Dayanand Science College Latur.

CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

Unit I : Introduction to Network

Contents
1. Definition & Applications of Computer Network
2. Data Transmission Modes
3. Protocol Hierarchies
4. Design issues for layers
5. Connection Oriented & Connectionless services
6. Service Primitives.
7. Network Models – OSI/ISO Reference Model
8. TCP/IP Model,

1. Definition & Applications of Computer Network

Introduction
A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and printers. An internet is two or
more networks that can communicate with each other. The most notable internet is a collaboration of more than
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.
Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA
presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer
(not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface
message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to
communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four
nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara
(UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a
network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
What is networking:
Network : Network is the connection between two & more Computers, To share information &
Resources.
“A group of computer & other devices such as (Printer, Workstation, server) that are linked together is
called as network.
Networking :
“The concepts of connected computer & other Devices sharing information , Resource or both is called
as NETWORKING”
Internetworking mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology. The fundamental purpose of a Computer Network is the exchange of data between two
parties. The communication between a workstation and a server over a public telephone network.
Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same network. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams. All networks, whether big or small, are typically created so that users on the
network can share resources and communicate. The list that follows breaks down some of the reasons
for networking computers:
Uses of Computer Networks -
File sharing: Networking computers makes it very easy for the users on the network to share application
files.
Hardware sharing. :Users can share devices such as printers, CD-ROM drives, and hard drives.
Program sharing: Applications such as spreadsheets and word processors can be run over the network.
User communication :Network allows users to take advantage of communication media such as
electronic mail, newsgroups, and video conferencing.
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

Internet Connection Sharing: The organization can provide network users with access to the
internet, via an internet gateway. Small computer networks allow multiple users to share
a single Internet connection. Special hardware devices allow the bandwidth of the connection to be
easily allocated to various individuals as they need it, and permit an organization to purchase one
highspeed connection instead of many slower ones.
User access control: Modern networks almost always have one or more servers which allows
centralized management for users and for network resources to which they have access. User credentials
on a privately-owned and operated network may be as simple as a user name and password, but with
ever- increasing attention to computing security issues, these servers are critical to ensuring that
sensitive information is only available to authorized users.
Information storing and sharing.:
Computers allow users to create and manipulate information. Information takes on a life of its own on
a network. The network provides both a place to store the information and mechanisms to share that
information with other network users Connections.
Data Security and Management: In a business environment, a network allows the administrators to
much better manage the company's critical data. Instead of having this data spread over dozens or even
hundreds of small computers in a haphazard fashion as their users create it, data can be centralized on
shared servers.
Entertainment: Networks facilitate many types of games and entertainment. The Internet itself offers
many sources of entertainment, of course.
Home Applications :Probably the biggest reason now is for Internet access. Some of the more popular
uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.
A network must be able to meet certain criteria’s, these are mentioned below:
Performance : It can be measured in the following ways:
• Transit time : It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
• Response time : It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
Other ways to measure performance are :
1. Efficiency of software
2. Number of users
3. Capability of connected hardware
Reliability : It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is
the network's reliability.
Scalability It refers to the protection of data from any unauthorised user or access. While travelling
through network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence
security is also a very important characteristic for Networks.

2. Data Transmission Modes

 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

3. Protocol Hierarchies
-The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function of
each layer differ from network to network. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services
to the higher layers, shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are
actually implemented. In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services
to the layer above it. -This concept is actually a familiar one and used throughout computer
science, where it is variously known as information hiding, abstract data types, data
encapsulation, and object-oriented programming. The fundamental idea is that a particular piece
of software (or hardware) provides a service to its users but keeps the details of its internal state
and algorithms hidden from them. A protocol is an agreement between the communicating
parties on how communication is to proceed.

• The processes comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers.
• The peers may be processes, hardware devices, or even human beings. In other words, it is the
peers that communicate by using the protocol.
• In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another
machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until
the lowest layer is reached.
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs. In Fig,
virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines.
Interface
[Link]-layer interaction on the same computer - On a single computer, one layer
provides a service to a higher layer. The software or hardware that implements the higher layer
requests that the next lower layer perform the needed function.
[Link]-layer interaction on different computers-The two computers use a protocol to
communicate with the same layer on another computer. The protocol defined by each layer uses
a header that is transmitted between the computers, to communicate what each computer wants
to do.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a Network Architecture. The specification of an
architecture must contain enough information to allow an implementer to write the program or
build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.
• The details of the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces is part of the architecture
because these are hidden away inside the machines and not visible from the outside. It is not
even necessary that the interfaces on all machines in a network be the same, provided that each
machine can correctly use all the protocols. A list of protocols used by a certain system, one
protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

• A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for
transmission.
• Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result to
layer 3. The header includes control information, such as sequence numbers, to allow layer 4 on
the destination machine to deliver messages in the right order if the lower layers do not maintain
sequence.
• In some layers, headers can also contain sizes, times, and other control fields. layer 3 must break
up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets, prepending a layer 3 header to each
packet.
• In this example, M is split into two parts, M1 and M2. Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing
lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.
• Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit to
layer 1 for physical transmission.
• At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with headers being
stripped off as it progresses. The important thing to understand about Fig. is the relation between
the virtual and actual communication and the difference between protocols and interfaces.
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

4. Design issues for layers

• A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks. Some of
the main design issues are as follows:
Reliability
• Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data
transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not
distorted.
Scalability
• Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion.
Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to
incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and
can accommodate such additions and alterations.
Addressing
• At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of
computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the
sender and receivers of each message.
Error Control
• Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So,
the layers need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to
protect data packets while they are transferred.
Flow Control
• If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received
by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control
mechanism needs to be implemented.
Resource Allocation
• Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The main
design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The allocation/deallocation
should occur so that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of
the resources.
Statistical Multiplexing
• It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred from
the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a
fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.
Routing
• There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an
optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing
algorithms that are used in network systems.
Security
• A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and
surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent
unauthorized access to data through authentication and cryptography.

5. Connection Oriented & Connectionless services

These are the two services given by the layers to layers above them. These services are:
Connection Oriented Service
Connectionless Services
Connection Oriented Services
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service.

These are:
❖ Connection is established.
❖ Information is sent.
❖ Connection is released.
• In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the
communication. When connection is established, we send the message or the information and
then we release the connection.
• Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the
message in connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end. Example of
connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.
Connection Less Services
• It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be
carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message
sent can be different from the order received.
• In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without
checking that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message.
Authentication is not needed in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) protocol.
Difference: Connection oriented and Connectionless service
• In connection oriented service authentication is needed, while connectionless service does not
need any authentication.
• Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is received or
not and sends again if an error occurs, while connectionless service protocol does not guarantees
a message delivery.
• Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
• Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message based.

6. Service Primitives.
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user process to
access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action
taken by a peer entity. If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it often is, the
primitives are normally system calls. These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, which then turns
control of the machine over to the operating system to send the necessary packets. The set of
primitives available depends on the nature of the service being provided. The primitives for
connection-oriented service are different from those of connection-less service. There are five types
of service primitives :
• LISTEN : When a server is ready to accept an incoming connection it executes the LISTEN
primitive. It blocks waiting for an incoming connection.
• CONNECT : It connects the server by establishing a connection. Response is awaited.
• RECIEVE: Then the RECIEVE call blocks the server.
• SEND : Then the client executes SEND primitive to transmit its request followed by the
execution of RECIEVE to get the reply. Send the message.
• DISCONNECT : This primitive is used for terminating the connection. After this primitive one
can't send any message. When the client sends DISCONNECT packet then the server also sends
the DISCONNECT packet to acknowledge the client. When the server package is received by
client then the process is terminated.
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

7. Network Models – OSI/ISO Reference Model

• International Organization for Standardization (IOS) In 1984, the ISO released a revision of this
model and called it the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The 1984 revision
has become an international standard and serves as a guide for networking. The concept of a
seven layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman.
• The OSI reference model represents the seven layers of the process by which data is packaged
and transmitted from a sending application through the physical wires to the receiving
application. Each Specifying particular network functions. OSI defines a large collection of
protocols that allow computers to communicate.
• OSI Model is a set of protocols that define standardize Data commutation process.
• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
• The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session— Layers 7, 6
and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

In the table below, we have specified the protocols used and the data unit exchanged by each
layer of the OSI Model.

Application Layer
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• User Support Layer 7 provides an interface between the communications software and any
applications that need to communicate outside the computer . application layer is the OSI layer
that is closest to the user.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application programmes
(such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network.
• Application-layer protocols can be programs in themselves, such as File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), or they can be used by other programs, such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
used by most e-mail programs, to redirect data to the network.
• The user application itself does not reside at the Application layer – the protocol does. The user
interacts with the application, which in turn interacts with the application protocol.
Examples of Application layer protocols include:
• FTP, via an FTP client
• HTTP, via a web browser
• POP3 and SMTP, via an email client
• Telnet
The Application layer provides a variety of functions:
• Identifies communication partners
• Determines resource availability
• Synchronizes communication
Presentation Layer : User Support
• This layer’s main purpose is to define and negotiate data formats, such as ASCII text, EBCDIC
text, binary, BCD, and JPEG. Encryption also is defined by OSI as a presentation layer service.
The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting
the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The
presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be
transmitted.
• The Presentation layer (Layer-6) controls the formatting and syntax of user data for the
application layer. This ensures that data from the sending application can be understood by the
receiving application.
• Standards have been developed for the formatting of data types, such as text, images, audio, and
video. Examples of Presentation layer formats include:
• Text - TXT, ASCII, EBCDIC
• Images - GIF, JPG, JPEG,MPEG
• Audio - MIDI, MP3, WAV
• Movies - MPEG, AVI, MOV
Session Layer :User Support
• The session layer defines how to start, control, and end conversations (called sessions).This
includes the control and management of multiple bidirectional messages so that the application
can be notified if only some of a series of messages are completed. This allows the presentation
layer to have a seamless view of an incoming stream of data.
• The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name recognition and
other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over
the network.
• Sessions communication falls under one of three categories:
• Full-Duplex – simultaneous two-way communication
• Half-Duplex – two-way communication, but not simultaneous
• Simplex – one-way communication
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• Many modern protocol suites, such as TCP/IP, do not implement Session layer protocols.
Connection management is often controlled by lower layers, such as the Transport layer.
Transport Layer :Data Format – Segment/ Network & User Support
The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between host
applications reliably and accurately. The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system
and reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as the boundary
between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and
session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers are concerned with data
transport issues. Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages,
and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received.
The Transport layer (Layer-4) does not actually send data, despite its name. Instead, this layer is
responsible for the reliable transfer of data, by ensuring that data arrives at its destination error-free and
in order.
Transport layer communication falls under two categories:
• Connection-oriented – requires that a connection with specific agreed-upon parameters be established
before data is sent.
• Connectionless – requires no connection before data is sent. Connection-oriented protocols provide
several important services:
• Segmentation and sequencing – data is segmented into smaller pieces for transport. Each segment is
assigned a sequence number, so that the receiving device can reassemble the data on arrival.
• Connection establishment – connections are established, maintained, and ultimately terminated
between devices.
Acknowledgments – receipt of data is confirmed through the use of acknowledgments. Otherwise, data
is retransmitted, guaranteeing delivery.
• Flow control (or windowing) – data transfer rate is negotiated to prevent congestion.
Network Layer : Data Format – Packet/ Network Support
The network layer defines three main features: logical addressing, routing (forwarding), and path
determination. The routing concepts define how devices (typically routers) forward packets to their final
destination.
Logical addressing defines how each device can have an address that can be used by the routing process.
Path determination refers to the work done by routing protocols by which all possible routes are learned,
but the best route is chosen for use .
Data-Link Layer : Data Format – Frame / Network Support
• The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission across
the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.
• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the Media
Access Control (MAC) addresses.
• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in order for
multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.
• Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control.
Common Data-link layer technologies include following:
• Ethernet – the most common LAN data-link technology
• Token Ring – almost entirely deprecated
• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• 802.11 Wireless
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• Frame-Relay
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Physical Layer : Data Format – Bit / Network Support
• This layer typically refers to standards from other organizations. These standards deal with the
physical characteristics of the transmission medium, including connectors, pins, use of pins,
electrical currents, encoding, light modulation, and the rules for how to activate and deactivate
the use of the physical medium RJ-45.
• The Physical layer (Layer-1) controls the signaling and transferring of raw bits onto the physical
medium.
• The Physical layer is closely related to the Data-link layer, as many technologies (such as
Ethernet) contain both data link and physical functions.
The Physical layer provides specifications for a variety of hardware:
• Cabling
• Connectors and transceivers
• Network interface cards (NICs)
• Wireless radios
• Hubs
8. TCP/IP Model,
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

• TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of
network interconnection to connect remote machines.
• The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model
were:
• Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
• The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination machines
were functioning.
• The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
• Lowest layer of the all.
• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is
called a internet layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
 Dayanand Science College Latur.
CLASS: BSC SY Sub: Computer Network Prepared by : Dr. R. B. Shinde

• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
• The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
• Delivering IP packets
• Performing routing
• Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently
by the network layer.
• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
• The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and
run applications on it.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
• DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over
a network.
• It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
Merits of TCP/IP model
• It operated independently.
• It is scalable.
• Client/server architecture.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• The model cannot be used in any other application.
• Replacing protocol is not easy.
• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.