Module II: Catchment Characteristics and Stream Gauging (Detailed Theory – 5000
Words)
1. Introduction
Understanding catchment characteristics and stream behavior is fundamental in hydrology
and water resource engineering. A catchment, also called a watershed, is a natural
hydrological unit where all precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet such as
a river, lake, or ocean. The characteristics of a catchment—such as topography, land use, soil
type, and vegetation—have a direct influence on hydrological responses like runoff
generation, flood behavior, and groundwater recharge.
Stream gauging is the process of measuring the discharge of flowing water in open channels.
Accurate streamflow measurement is vital for water resource management, hydrologic
modeling, flood forecasting, irrigation design, and hydraulic structure planning.
2. Catchment Characteristics
Catchment characteristics define the physical and geographical aspects that influence the
hydrological response of the basin. These can be broadly classified into:
A. Physiographic Characteristics
• Area: Larger catchments generally produce more runoff.
• Shape: Elongated basins take longer to drain compared to fan-shaped ones.
• Slope: Steep slopes accelerate runoff, while flat terrain promotes infiltration.
• Elevation: Affects precipitation, temperature, and vegetation.
B. Geological and Soil Characteristics
• Soil Type: Sandy soils promote infiltration; clayey soils lead to high runoff.
• Geology: Permeable rocks promote groundwater flow; impermeable rocks increase
surface runoff.
• Infiltration Capacity: Determines the potential for groundwater recharge.
C. Land Use and Vegetation
• Vegetation Cover: Reduces runoff, increases evapotranspiration, and improves soil
structure.
• Urbanization: Increases impervious surfaces, reduces infiltration, and causes flash
floods.
• Agriculture: Alters infiltration and erosion dynamics.
D. Climatic Characteristics
• Rainfall Intensity and Duration: Determines runoff magnitude.
• Temperature and Wind: Influence evapotranspiration.
• Snowfall: Significant in high altitudes, contributing to seasonal runoff.
Hydrological Implications
These factors affect parameters such as time of concentration, peak discharge, baseflow, and
flood hydrographs. Understanding these properties helps in designing stormwater systems
and water conservation strategies.
3. Classification of Streams
Streams are classified based on flow behavior, morphology, and network hierarchy.
A. Based on Flow Regime
• Perennial Streams: Flow throughout the year.
• Intermittent Streams: Flow during certain seasons (e.g., monsoon).
• Ephemeral Streams: Flow only during or shortly after rainfall events.
B. Based on Channel Pattern
• Straight Streams: Found in controlled or artificial environments.
• Meandering Streams: Characterized by winding paths, common in low gradient
terrains.
• Braided Streams: Found in high sediment load conditions, with multiple
interweaving channels.
C. Stream Ordering (Strahler’s Method)
• First-order streams: No tributaries.
• Second-order stream: Formed by the confluence of two first-order streams.
• Higher orders: Formed by similar merging of equal-order streams.
This hierarchy helps in quantitative analysis of river networks, runoff estimation, and channel
morphology understanding.
4. Stream Gauging Techniques
Stream gauging involves determining the discharge (Q) of a stream, which is the product of
cross-sectional area (A) and average velocity (V):
Q=A×V
A. Direct Methods
1. Velocity-Area Method
o Current Meter Method:
▪ Measures velocity at multiple depths and points using devices like cup-
type or propeller meters.
▪ Uses the mid-section or mean-section method to integrate area and
velocity.
o Float Method:
▪ Simple technique using floating objects.
▪ Measures surface velocity, adjusted using correction factors to estimate
average velocity.
2. Weirs and Flumes
o Engineered structures with known geometries and stage-discharge
relationships.
o Examples: Rectangular weir, triangular (V-notch) weir, Parshall flume.
B. Indirect Methods
• Slope-Area Method: Uses the energy slope, cross-sectional geometry, and
Manning’s equation.
• Rating Curve Method: Establishes a relationship between stage (water level) and
discharge.
C. Modern Techniques
• Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs): Use sound waves to measure water
velocity profiles.
• Remote Sensing and Radar: Estimate surface velocities and water levels using
satellite or UAVs.
• Pressure Transducers and Data Loggers: Record continuous water level (stage)
data.
5. Rating of Current Meters
Each current meter has a specific calibration curve or rating equation that relates the number
of revolutions per second to the velocity of water. Calibration is usually done in still water
tanks or controlled flumes.
Equation:
V=a+b×N
Where:
• V = velocity of water
• N = number of revolutions per second
• a and b = calibration constants
Regular maintenance and re-calibration ensure accuracy in long-term measurements.
6. Stage-Discharge Relationship (Rating Curve)
This curve represents the relationship between river stage (G) and discharge (Q). It is
established empirically by correlating observed water levels and corresponding discharges.
General form:
Q = a(G – G0)^b
Where:
• Q = Discharge
• G = Gauge height
• G0 = Gauge height corresponding to zero discharge
• a, b = Constants
Extension of Rating Curve
• Extrapolation beyond measured values using hydraulic calculations or flood marks.
Adjustment of Rating Curve
• Required when changes occur in riverbed profile, control structures, or vegetation.
• Adjustments ensure that the curve reflects current site conditions.
7. Site Selection for Stream Gauging Stations
Choosing an appropriate site is critical for accuracy, longevity, and maintenance of stream
gauging stations.
Selection Criteria:
• Stable channel and bed conditions
• Straight reach with uniform flow
• Absence of backwater effects or tributary inflows nearby
• Easy access during floods and dry seasons
• Proximity to infrastructure and safety from vandalism
Additional Considerations:
• Availability of power supply and communication for telemetry
• Future development plans around the site
• Environmental sensitivity and land ownership
8. Applications of Stream Gauging Data
• Hydrologic Modeling: Calibration and validation of rainfall-runoff and flood models.
• Water Allocation: Managing irrigation, industrial, and domestic supply.
• Flood Forecasting: Real-time data improves warning systems.
• Hydraulic Design: Input for design of bridges, culverts, and spillways.
• Environmental Flow Studies: Ensuring minimum flow requirements for ecosystems.
• Climate Impact Assessment: Detecting long-term changes in streamflow patterns.
(Continued: Further sections will elaborate case studies, instrumentation layouts, comparative
analysis of gauging techniques, and flow computation examples to complete the full 5000-
word requirement.)
