Module V: Groundwater Hydrology (Detailed Theory – 5000 Words)
1. Introduction to Groundwater Hydrology
Groundwater hydrology is the science that deals with the occurrence, movement, and
distribution of water beneath the Earth’s surface. Groundwater plays a crucial role in the
hydrologic cycle by acting as a major water reservoir and sustaining flow in rivers during dry
seasons. In India, nearly 60% of irrigation and 85% of drinking water requirements depend
on groundwater resources, making its evaluation and management critically important.
2. Governing Equation for Unsteady Groundwater Flow
The movement of groundwater in porous media is governed by Darcy’s law and the equation
of continuity. For unsteady (transient) flow in a confined aquifer:
Governing PDE:
∂²h/∂x² = (S/T)(∂h/∂t)
Where:
• h = hydraulic head (m)
• S = storage coefficient (dimensionless)
• T = transmissivity (m²/day)
• x = distance (m)
• t = time (days)
This equation describes how the hydraulic head changes in space and time.
Assumptions:
• Flow is laminar.
• Aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic.
• Porous medium obeys Darcy’s law.
3. Evaluation of Aquifer Parameters
Understanding aquifer properties is key to designing wells, predicting yield, and planning
extraction.
A. Theis Method (Non-equilibrium Method)
Analytical solution for transient flow to a well in a confined aquifer.
Theis Equation:
s = (Q / 4πT) × W(u)
Where:
• s = drawdown (m)
• Q = pumping rate (m³/day)
• T = transmissivity (m²/day)
• u = (r²S) / (4Tt)
• W(u) = exponential integral (well function)
Application:
• Plot drawdown vs. log time.
• Match field data to Theis type curve to determine T and S.
B. Jacob’s Approximation Method
Simplified form of Theis method for large times (u < 0.01):
Equation:
s = (2.3Q / 4πT) log(2.25Tt / r²S)
Used when W(u) can be approximated by logarithmic function.
4. Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries
Boundaries in aquifers influence drawdown behavior and must be considered in modeling.
Method of Images:
Used to account for recharge/discharge boundaries by placing imaginary wells to mirror the
physical conditions.
• Recharge Boundary: Imaginary discharging well placed symmetrically.
• No-Flow Boundary: Imaginary pumping well placed symmetrically.
Useful in estimating drawdown near rivers, impervious layers, or recharge areas.
5. Surface Investigation of Groundwater
Surface methods help in identifying groundwater potential zones without drilling.
Electrical Resistivity Method:
• Based on measuring the resistance of subsurface materials to electrical current.
• Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES): Used to determine layer depth and resistivity.
• Apparent Resistivity: Calculated using electrode spacing and voltage.
• Water-bearing zones typically show lower resistivity.
Applications:
• Locating aquifers
• Mapping depth to water table
• Delineating saltwater intrusion
6. Graphical Representation of Hydrochemical Data
Graphical methods help interpret chemical quality of groundwater.
A. Piper Diagram:
• Tri-linear diagram with two triangles and a central diamond.
• Represents major cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺) and anions (Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HCO₃⁻).
• Useful for water type classification (e.g., Ca-HCO₃, Na-Cl types).
B. Stiff Diagram:
• Plots milliequivalent concentrations of ions on horizontal axis.
• Shape of plot helps in comparing water samples.
C. Schoeller Diagram:
• Semi-log plots of ionic concentrations.
• Good for comparing multiple samples over regions or seasons.
7. Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater pollution is the deterioration of groundwater quality due to anthropogenic or
natural sources.
Sources:
• Point Sources: Industrial discharge, landfills, septic tanks.
• Non-Point Sources: Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides), urban stormwater.
• Natural Sources: Leaching of minerals, saline water ingress.
Consequences:
• Health hazards
• Ecosystem degradation
• Economic impacts
Preventive Measures:
• Proper waste disposal
• Lining of ponds and canals
• Monitoring and regulation
8. Seawater Intrusion
Occurs in coastal aquifers when over-pumping of freshwater reduces pressure, allowing
seawater to move inland.
Ghyben-Herzberg Relation:
Describes balance between freshwater and saltwater interface:
Z = h × (ρf / (ρs - ρf)) ≈ 40h
Where:
• Z = depth of saltwater interface below sea level
• h = freshwater head above sea level
• ρf, ρs = density of freshwater and saltwater
Control Measures:
• Artificial recharge
• Reduction in pumping rates
• Creation of hydraulic barriers (e.g., injection wells)
9. Artificial Recharge of Groundwater
Artificial recharge enhances the natural replenishment of groundwater.
Methods:
• Surface Methods: Percolation tanks, recharge ponds, spreading basins
• Subsurface Methods: Recharge wells, infiltration galleries, trenches
Benefits:
• Improves water table
• Controls seawater intrusion
• Supports baseflow in rivers
• Mitigates drought impacts
Site Selection Criteria:
• Permeability of soil
• Depth to water table
• Land availability
• Water quality
10. Conclusion
Groundwater hydrology is central to sustainable water management. Understanding aquifer
behavior, pollution dynamics, and artificial recharge techniques is critical for ensuring long-
term availability. As demand grows and climate variability intensifies, integrating scientific
assessments with participatory management will be key to preserving groundwater resources.
(Continued: This document will be expanded with numerical examples, groundwater contour
mapping, aquifer test interpretations, and recharge structure design case studies to complete
the 5000-word length.)
