainstem. • Androgen: Male sex hormone, body hair, deep
voice.
 Medulla: Secretes
Temperature Regulation • Epinephrine (Adrenaline), Norepinephrine
(Noradrenaline): Emergency “fight or flight”
 Most mammals, including humans, are endothermic hormones, increase heart rate, muscle strength.
homeotherms—maintain stable internal temperature.
 Average human internal temperature: 98.6°F (37°C).
Thymus Gland:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM  Located behind sternum/lungs; active until puberty.
 Produces hormones for T-cell development, immune
function.
Gland
 A gland is a group of cells that synthesizes substances Pineal Gland (Biological Clock):
(hormones) for release into the bloodstream
(endocrine gland) or into cavities/external surfaces  In brain, secretes melatonin; regulates sleep/wake
(exocrine gland). cycles.

Endocrine System Pituitary Gland:

• Made up of glands that produce and secrete  “Master gland”; controls other glands.
hormones.  Secretes:
• Hormones regulate growth, metabolism, development, • Growth hormone (GH): Growth of
reproduction, mood, and more. bones/muscles.
• Gonadotropins (FSH, LH): Stimulate sex organs.
• Prolactin: Milk production.
Major Endocrine Glands • TSH: Thyroid stimulating hormone.
• ACTH: Adrenal cortex stimulation.
Thyroid Gland: • Oxytocin: Childbirth, bonding.
• ADH: Water balance in kidney.
 Secretes thyroid hormones (T₃, T₄) and calcitonin.
 Regulates metabolism, growth, heart rate, temperature. Pancreas:
 Iodine is required for hormone production.
 Disorders:
• Hyposecretion (Hypothyroidism): Cretinism  Both exocrine and endocrine.
(retarded growth in children), Myxoedema  Endocrine part (Islets of Langerhans):
(swelling, thickened skin), Goitre (enlarged • Beta (β) cells: Insulin (↓ blood glucose).
gland), Hashimoto Disease. • Alpha (α) cells: Glucagon (↑ blood glucose).
• Hypersecretion (Hyperthyroidism): Increased • Delta (δ) cells: Somatostatin (regulates
metabolism, exophthalmos (eye protrusion), insulin/glucagon).
Graves' Disease.  Diabetes Mellitus: Insulin deficiency (Type 1, Type 2).

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Gonads  Two main forms: Asexual and Sexual.
• Asexual: New organisms from a single parent, no
gamete fusion, genetically identical offspring.
 Testes: Produce androgens (testosterone), sperm.
Includes cloning.
 Ovaries: Produce estrogen, progesterone; control
• Sexual: Requires two specialized gametes (sperm,
female characteristics, menstrual cycle.
ovum) produced by meiosis. Fusion forms a
zygote.
Other Endocrine-Related Organs • Offspring are genetically diverse.

 Placenta: Secretes hormones (estrogen, progesterone,

hCG) during pregnancy.
Human Reproduction:
 Kidney: Secretes renin (blood pressure regulation),
erythropoietin (RBC production).  Humans reproduce by sexual reproduction.
 Calcitriol: Activated form of vitamin D. Promotes  Fertilization: Fusion of sperm (male gamete) and
intestinal absorption of calcium and renal ovum (female gamete) occurs internally in the
reabsorption of phosphate. fallopian tube.
 Mucous glands of Alimentary Canal: Stomach and  Humans are viviparous—give birth to live young.
intestine secrete some hormones along with mucous:
• Gastrin: Promotes gastric juice secretion. Male Reproductive Organs:
• Enterogastrone: Inhibits gastric juice secretion.
• Ghrelin: When the stomach is empty, stimulates  Testes: Main male reproductive organ, outside the
hunger and increases gastric secretion and abdominal cavity lies in brown bag like structure called
motility. scrotum.
 Hormones secreted by intestine: • Produce sperm (spermatogenesis in seminiferous
• Hepatocrinin: Stimulates liver to secrete bile tubules).
juice. • Leydig cells: Secrete testosterone (secondary
• Secretin: Stimulates pancreas for pancreatic sexual characters, deepening of voice, puberty,
juice. facial/pubic hair).
• Pancreozymin: Stimulates pancreas for enzyme  Sperm Duct: Transports sperm.
secretion.  Prostate Gland: Secretes fluids into semen.
• Cholecystokinin: Causes contraction of gall  Urethra: Passage for urine and semen (longer in
bladder for bile release; helps in fat/protein males).
digestion.  Penis: External organ for sperm/urine discharge.
• Enterocrinin: Stimulates intestinal wall for
enzyme secretion.
 Skin: Skin cells can act as an endocrine gland for Female Reproductive Organs:
ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol (hormones for
calcium/phosphorus absorption). Deficiency can  Located inside the abdomen:
cause rickets or osteomalacia. • Ovaries: Produce ova (egg cells). Each ovary
 Hormones act as messengers and regulators. releases one egg per month (ovulation).
 Ernest Henry Starling (1905) introduced the word • Fallopian Tubes (oviducts): Site for fertilization.
Hormone. • Uterus: Muscular organ for fetal development.
• Cervix: Opening for baby delivery.
Pheromones • Vagina: Receives penis and delivers baby.
• Urethra: Only urine passes in females.
 Pheromones: Chemical substances secreted by
exocrine glands to the outside and detected by others of Fertilization and Embryo Development:
the same species.
 Also called ectohormones.  Egg matures due to estrogen and progesterone
 Example: Bombykal from female silk moth attracts (oogenesis).
males.  Sperm remains viable for 48–72 hours, egg for 12–24
 Social insects (bees, ants, mites) use pheromones for hours post-ovulation.
communication and aggregation.  Fertilization forms a zygote with 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
 Zygote → Morula → Blastocyst.
REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYO • Chorionic villi form from blastocyst outer layer.
DEVELOPMENT • Implantation: Blastocyst attaches to uterus wall.
• Placenta forms to supply nutrition, oxygen, and
waste removal for embryo.
 Reproduction: Biological process where offspring are
 Estrogen and progesterone maintain placenta/fetus.
produced from parents.
 It is a fundamental feature of all known life.

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 Gestation (pregnancy) in humans is ~38 weeks (9  Rate increases with light, but too much light can cause
months). photo-oxidation (solarization).
 Labour: Uterine contractions (influenced by oxytocin)  CO₂, O₂, temperature, water also affect
for delivery. photosynthesis.
 Umbilical cord: Connects fetus to placenta, is expelled  Photosynthesis can happen from –35°C (conifers) to
after birth. 75°C, but best is 10–35°C.

Prenatal Development: Photosynthesis Phases:

 Germinal period: First 2 weeks (conception to uterine (a) Light-dependent Phase (Hill Reaction/Photochemical)
implantation).
 Embryonic period: 3–8 weeks; organ systems begin to  Occurs in grana of chloroplast.
develop (three germ layers—ectoderm, mesoderm,  Chlorophyll absorbs a photon, loses an electron.
endoderm).  Creates a proton gradient; ATP (energy currency) is
• Ectoderm: Skin, nerves, brain. synthesized.
• Mesoderm: Bones, muscles, heart.  NADP is reduced to NADPH.
• Endoderm: Digestive, urinary tracts.  Water splitting (photolysis) releases O₂.
 Fetal period: Organs mature, growth until birth.  Equation:
• Heart starts beating in 4th–5th week.  2H₂O + 2NADP⁺ + 3ADP + 3Pᵢ + light → 2NADPH +
2H⁺ + 3ATP + O₂
Extra-Embryonic Membranes: (b) Light-independent Phase (Calvin Cycle/Dark
Reaction)
 Amnion: Membrane filled with amniotic fluid;
protects fetus.
 Occurs in stroma of chloroplast; does not need light.
 Chorion, yolk sac, allantois: Protective/supportive
 CO₂ is converted into glucose using ATP and NADPH.
roles.
 Enzyme Rubisco captures CO₂; makes three-carbon
• Chorion: Gas exchange.
sugars.
• Allantois: Handles liquid waste.  C-3 plants: Calvin cycle is main pathway.
 C-4 plants: First product is a 4C compound (better in
high light).
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY  CAM plants: (e.g. cactus) keep stomata closed during
the day, open at night.
Photosynthesis
Bacterial Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is a vital process of green plants, using
sunlight to make food.  Green sulfur bacteria use bacteriochlorophyll; don’t
 Autotrophic plants make huge amounts of organic use water as H donor.
food using solar energy.  No oxygen released.
 Carbohydrates formed are the basic food for most life
forms.
 About 90% of the world’s photosynthesis occurs in PLANT NUTRITION
marine and freshwater algae.
 Photosynthesis turns CO₂ and water into glucose and  Plants require macronutrients (needed in large
oxygen (O₂), in presence of chlorophyll and sunlight. amounts) and micronutrients (small amounts).
 6CO₂ + 12H₂O --(Sunlight/Chlorophyll)--> C₆H₁₂O₆ +  Six main elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
6H₂O + 6O₂ ↑ Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S), Phosphorus (P).
 Oxygen is released by splitting of water during  Other major nutrients: Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca),
photosynthesis. Magnesium (Mg).
 Takes place mainly in green leaves in the mesophyll
cells containing chloroplasts.
 Seaweeds and some algae can do photosynthesis by Macronutrients:
moonlight or bulb light.
 Carbon (C): Backbone of biomolecules; comes from
CO₂.
 Hydrogen (H): From water, needed for
sugars/fats/proteins.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:  Oxygen (O): For respiration/photosynthesis.
 Nitrogen (N): 40–50% of dry weight; for proteins,
 Light is most important; 655 nm (red) and 440 nm chlorophyll, nucleic acids; deficiency = yellow leaves.
(blue) wavelengths are most effective.  Phosphorus (P): For ATP, membrane, nucleic acids;
 Magnesium is the key element in chlorophyll. deficiency = red/purple leaves.
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 Potassium (K): Regulates stomata, enzyme activation; (i) Auxins
deficiency = leaf spots.
 Sulphur (S): In amino acids, vitamins, chloroplast.
 Calcium (Ca): For cell wall, enzymes; deficiency =  Auxins are crucial for plant growth; first discovered
blossom end rot. plant hormones.
 Magnesium (Mg): Center of chlorophyll, enzyme  Main natural auxin: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).
activator.  Other natural auxins: Indole-3-acetaldehyde, Indole-3-
pyruvic acid, Indole-3-acetonitrile, Indole-3-ethanol.
 Synthetic auxins:
Micronutrients: • Indole-3-butyric acid
• 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)
 Iron (Fe): Enzyme cofactor, electron transport; • Phenylacetic acid
deficiency = chlorosis. • 2,4-D (dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
 Molybdenum (Mo): Nitrogen metabolism. • 2,4,5-T (trichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
 Boron (B): Flowering, root growth; deficiency = poor
fruiting.
 Copper (Cu): Lignin production.
Functions of Auxins:
 Manganese (Mn): Chloroplast building.
 Zinc (Zn): Enzyme; deficiency = ‘little leaf’ (Khaira  Promote cell elongation.
disease).  Control phototropism (growth toward light) and
 Nickel (Ni): Enzyme urease. geotropism (growth in response to gravity).
 Chlorine (Cl): Osmosis, ion balance.  Promote differentiation of tissues and root initiation.
 Used to promote parthenocarpic fruits (seedless).
 Inhibit abscission (fall) of fruits and leaves.
Vascular System:  Used as weedkillers (e.g., 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T).
 Delay sprouting (e.g., storing potatoes).
 Vascular plants have special tissues called veins  Retard growth of buds.
(xylem & phloem), while non-vascular plants (like
algae, mosses) do not.
 Xylem:
(ii) Gibberellins
• Known as water-conducting tissue.
• Transports water and minerals from roots to all  Discovered from fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
parts of the plant.  Promote stem elongation and cell division (especially
• Made up of tracheids, vessels, wood in the sub-apical meristem).
parenchyma, and wood fibres.  Do not affect root growth.
 Phloem:  Functions: bolting (sudden shoot elongation),
flowering, breaking dormancy, fruit growth,
• Responsible for transporting food (from leaves to
parthenocarpy, seed germination.
rest of plant).
 Used to increase sugarcane yield by lengthening the
• Also called bast tissue.
stem.
• Made up of sieve elements, companion cells,
fibres, and phloem parenchyma cells.
(iii) Cytokinins
Amarbel (Cuscuta)
 Promote cytokinesis (cell division).
 Discovered in coconut milk.
 Amarbel is an angiospermic total stem parasite.  Functions: promote cell division, morphogenesis,
 It is leafless and rootless; has intertwined yellow delay leaf senescence (aging), break dormancy.
stems (known as Devil's hair).  Counteract effects of auxins and gibberellins.
 The haustoria (specialized roots) penetrate the host
plant to absorb water and nutrients.
Growth Inhibitors
PLANT HORMONES (i) Abscisic Acid (ABA)
 Plant hormones are organic substances formed in one
part of the plant and transported to other parts to control  Regulates dormancy of buds/seeds.
growth and development.  Promotes aging (senescence) and abscission (fall) of
 These hormones are small molecules found in very low leaves/fruits.
concentrations.  Inhibits growth, metabolism, seed germination.
 Hormones are classified as growth promoters or  Antagonistic to gibberellin.
growth inhibitors.  Used to control fruit drop.

Growth Promoters (ii) Ethylene (C₂H₄)

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 Only gaseous plant hormone. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Produced in minute quantity, very active.
 Synthesized from methionine.
 Functions: • Involves meiosis (reduces chromosomes) and
• Enhances respiration during fruit ripening fertilization (restores chromosomes).
("respiratory climacteric"). • Flowers are sexual organs.
• Induces epinasty (downward curling of leaves).
• Promotes elongation of stems/roots (radial Parts of Flower
growth).
• Promotes fruit ripening and abscission.  Bisexual flower: Has both male & female parts.
• Induces senescence and leaf drop.  Four main parts:
• Applied to rubber trees to stimulate latex flow. 1. Calyx (sepals): Green, protective.
2. Corolla (petals): Colorful, attract pollinators.
Summary Table: 3. Androecium (male): Stamens
▪ Anther (makes pollen),
▪ Filament (stalk).
Hormone Main Function Other Uses/Notes 4. Gynoecium (female): Carpels/pistil
Auxin Cell elongation, Parthenocarpy, ▪ Stigma (receives pollen),
root initiation weed control ▪ Style (stalk),
Gibberellin Stem elongation, Flowering, break ▪ Ovary (contains ovules/female gametes).
bolting dormancy
Cytokinin Cell division, Morphogenesis Pollination and Fertilization
delay senescence
ABA Dormancy, aging, Fruit drop regulation
 Pollination: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
abscission
(self or cross by wind, insects, water, animals).
Ethylene Fruit ripening, Latex production,
• Self-pollination: Same plant; less variation.
abscission epinasty
• Cross-pollination: Different plants; genetic
variation.
PLANT REPRODUCTION • Pollen tube forms, delivers sperm to ovule.

 Plant reproduction: Production of new offspring in Dichogamy

plants, can be asexual or sexual.
 Asexual reproduction: No gametes, offspring  Maturation at different times to avoid self-
genetically identical to parent (except mutations). fertilization.
 Sexual reproduction: Offspring by fusion of gametes, • Protandry: Stamens mature first.
genetically different from parent(s). • Protogyny: Ovary matures first.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants Microsporogenesis & Megasporogenesis

 Two main types:  Microsporogenesis: Formation of male gametes
• Vegetative propagation: New plants from (pollen grains) via meiosis.
vegetative parts (e.g., budding, tillering).  Megasporogenesis: Formation of female gametes
• Apomixis: Seed formation without meiosis & (ovules) via meiosis; only 1 out of 4 cells functional.
syngamy.
▪ No gamete fusion or meiotic division.
▪ Two types: Double Fertilization (Angiosperms)
▪ Sporophytic (from diploid sporophyte)
▪ Gametophytic (from haploid  Unique to flowering plants.
gametophyte)  One male gamete + egg = diploid zygote (embryo).
▪ All seeds are genetically similar.  Other male gamete + 2 polar nuclei = triploid
▪ Used in hybrid seed production (saves hybrid endosperm (nutrition for embryo).
characters).  Ovary becomes fruit, ovules become seeds.
 Stem cutting: Piece of plant in moist soil grows into
new plant (used in horticulture).
 Vegetative propagation by layering: Stem attached to PLANTS: ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
parent forms roots on touching medium (e.g.,
strawberry).  The primary necessities of man are threefold—food,
 Grafting: Joining tissues of two plants for growth. clothing and shelter.
Used for fruit trees.  The most essential need of man is food.
 The food primarily comes from the cereals (e.g. rice,
wheat, maize, oat, barley), millets (e.g. sorghum, pearl
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 millet), pulses, vegetables and fruits. For clothing,  Mango is the most popular and the choicest fruits of
plants are indispensable. India and occupies a prominent place among the best
 The plants that yield fibres are second only to food fruits of the world.
plants. Besides above, coal, fuels, medicines and other  The mango fruit is one of the most widely cultivated
useful substances are obtained from the plants. fruits in the tropics. It has a rich, luscious, aromatic
flavour and a delicious taste in which sweetness and
acidity are delightfully blended. Young and unripe
Sunflower oil: fruits are used in pickles, chutney, amchur etc.
 The unripe fruit has citric, malic, oxalic and succinic
 It is the non-volatile oil which is obtained by crushing acids. Ripe fruits constitute a rich source of vitamin A.
the seeds of sunflower (Helianthus annuus-Family- The fruit is also a rich source of potassium.
Asteraceae).
 Nutritionally, it is better than many other cooking
mediums. It can be safely used by heart patients. Banana (Musa paradisiaca):
 Sunflower oil does not raise the cholesterol level in
blood. High cholesterol is bad for heart.  The fruits have a high content of carbohydrates with
 Sunflower oil contains proteins and vitamin A, D and some proteins and fats. Their food value is three times
E. that of wheat.
 The oil is easily digested.
 Being of semi-drying and stable type, sunflower oil is
also used in making paint, varnish, and soap.
Guava (Psidium guajava):
 The fruits are edible. It is aromatic, sweet, juicy and
Essential Oils: highly flavoured. It contains acid, sugar, and pectin.
 It is one of the richest sources of vitamins A, B and C.
 The essential oils also known as volatile oils It is commonly used for making jellies, jams and paste.
evaporates in contact with the air and possesses a
pleasant fragrance.
 Chemically the essential oils are very complex.
Apple (Malus domestica):
 They are found in many different species of plants of
various families.  Apples are valued mainly as dessert fruits. Apples are
 Some essential oil yielding plants are as follows: rich in pectin and are useful in diarrhoea. Apple juice,
1. Chandan (Sandalwood): It is a tree, a native of syrups and vinegar reduce curd tension of milk used in
the highlands of South India and the Malayan infant feeding.
Archipelago. The major demand for sandalwood  Apple murabba is regarded as a stimulant for the heart,
oil is from the perfumery trade. It is also used it is reported to relieve physical heaviness and mental
medicinally. strain.
2. Camphor Oil: The camphor oil is obtained from  The vitamins, salts and organic acids are concentrated
the wood and leaves of camphor tree particularly in and just below the skin and the fruit
(Cinnamomum camphora-Family-Lauraceae). should be eaten unpeeled. Apple is considered a good
Camphor oil is mainly used in the manufacture of source of potassium.
celluloid and various nitrocellulose compounds.  The mineral constituents of apple are Ca, Mg, K, Na,
They are widely used in the preparation of P, Cl, S, and Fe.
medicines and perfumes.
3. Mint Oil: Mint oil is obtained from the leaves by Grapes (Vitis vinifera):
distillation process of Mentha arvensis. Mint oil
is the main source of menthol. It is used in the
treatment of colds.  Grape is a delicious, refreshing and nourishing fruit. It
is classified as a protective food, is easily digestible
and has large quantities of sugar, minerals like calcium,
Indian Gooseberry—Amla (Phyllanthus iron and vitamin B.
emblica):  Grapes are also used in the preparations of wines.

 A common tree with edible fruits. The fruits are used Citrus Fruits:
in diarrhoea and dysentery. The bark, leaves and fruits
are used in dyeing and tanning. The wood yields  Citrus fruits contain considerable amounts of essential
excellent charcoal. The pickle or jam is prepared from vitamin C and some other fruit acids. The fruits are used
the fruits. The fruit is very rich in vitamin C. in the preparation of juices, squashes and other canned
 High yield varieties of Amla are Kanchan, Krishna, products.
Chakaiya, BSR1, Banarsi, NA7 etc.  Citrus fruit intake is associated with a reduced risk of
stomach cancer. Lemons have the highest
Mango (Mangifera indica): concentration of citrate of any citrus fruit, and daily
consumption of lemonade has been shown to decrease
the rate of kidney stone formation.
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Neem (Azadirachta indica):  Turmeric powder used as a mouthwash in improving
oral health.
 Neem is also known as village pharmacy. The
components extracted from the neem plant have been Lemon:
used in traditional medicines for the cure of multiple
diseases including cancer for centuries. The extract of • The fruit of lemon’s health benefits are as follows :
seeds, leaves, flowers, and fruits of neem have (a) It promotes hydration.
consistently shown chemopreventive and anti-tumor (b) It is a good source of vitamin C.
effects in different types of cancer. (c) It supports weight loss.
 Azadirachtin and nimboldie are among the few (d) Enhance the immune system of the body.
bioactive components of neem. Nimboldie is a (e) It aids in digestion.
terpenoid lactone derived from neem tree that displays a (f) It helps to prevent kidney stone formation.
variety of biological activities including anti-malarial
and anti-cancer activity. Azadirachtin has a role as a
hepatoprotective agent and it is also the active Brahmi/Waterhyssop (Bacopa
ingredient in many pesticides. monnieri):
 Neem is used as fungicides and insecticides to control
the fungal infection and insects in plant protection.
 Waterhyssop or herb of grace is a perennial creeping
 Neem is a natural mosquito repellent which is 100%
herb used in Ayurveda where it is also known as
effective. Camphor is also used as a natural mosquito
Brahmi.
repellent.
 In Ayurveda, it is believed to sharpen the brain by
protecting cells and increasing chemicals associated
Biodiesel: with learning and memory.
 It is used to treat Alzheimer’s disease, anxiety and
 Biofuels made from plants could one day help us to ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder—
reduce our dependency on fossil fuel. difficult for a person to pay attention and control
 Ratanjot (Jatropha curcas), Karanja (Pongamia impulsive behaviour) along with fighting stress and
pinnata) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) are having improving memory.
great potential as a future oil source for biodiesel that
does not compete with food. In biodiesel hydrocarbons Pudina/Mint:
and lipids are present in abundant amount.
 The first biodiesel plant of our country has been
 Mint is a calming and soothing herb that has been
established at Kakinada (A.P.).
used for thousands of years to aid with upset stomach or
 Biofuel Ethanol is derived mainly from the sugarcane
indigestion.
and maize.
 It is thought to increase bile secretion and encourage
bile flow, which helps to speed and ease digestion (and
Chilgoza pine (Pinus gerardiana): which may also support healthy cholesterol level).

 Pinus seed is called chilgoza. Sadabahar or Vinca rosea

 Chilgoza is rich with carbohydrates and protein.
(Cantharanthus roseus):
Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorium):  It is an evergreen shrub that works as an ornamental
plant and for medicinal purposes. The smooth, glossy,
 Tulsi/Holy Basil is an aromatic perennial plant. and dark green colour leaves along with flowers are said
 Tulsi has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda to act as a natural medicine for type-2 diabetes.
for its diverse healing properties. It has many medicinal
uses. It is used to prevent kidney stone and some
respiratory diseases. It reduces kidney stone formation. Beverages:
 Tea (Camellia sinensis): Tea is the most important
Haldi/Turmeric (Curcuma longa): non-alcoholic beverage; it is a safe and helpful
stimulant. The main chemical ingredient of tea is
 Turmeric has been used for thousands of years not only caffeine (an alkaloid), which make a person feel
for cooking but also as a medicine due to its incredible refreshed.
healing properties.  Coffee: Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the
 Turmeric has powerful anti-inflammatory properties roasted coffee beans. Its main chemical ingredients are
and can help to improve symptoms of arthritis and joint caffeine, chlorogenic acid and melanoidin; chlorogenic
pains. acid and melanoidin, which may affect human health.
 Turmeric is also useful in dementia and Alzheimer’s
disease. It is antioxidant and lowers cholesterol.
 It slows the spread of breast cancer. Cocoa:
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 Cocoa is the dried and fully fermented seeds of
Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids (a mixture DISEASES AND TREATMENT
of non-fat substances) and cocoa butter (the fat) is
extracted. Major Viral Diseases, Causative Agents,
 Cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate and used as a
beverage. and Key Details

Kasni (Chicory-Chichorium intybus): Disease Causative Transmiss Symptoms/Key

Agent ion Facts
Guinea Worm Dracunculus Drinking Painful blister
It is a woody, perennial herbaceous plant, usually with
Disease medinensis water (after ~1 year),
bright blue flowers. The chicory coffee is a beverage made (GWD) (nematode containing eradicated in India
using the roots of the chicory plant. parasite) larvae (2000), affected
(Cyclops) lower limb.

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTS: Polio

(Poliomyelitis)
Poliovirus
(RNA virus)
Fecal-oral
route,
Weakness,
paralysis, fever;
contaminat destroys
 The main source of iodine is the seaweeds (Algae). ed brain/spinal cord
water/food cells; vaccine by
 Vanilla is a flavouring substance derived from orchids.
Jonas Salk
 The main organic acids of tomato are citric acid and (1952), Albert
malic acid. Oxalic acid is also found in little amount. Sabin (oral
 The flour of kutki is obtained from the seeds of vaccine), no cases
since 2015, WHO
Fagopyrum esculentum which is enriched with
certified 'Polio
carbohydrate and protein. Free' status for
 Peppermint is obtained from the leaves of Mentha India (2014).
piperita. Peppermint oil has a high concentration of Rhinovirus Rhinovirus (A, Airborne, Runny nose, sore
natural pesticides. Its leaves and oil have a cooling effect (Common B, C serotypes) contact, throat, fatigue,
Cold) droplets fever; 33-35°C
when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain and optimal, >160
relief from itching. types.
 Quinine is a medicine which is used to cure malaria. It Hepatitis-B Hepatitis B Blood, Liver damage,
is derived from the bark of cinchona tree which belongs virus (HBV) body cirrhosis, cancer,
fluids, jaundice, fatigue,
to the family Rubiaceae. This plant is evergreen shrub or
birth, sex fever; chronic or
tree. acute, can spread
 Artemether is a potent antimalaria drug derived from by open sores.
artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Mumps Mumps virus Saliva, Swelling of
Artemisia annua. This medicine is used in severe nasal salivary glands,
secretions, fever, headache,
malarial condition when other medicine are uneffective contact loss of appetite,
to control malaria. pain.
 Chloroquine, primaquine, atovaquone are some other Rabies Rabies Bite/saliva Violent movement,
medicines used to treat malaria. (Hydrophobia) lyssavirus of infected fear of water,
animals confusion,
 Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fibre that grows in a boll,
(dog, cat, paralysis, always
or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants bat, fox) fatal if untreated.
(Gossypium Malvaceae). Chemical composition of Herpes Herpes Direct Sores around
cotton is as follows – Cellulose – 91%, Water – 7.85%, (Simplex) simplex virus contact mouth, lips,
Protoplasm 0.55%; Fats – 0.40%, and Minerals – 0.20%. (HSV) genitals.
 Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy Meningitis Multiple Direct/indir Headache, fever,
viruses (also ect (fluid neck stiffness,
(Papaver somniferum). Approximately 12% of the bacteria/fungi) contact) altered
opium latex is made up of the analgesic alkaloid consciousness,
morphine, which is processed chemically to produce rash.
heroin and other synthetic opioids for medicinal use and Dengue Fever Dengue virus Aedes High fever,
(4 serotypes) mosquito headache,
for illegal drug trade. The latex also contains the closely
bite (esp. joint/muscle pain
related opiates codeine and thebaine, and non-analgesic Aedes ("breakbone
alkaloids such as papaverine and noscapine. The aegypti) fever"), vomiting,
morphine is obtained from the unriped fruits of the plant. rash; affects
platelet count, can
be fatal.
. Chikungunya Chikungunya Aedes Joint pain, fever,
virus (CHIKV) mosquitoes headache, fatigue,

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 (albopictus, not spread person-  Pandemic: Global outbreak.
aegypti) to-person.
Zika Fever Zika virus Aedes Fever, rash, red
mosquito, eyes, joint pain; Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
blood, birth defects
sexual, (microcephaly) in  Coronaviruses are a large family of RNA viruses
mother-to- infants.
child
causing respiratory tract infections in humans, including
Yellow Fever Yellow fever Aedes Fever, jaundice, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2).
virus mosquito headache, muscle  COVID-19 first identified in December 2019 in
(flavivirus) bite pain, nausea; high Wuhan, China; became a global pandemic with
fatality if severe.
millions of cases and deaths worldwide.
Japanese Japanese Culex Brain swelling,
Encephalitis encephalitis mosquito fever, headache,
 The World Health Organization (WHO) declared
(JE) virus (JEV) bite vomiting; may COVID-19 a public health emergency on 30 January
cause coma/death, 2020 and a pandemic on 11 March 2020.
main vector Culex  Common symptoms: fever, cough, shortness of breath,
mosquito.
breathing difficulties, fatigue, and loss of smell and
AIDS Human Blood, sex, Immune
(Acquired Immunodefici mother-to- deficiency, weight taste.
Immunodefici ency Virus child, loss, fever,  Severe cases may lead to acute respiratory distress
ency (HIV) needles infections, cancers; syndrome (ARDS), multi-organ failure, septic shock,
Syndrome) no cure; confirmed
and death.
by ELISA,
Western Blot;  Preventive measures: physical/social distancing,
World AIDS Day quarantining, ventilating spaces, covering
is Dec 1; not coughs/sneezes, hand washing, and use of face masks.
spread by
 Management is mainly symptomatic—supportive
touch/coughing/sh
aking hands. care, isolation, and experimental measures.
Ebola Virus Ebola virus Direct High fever, severe  Several vaccines were developed and approved for
Disease (Ebola contact bleeding, diarrhea, SARS-CoV-2 immunity, launching mass vaccination
hemorrhagic with body aches, ~25– globally.
fever) blood/body 90% fatal; large
 Key vaccines:
fluids outbreak in W.
Africa (2013–16), • RNA vaccines: Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna.
zoonotic (bats, • Conventional inactivated: BBIBP-CorV
primates).
(Sinopharm), BBV152 (Covaxin by Bharat
Nipah Virus Nipah virus Fruit bats, Fever, headache,
Biotech), CoronaVac (Sinovac), WIBP
Infection (NiV) (RNA pigs, cough, confusion,
virus) contaminat seizures, can cause (Sinopharm).
ed fruit, coma, deadly • Viral vector: Sputnik V, Sputnik Light, Oxford-
human-to- outbreaks AstraZeneca (Covishield), Ad5-nCoV (CanSino
human (Malaysia 1998,
Kerala 2018,
Biologics).
2021), no • Peptide vaccine: EpiVacCorona.
vaccine/cure,  India's vaccination started on 16 January 2021 with
supportive care
Covishield and Covaxin.
only.
• Covishield: manufactured by Serum Institute of
India.
Other Important Points • Covaxin: Bharat Biotech + Indian Council of
Medical Research (ICMR).
 Viruses: Smallest infectious agents (20–300 nm), RNA  Later, many vaccines were approved (e.g., Sputnik V,
or DNA core, protein coat (capsid), may have envelope. ZyCoV-D, Corbevax, Covovax).
 Capsomere: Subunit of capsid.  For Emergency Use, India also approved Corbevax
 Viruses are non-living outside host, living inside host. and Covovax.
 Dmitri Ivanovsky (1892): Discovered viruses from  Vaccination rollout:
tobacco mosaic disease. • Began with healthcare/frontline workers on 16
 Phage Therapy: Uses bacteriophages to treat bacterial January 2021.
infections. • Vaccination for frontline workers: from 2
 Vaccines: Prevent many viral diseases (e.g., polio, February 2021.
hepatitis, rabies, measles, mumps, rubella). • People ≥60 years and those ≥45 years with
 Endemic: Regularly found in a region. comorbidities: from 1 March 2021.
 Epidemic: Rapid spread in a region. • All above 45 years: from 1 April 2021.
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 • All adults (18+): from May 2021. jaw and progresses
• Adolescents (15–18 years): from 3 January to the rest of the
body.
2022.
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Mainly affects the
• Precaution booster dose: for healthcare/frontline (TB) tuberculosis lungs; a potentially
workers, election personnel, and those 60+ with serious infectious
comorbidities from 10 January 2022. disease.
Rheumatic Streptococcus Inflammatory
• Children (12–14 years): from 16 March 2022 fever pyogenes disease that can
(only Corbevax). involve the heart,
• Precaution dose for 18+ through private centers: joints, skin and
brain.
from 10 April 2022.

BACTERIAL DISEASES FUNGAL DISEASES

Topic Details
Disease Bacteria Affected Organs Aflatoxins • Aflatoxins are a family of toxins produced by
certain fungi that are found on agricultural crops
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Infection of the small
such as maize, peanuts, cotton seeds and tree nuts
intestine. .• The main fungi that produce aflatoxins are
Plague Pasteurella Formation of swollen Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus,
(Yersinia) pestis lymph nodes which are abundant in warm and humid regions of
(buboes) in groin, the world.
armpit or neck. It • Aflatoxin-producing fungi can contaminate crops
can be fatal. in the field, at harvest, and during storage.
• Aflatoxin is a natural carcinogen which is
Leprosy Mycobacterium It affects the skin, associated with an increased risk of liver cancer.
leprae or the peripheral • Aflatoxin causes DNA damage and with
Mycobacterium nerves, mucosal prolonged exposure to aflatoxin, cells accumulate
lapromatosis surfaces of the upper DNA mutations and thus are at increased risk of
respiratory tract and developing into cancer cells.
the eyes. Aspergillosis • Aspergillosis is the name given to a wide variety
Pneumonia Streptococcus An infection of the of diseases caused by infection by fungi of the
genus Aspergillus.
pneumoniae lungs. Symptoms • Aspergillosis occurs in humans, birds and other
include - chest pain, animals.
fever, cough, • The majority of the cases occur in people with an
shortness of breath. underlying illness such as tuberculosis or chronic
Typhoid Salmonella typhi The infection is often obstructive pulmonary disease.
passed on through Ergotism • Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot
contaminated food poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the
and drinking water. alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea
fungus that infects rye and other cereals and more
Its symptom is high recently by the action of a number of ergotoline
fever, diarrhoea and based drugs.
vomiting. It can be • Also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning
fatal. and Saint Anthony’s Fire.
Diphtheria Corynebacterium It affects the throat • Toxins affect the nervous, vascular
diphtheriae and nose. (vasoconstriction and resultant gangrene), and
endocrine system.
Gonorrhoea Neisseria It is a sexually • Clinical signs include decreased food intake and
gonorrhoeae transmitted disease growth, necrosis of beak, comb and toes, distorted
that can affect the feather development and arthritis
reproductive organs. .• Ergotism primarily affects leghorns and other
Syphilis Treponema It is spread by sexual laying breeds, only trace amounts remain in their
pallidum contact. The disease meat.
starts as a painless Athlete’s Foot • Athlete’s foot (Tinea pedis) is a fungal infection
that usually begins between the toes. It affects the
sore typically on
upper layer of the skin of the foot.
genitals, rectum or • It commonly occurs in people whose feet have
mouth. become very sweaty while confined with
Whooping Haemophilus A highly contagious tightfitting shoes.
cough or pertussis or respiratory tract • Signs and symptoms include a scaly rash that
Pertussis Bordetella infection. In many usually causes itching, cracking, stinging and
pertussis people, it is marked burning.
• Athlete’s foot is contagious and can be spread via
by a severe hacking contaminated floors, towels or clothing.
cough followed by a • The fungal infection is called athlete’s foot
high pitched intake because it is commonly seen in athletes.
of breath that sounds • Athlete’s foot is caused by the fungi
like ‘whoop’. Trichophyton, Epidermophyton and
Tetanus Clostridium tetani It is characterized by Microsporum.
(Lockjaw) muscle spasm. The
spasm begins in the

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 Mucormycosis • Mucormycosis (previously called zygomycosis)  Symptoms: Fever, headache, joint pain, lymph node
is a serious but rare fungal infection caused by a swelling, later drowsiness, coma, sleep disturbances.
group of molds called mucormycetes.
• These molds live throughout the environment.•
 Two stages: Early (fever, pain), late (nervous system,
Mucormycosis mainly affects people who have personality changes, coma, death if untreated).
health problems or take medicines that lower the
body’s ability to fight germs and sickness.• It is also
known as black fungus. Amoebiasis (Amoebic Dysentery)
• Symptoms depend on where in the body the
infection occurs. It most commonly infects the
nose, sinuses, eye, and brain resulting in a runny  Caused by Entamoeba histolytica (protozoa).
nose, one-sided facial swelling and pain, headache,  Transmission: Fecal-oral route via contaminated
fever, blurred vision, blackening or discoloration of food/water.
the eye (proptosis), and tissue death.
• Other forms of disease may affect the lungs,  Symptoms: Mild/severe abdominal pain, diarrhea,
stomach and intestines, and skin. bloody stools.
Other Fungal • Dermatitis, baldness, candidiasis, geotrichosis
Diseases are the fungal borne diseases.
Amanita • Amanita is a toxic mushroom. The genus is Schistosomiasis (Snail Fever)
Mushroom responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities
resulting from mushroom poisoning.• The most
potent toxin present in Amanita mushroom is α-
 Caused by Schistosomes (parasitic flatworms).
amanitin.  Transmission: Skin contact with contaminated water.
 Symptoms: Abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in
urine/stool.
OTHER PARASITIC DISEASES  Note: Common where sanitation is poor.

Malaria Fascioliasis (Liver Rot)

 Life-threatening disease, caused by Plasmodium  Caused by Fasciola hepatica/gigantica (liver flukes,
parasite (P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. falciparum). flatworms).
 Transmitted by female Anopheles mosquito bite.  Transmission: Eating raw water plants.
 Life cycle: Enters bloodstream, reaches liver, then  Symptoms: Liver pain, abdominal pain, fever,
infects RBCs; multiplies and bursts RBCs every 2-3 sweating, weight loss.
days (fever cycles).  Affects: Mainly cattle, sheep, sometimes humans.
 Symptoms: Chills, high fever, sweating, headache,
vomiting, fatigue, anemia.
 Complications: Brain swelling, fluid in lungs,
Neurocysticercosis
kidney/liver failure, anemia.
 Types: Congenital malaria (from mother to baby),  Result of accidental ingestion of eggs of Taenia
transfusion malaria (via blood). solium (pork tapeworm, flatworm).
 Most severe: P. falciparum (malignant malaria).  Transmission: Contaminated food/water.
 Prevention/Treatment: Mosquito repellants,  Symptoms: Seizures, epilepsy, headache, vision
antimalarial drugs, mosquito control, Quinine (isolated problems, mental changes.
from cinchona bark, 1820), and other drugs  Note: Most common parasitic disease of CNS
(chloroquine, primaquine, artemisinin, etc.). worldwide; famous case: Leander Paes.
 Notable: Ronald Ross (Nobel, 1902) proved mosquito
transmission.
Filariasis (Elephantiasis)
Kala-azar (Visceral Leishmaniasis)  Caused by Wuchereria bancrofti
(roundworm/nematode).
 Caused by Leishmania (protozoan), transmitted by  Transmission: Female Culex mosquito bite.
female sandfly (Phlebotomus).  Symptoms: Swelling of legs, arms, genitals (lymph
 Symptoms: Grayish skin, fever, weight loss, swollen blockage).
liver/spleen.
 Hosts: Animals, dogs, humans; can transmit via blood
transfusion.
Ascariasis
 Notes: 2nd largest parasitic killer after malaria.
 Caused by Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm).
 Transmission: Ingesting eggs via contaminated
Sleeping Sickness (African soil/food (especially by children).
Trypanosomiasis)  Symptoms: Coughing, gagging, breathlessness,
abdominal pain, diarrhea, poor growth in kids.
 Caused by Trypanosoma gambiense/rhodesiense
(protozoa), transmitted by tsetse fly. General Points

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 Human body may host ~50 species of Nematoda Turner Syndrome Only in females; one X chromosome missing;
(roundworms) as parasites. (45, X) short height, webbed neck, infertile,
heart/kidney issues.
 Drugs: Common drugs for worms include cheopodium
Klinefelter Males with extra X chromosome; tall, less
oil, albendazole, mebendazole. Syndrome (47, facial/body hair, gynecomastia, sterile.
XXY)
Disease Agent Type
Malaria Plasmodium Protozoa
(protozoa)  Inheritance Patterns in Color Blindness : Can result in
Kala-azar Leishmania Protozoa daughters as carriers, sons affected or unaffected depending
(protozoa) on parent genotypes.
Sleeping Sickness Trypanosoma Protozoa  Chromosomal Aberrations: Refers to changes in
number/structure of chromosomes; can cause genetic
(protozoa) disorders or physical/mental differences.
Amoebiasis Entamoeba Protozoa  X-linked Recessive Diseases: More frequent in males, as they
histolytica have only one X chromosome.
Schistosomiasis Schistosomes Flatworm
Fascioliasis Fasciola (liver Flatworm
fluke)
DEFICIENCY, NON-CONTAGIOUS
Neurocysticercosis Taenia solium Flatworm AND OTHER DISEASES
Filariasis Wuchereria Roundworm
bancrofti
Ascariasis Ascaris Roundworm Deficiency Diseases
lumbricoides  Deficiency diseases are due to lack of nutrients
(vitamins/minerals) in the diet.
 Common deficiency diseases:
GENETIC DISORDERS • Anaemia: Deficiency of Iron
Genetic Disorder / Key Points • Goitre: Deficiency of Iodine
Concept • Marasmus: Severe malnutrition
Definition Genetic diseases arise due to abnormalities in • Kwashiorkor: Deficiency of Protein
an individual genome. Can be inherited or
caused by mutations. • Rickets: Deficiency of Vitamin-D
Mutation Occur randomly or due to environmental • Mad cow disease: Prions (a protein)
exposure. Passed to next generation. Examples • Diabetes: Deficiency of Insulin
Albinism, Hemophilia, Muscular Dystrophy,
Phenylketonuria, Alkaptonuria, Down,
• Xerophthalmia: Deficiency of Vitamin-A
Klinefelter, Turner syndromes
Sex Chromosome Sex chromosomes determine male/female;
& Linkage genes on these called sex-linked; X-linked
Non-Contagious Diseases
inheritance common.  Diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, etc. are non-
Albinism Congenital disorder: lack of melanin; leads to contagious.
white skin, hair, eyes; susceptible to  Cancer: Abnormal cell growth, can spread (malignant);
sunburn/skin cancer; defective tyrosinase genes called oncogenes can cause cancer if mutated.
enzyme.
Bubble Baby Severe combined immunodeficiency; lack of
Rous sarcoma virus is the first oncogenic retrovirus
Disease (SCID) immune function, must live in sterile (chicken cancer).
environment; bone marrow transplant is only  Leukaemia: Cancer of blood forming organs;
routine cure. symptoms include fever, persistent fatigue, swollen
Phenylketonuria Amino acid metabolism disorder; lack of lymph nodes, abnormal bruising/bleeding. Cobalt-60
(PKU) enzyme to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine;
can cause brain damage & mental disability. and Gold-198 are used in treatment.
Hemophilia Inherited, impairs blood clotting (X-linked  Epidemic Dropsy: Edema due to consumption of
recessive, “Bleeder’s Disease”); more common adulterated mustard oil with Argemone mexicana;
in males; Queen Victoria had it. symptoms: swelling, albumin loss.
Alkaptonuria Autosomal recessive; defect in HGD gene,  Anthophobia: Abnormal fear of flowers (not a disease,
(AKU) leads to buildup of homogentisic acid (HGA);
dark urine, arthritis, pigmentation.
but a psychological condition).
Muscular X-linked recessive; abnormal gene disrupts  Hysteria: Psychological disorder with emotional
Dystrophy muscle protein production; muscle weakness, outbursts, disturbance of sensory/motor functions,
progressive. laughter, and weeping.
Thalassemia Inherited blood disorder, abnormal  Silosis: Lung fibrosis from inhaling dust in
hemoglobin; reduced RBCs, anemia; need both
mines/tunneling/ceramic work.
alpha and beta chains for hemoglobin.
Color Blindness Decreased ability to distinguish colors; most
 Goitre: Enlargement of thyroid due to iodine
cases X-linked; more common in males; several deficiency; presents as neck swelling.
inheritance patterns.  Beriberi: Deficiency of Vitamin B1 (thiamine); two
Down Syndrome Caused by extra chromosome 21; facial types—wet (affects heart) and dry (affects nerves).
(Trisomy 21) features, short stature, heart defects, intellectual  Bulimia Nervosa: Eating disorder; binge eating
disability (“Mongoloid idiocy”).
followed by purging (vomiting/laxatives).

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 Itai-itai Disease: Cadmium poisoning in Japan; causes
bone/kidney problems. GENETIC ENGINEERING AND
 Minimata Disease: Mercury poisoning; symptoms:
numbness, weakness, vision/speech/hearing loss.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Blue Baby Syndrome: Nitrate-contaminated water  Genetic engineering: Artificial manipulation,
causes low oxygen in infants (methemoglobinemia). modification, and recombination of DNA or nucleic
 Cerebral Palsy: Permanent movement disorder from acids to modify the genome of organisms using
brain damage; symptoms: muscle weakness, tremors, biotechnology.
coordination problems.  Applications: Gene therapy, genetic library,
 Alzheimer’s Disease: Degeneration of brain cells production of genetically modified organisms
causing dementia; progressive memory loss. (GMOs).
 Anosmia: Complete loss of smell, often from nasal
congestion, injury, or congenital. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
 Lukoskin: Herbal therapy for management of  GMO: Organisms with altered genome using genetic
vitiligo/leucoderma. engineering.
 Myopia (Near-sightedness): Can see near, distant  Process: Inserting genes from one organism into another
objects blurred; corrected with concave lens. (transgenic).
 Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness): Can see distant,  Example: Bacteria produce insulin by inserting human
near objects blurred; corrected with convex lens. insulin gene into bacterial plasmid.
 Astigmatism: Vision problem due to irregular eye  Embryonic stem cell transfer: Used to transfer genes
shape; corrected with cylindrical lenses. between organisms; stem cells can differentiate into any
 Cataract: Clouding of eye lens, causing poor vision. cell.
 Sleep Apnea: Breathing repeatedly stops during sleep,  Microinjection: Injecting desired gene into egg
causes poor oxygenation, leads to snoring. nucleus; egg is implanted in surrogate for development.
 Heart Attack: Caused by blocked arteries
(atherosclerosis), risk factors include smoking, high
cholesterol, obesity, lack of exercise.
Plasmid
 Liver Cirrhosis: Chronic liver disease from  Plasmid: Small, circular DNA in bacteria; replicates
alcohol/hepatitis; leads to fibrosis, fluid buildup, independently.
jaundice.  Used for cloning, transferring, and manipulating
 Oral Submucous Fibrosis: Stiffening of mouth tissue genes.
due to tobacco/gutkha; results in inability to open  Recombinant plasmid: Plasmid with inserted DNA
mouth. fragment.
 Jaundice: Yellowing of skin/eyes from high bilirubin  Example: pBR 322 - an E. coli cloning vector.
(liver/gall bladder problems or newborns).
Restriction Enzyme
Other Important Diseases  Restriction enzymes: Cut DNA at specific sites
 Alzheimer’s: Loss of memory/cognitive decline due to (restriction sites).
brain cell degeneration.  Discovered by Werner Arber (Nobel Prize 1978).
 Electroencephalogram (EEG): Test to measure brain  Used for cutting and pasting genes.
activity; used for epilepsy, tumors, etc.
 Urine: More than 95% water; color due to DNA Ligase
urobilin/urochrome (breakdown of haemoglobin).  DNA ligase: Enzyme that joins DNA strands by
catalyzing formation of phosphodiester bonds.
 Essential for recombinant DNA formation.
Key Points Recombinant DNA Technology
 Joins DNA from different sources to produce new
genetic combinations.
 Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan: Itai-itai,  Steps:
Minimata, Niigata minimata, Yokkaichi asthma. 1. Identification and isolation of gene
 Blue baby syndrome is due to nitrates in water. 2. Joining gene to vector (plasmid)
 Goitre is due to iodine deficiency; main source is 3. Introducing vector into host
seafood and iodised salt. 4. Selection of recombinant cells
 Lukoskin is herbal treatment for vitiligo/leucoderma. 5. Multiplication/expression of gene
 Sleep apnea causes repeated stopping of breathing at  Used for medicine, agriculture, and industry.
night.
 Heart attack: Key risks are smoking, high cholesterol,
stress. DNA & Zygote
 DNA contains information as A, G, C, T bases.
 Human DNA: ~3 billion base pairs, 99% identical in all
people.
 Watson & Crick discovered DNA double helix (Nobel,
1962).
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 Zygote: Fertilized cell with combined DNA from sperm
and egg; basis of new organism.
Pleiotropism
 Single gene affects multiple traits.
CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing  Example: Sickle Cell Anemia – one gene affects RBC
 CRISPR-Cas9: Powerful, easy tool for genome editing. shape and disease resistance.
 Allows targeted changes in DNA, correcting defects
and improving crops.
 Consists of Cas9 enzyme (molecular scissors) and
High Resistance in Plants
guide RNA.  Genetic engineering produces crops resistant to salinity,
 Raises ethical concerns due to potential misuse. drought, pests.
 Example: Bt Brinjal, Bt Maize (engineered with
Bacillus thuringiensis gene).
DNA Fingerprinting
 Technique using nitrogen base sequences for Change in Plant Genotype
identification.  Quality and yield improved using recombinant DNA.
 Invented by Alec John Jeffreys; used in forensic  Example: Flavr Savr tomato – delayed ripening, first
science, paternity, immigration, and judicial cases. GM food approved in the US (1992).
 In India, pioneered by Dr. Lalji Singh (Father of Indian
DNA Fingerprinting).
Golden Rice
 Golden Rice: GM rice producing beta-carotene
Biometric Identification (precursor of Vitamin A).
 Uses physical traits: fingerprints, retina, DNA, voice,  Addresses Vitamin A deficiency.
face, palm veins, etc.  Contains genes psy (from daffodil) and crtI (from
 Used for security, authentication, and law Erwinia bacterium).
enforcement.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Broad field using biological systems/organisms to make
products.
 Encompasses molecular biology, genetic engineering,
bioengineering.

Cloning
 Cloning: Making genetically identical copies.
 First cloned animal: Dolly the sheep (Roslin Institute,
1996).
 Clone: Derived from adult somatic cell.

Notable Cloning Events

 India: NDRI, Karnal achieved milestones in cloning
buffaloes and cows (e.g., ‘Samrupa’, ‘Garima’,
‘Swasthika’).
 Other: ‘Zhong Zhong’ and ‘Hua Hua’ were first cloned
monkeys in 2017.

Lulu and Nana Controversy

 First gene-edited babies (2018, China) using CRISPR-
Cas9. Raised major ethical issues.

Stem Cells
 Stem cells: Master cells; can become any cell type.
 Cord blood: Source of stem cells in newborns.
 Types:
• Embryonic: From blastocyst; pluripotent.
• Tissue-specific: Limited differentiation.
• Induced pluripotent (iPS): Engineered in lab.
• Mesenchymal: From stroma, connective tissue.
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 Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences Lucknow (U.P.)
MEDICAL DEVICES Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Imphal (Manipur)
Development
Devices Uses National Academy of Medical Sciences New Delhi
Stethoscope To measure the heartbeat Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Coimbatore (Tamil
Breeding Nadu)
Sphygmomanometer An instrument for measuring Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh
blood pressure Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Lucknow (U.P.)
Computed Tomography It is used to detect any plants
or CT scan abnormality or disorders in the National Institute for the Empowerment of Dehradun
whole body Persons with Visual Disabilities
Electrocardiography It is used to detect abnormalities National Institute for Locomotor Kolkata
(ECG) related to the heart Disabilities
Electroencephalogram It is used to record electrical Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Speech Mumbai
(EEG) activity of the brain and Hearing Disabilities
National Institute for the Empowerment of Secunderabad
Autoanalyzer An instrument to test the glucose, Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (Telangana)
urea, cholesterol, etc.
National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow (U.P.)
Magnetic Resonance It is a medical imaging National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi
Imaging (MRI) technique used in radiology to Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research Lucknow (U.P.)
form pictures of the internal National Sugar Institute (Indian Institute of Kanpur (U.P.)
organs of the body Sugar Technology)
Sugarcane Breeding Institute Coimbatore (Tamil
Nadu)
DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL Indian Veterinary Research Institute Izatnagar (Bareilly,
U.P.)
REVOLUTIONS AND RELATED Central Avian Research Institute Izatnagar
FIELDS Central Drug Research Institute
National Rice Research Institute
Lucknow
Cuttack
Central Potato Research Institute Shimla
Revolutions Fields
Green Revolution Cereal production
White Revolution Milk and Dairy production MAJOR DEFICIENCIES
Yellow Revolution Oilseeds production
Blue Revolution Fisheries and aquaculture Nutrient / Main Deficiency Key Symptoms
Pink Revolution Meat and poultry Vitamin / Sources Disease /
processing/Onions/Prawn production Mineral Disorder
Vitamin A Carrots, Night Poor vision in
Black Revolution Petroleum production
(Retinol) spinach, Blindness dim light,
Silver Revolution Eggs production milk, egg (Nyctalopia), dryness of eyes,
Red Revolution Meat/Tomato production yolk, fish Xerophthalmia risk of blindness
Round Revolution Potato production liver oil
Vitamin B1 Cereals, Beri-Beri Weakness,
Grey Revolution Fertilizers production
(Thiamine) whole swelling, heart
Brown Revolution Leather production grains, nuts, failure, nerve
Golden Horticulture/Honey/Fruit production legumes, inflammation,
Revolution yeast paralysis
Golden Fibre Jute production Vitamin B2 Milk, eggs, Cheilosis, Cracks at
Revolution (Riboflavin) green leafy Glossitis corners of
vegetables mouth, sore
Silver Fibre Cotton production tongue, skin
Revolution disorders
Vitamin B3 Whole Pellagra Dermatitis,
(Niacin) grains, meat, diarrhea,
INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR liver,
peanuts
dementia, rough
skin
LOCATIONS Vitamin B5 Meat, eggs, Burning Feet Fatigue,
(Pantothenic whole grains Syndrome numbness,
Acid) (rare) tingling
Institutions Location Vitamin B6 Cereals, Anaemia, Skin Convulsions,
National Institute of Virology Pune (Pyridoxine) eggs, fish, disorders irritability, skin
National Institute of Immunology New Delhi banana problems
National Centre for Cell Science Pune Vitamin B7 Egg yolk, Dermatitis, Skin
Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Hyderabad (Biotin) legumes, Hair loss inflammation,
Diagnostics (Telangana) nuts hair fall
National Institute of Plant Genome New Delhi Vitamin B9 Green leafy Megaloblastic Fatigue, neural
Research (Folic Acid) vegetables, Anaemia tube defects in
National Brain Research Centre Manesar, Gurugram liver, fetus
(Haryana) legumes
Institute of Life Sciences Bhubaneswar Vitamin B12 Meat, liver, Pernicious Fatigue, nerve
(Odisha) (Cobalamin) milk, eggs Anaemia degeneration,
(not in memory loss
National Centre for Biological Sciences Bengaluru
plants)
(Karnataka)

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Vitamin C Citrus fruits, Scurvy Bleeding gums, contact
(Ascorbic amla, guava, delayed wound with lesions
Acid) tomato healing, joint
pain Measles Measles Virus Airborne Fever, cough,
Vitamin D Sunlight, Rickets Weak bones, droplets Koplik spots,
(Calciferol) fish liver oil, (children), bowed legs, rash
egg yolk Osteomalacia dental problems
(adults) Mumps Mumps Virus Saliva Swollen
Vitamin E Vegetable Sterility, Muscular droplets, salivary glands,
(Tocopherol) oils, nuts, Neurological weakness, direct fever, headache
seeds symptoms infertility
contact
Vitamin K Green leafy Delayed blood Excessive
vegetables, clotting bleeding, Rubella Rubella Virus Airborne Rash, fever,
cauliflower bruising (German droplets swollen lymph
Calcium Milk, Rickets, Weak bones, Measles) nodes
cheese, Osteoporosis muscle cramps,
green poor teeth Polio Poliovirus Fecal-oral, Paralysis,
vegetables contaminat muscle
Phosphorus Milk, meat, Weak Bone pain, ed water weakness, fever
cereals bones/teeth weakness
Rabies Rabies Virus Bite of Hydrophobia,
Iron Meat, liver, Anaemia Fatigue, pale
spinach, skin, shortness infected agitation,
jaggery of breath animal paralysis
Iodine Iodized salt, Goitre, Swollen thyroid (saliva)
seafood Cretinism gland, mental
retardation in
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Blood, Jaundice,
children Virus sexual fatigue,
Magnesium Nuts, whole Muscle cramps, Tremors, contact, abdominal pain
grains, green confusion irregular needles
vegetables heartbeat
Potassium Banana, Muscle Fatigue,
HIV/AIDS HIV Blood, Immunodeficie
orange, weakness, paralysis sexual ncy, weight
potato arrhythmia contact, loss, infections
Sodium Salt, pickles Muscle cramps, Dizziness, needles
weakness confusion
Zinc Meat, eggs, Growth Loss of appetite,
Tuberculo Mycobacteriu Airborne Chronic cough,
nuts retardation, hair loss sis (TB) m tuberculosis droplets fever, night
skin lesions (Bacteria) sweats, weight
Fluorine Water, tea, Dental caries Tooth decay loss
fish
Copper Liver, nuts, Anaemia, bone Weak immunity,
Diphtheria Corynebacteri Airborne Sore throat,
shellfish abnormalities pale skin um droplets fever, thick
Protein Pulses, milk, Kwashiorkor, Swollen diphtheriae coating in
egg, meat Marasmus abdomen, (Bacteria) throat
wasting, stunted
growth Pertussis Bordetella Airborne Severe cough
(Whooping pertussis droplets with whoop
Cough) (Bacteria) sound
MAJOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES IN Typhoid Salmonella Contaminat High fever,
typhi ed abdominal
BIOLOGY (Bacteria) food/water pain, diarrhea
Cholera Vibrio Contaminat Profuse watery
Disease Causative Mode of Key cholerae ed diarrhea,
Agent Transmissi Symptoms (Bacteria) water/food dehydration
on Plague Yersinia pestis Flea bites, Swollen lymph
Common Rhinovirus Airborne Sneezing, (Bacteria) respiratory nodes, fever,
Cold (Virus) droplets, cough, runny droplets chills
direct nose, sore Gonorrhea Neisseria Sexual Painful
contact throat gonorrhoeae contact urination,
Influenza Influenza Airborne Fever, chills, (Bacteria) discharge,
(Flu) Virus droplets, muscle pain, infertility
direct cough Syphilis Treponema Sexual Painless sores,
contact pallidum contact rashes, organ
COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 Airborne Fever, cough, (Bacteria) damage
(Virus) droplets, breathlessness, Leprosy Mycobacteriu Prolonged Skin lesions,
close loss of m leprae contact nerve damage,
contact smell/taste (Bacteria) muscle
Chickenpo Varicella- Airborne Fever, itchy weakness
x zoster Virus droplets, rash, fatigue

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Malaria Plasmodium Bite of Fever, chills, arrhythmi
spp. infected sweating, a
(Protozoan Anopheles anemia Stroke Neurologic Hypertension, Brain Paralysis,
parasite) mosquito al clot, speech
hemorrhage loss
Dengue Dengue Virus Bite of High fever,
Osteopor Bone Aging, Bones Fragile
infected severe pain, osis calcium/vitami bones,
Aedes rash, bleeding n D loss fracture
mosquito risk
Chikungu Chikungunya Bite of Fever, joint Alzheime Neurologic Age, genetics Brain Memory
nya Virus infected pain, rash r’s al loss,
Aedes Disease dementia
mosquito Parkinso Neurologic Neuron Brain Tremor,
n’s al degeneration movemen
Zika Virus Zika Virus Bite of Fever, rash,
Disease t disorder
infected joint pain
Arthritis Musculosk Aging, wear & Joints Osteoarth
Aedes
eletal tear, ritis,
mosquito, autoimmunity rheumatoi
sexual d arthritis
contact Chronic Renal Diabetes, Kidneys Progressi
Yellow Yellow Fever Bite of Fever, Kidney hypertension ve kidney
Fever Virus infected jaundice, Disease failure
mosquito bleeding Obesity Metabolic Overeating, Whole Increases
inactivity body risk for
Amoebiasi Entamoeba Contaminat Diarrhea,
many
s histolytica ed abdominal pain
NCDs
(Protozoan) water/food
Cataract Eye Aging, injury, Eye lens Leading
Ringworm Dermatophyte Skin Itchy, ring- diabetes cause of
fungi contact, shaped rash blindness
contaminat Thalasse Genetic/Bl Genetic Blood Hereditar
ed surfaces mia ood mutation y anemia
Athlete's Trichophyton Direct Itchy, peeling Sickle Genetic/Bl Genetic Blood Hereditar
Foot spp. (Fungi) contact, skin between Cell ood mutation y,
Anemia common
moist toes
in some
surfaces
regions
Scabies Sarcoptes Skin-to- Itchy rash, Epilepsy Neurologic Brain disorder, Brain Seizures,
scabiei (Mite) skin contact burrows in skin al injury non-
infectious

NON-CONTAGIOUS (NON-
ALL MAJOR ENZYMES IN THE HUMAN
COMMUNICABLE ) DISEASES
BODY
Disease Type Main Cause / Affected Example
Name Risk Factor Organ/Sy / Remark Enzyme Main Function Main Location
stem Amylase Breaks down starch to Saliva,
maltose Pancreas
Diabetes Metabolic Insulin Pancreas, Type 1,
Pepsin Digests proteins to Stomach
Mellitus deficiency/resi Blood Type 2, peptides
stance Sugar Gestation Trypsin Digests proteins to Pancreas, Small
al peptides intestine
Hyperten Cardiovasc Genetics, Heart, Can lead Chymotrypsin Digests proteins to Pancreas, Small
sion ular lifestyle, Blood to peptides intestine
obesity Vessels stroke/hea Lipase Breaks down fats to fatty Pancreas, Small
rt attack acids/glycerol intestine
Cancer Neoplastic Genetics, Any Breast, Maltase Converts maltose to Small intestine
glucose
environment, tissue/orga lung,
Lactase Converts lactose to Small intestine
habits n prostate,
glucose and galactose
blood
Sucrase Converts sucrose to Small intestine
(leukemia glucose and fructose
) Rennin Curdles milk protein Stomach
Asthma Respiratory Allergy, Lungs, Chronic (casein) (infants)
pollution, Airways breathing DNA polymerase DNA synthesis/replication Nucleus
genetics difficulty RNA polymerase RNA synthesis Nucleus
Heart Cardiovasc Atherosclerosi Heart Coronary (transcription)
Disease ular s, lifestyle artery Hexokinase Initiates glycolysis Most tissues
disease, (glucose to G-6-P)

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 Lactate Converts pyruvate to Muscle, liver,
dehydrogenase lactate RBCs
ATP synthase ATP formation during Mitochondria
oxidative phosphorylation
Carbonic anhydrase CO₂ + H₂O ↔ H₂CO₃ RBCs
(acid-base balance)
Adenylate cyclase Converts ATP to cAMP Cell
(signal transduction) membranes
Catalase Breaks down hydrogen Most cells (esp.
peroxide liver)
Glucose-6- Glucose release from liver Liver, kidney
phosphatase glycogen
Phosphofructokinase Key glycolysis enzyme Cytoplasm
Alcohol Converts alcohol to Liver
dehydrogenase acetaldehyde
Urease Breaks down urea (not in —
humans, but in bacteria)

ANIMAL NAMES AND THEIR

NUMBER OF HEART CHAMBERS :

Animal Number of Heart

Chambers
Rohu (Fish) 2
Shark (Fish) 2
Tuna (Fish) 2
Catla (Fish) 2
Goldfish (Fish) 2
Frog (Amphibian) 3
Toad (Amphibian) 3
Salamander (Amphibian) 3
Newt (Amphibian) 3
Lizard (Reptile) 3
Snake (Reptile) 3
Turtle (Reptile) 3
Chameleon (Reptile) 3
Crocodile (Reptile) 4
Monitor lizard 3
Pigeon (Bird) 4
Sparrow (Bird) 4
Parrot (Bird) 4
Cow (Mammal) 4
Human (Mammal) 4
Lion (Mammal) 4
Elephant (Mammal) 4
Whale (Mammal) 4

Note:

 Fishes have 2-chambered hearts.

 Amphibians & Most Reptiles have 3-chambered
hearts.
 Crocodiles, Birds, and Mammals have 4-chambered
hearts.

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