Unit 8: The Cell & The Cell Cycle Notes

FALL SEMESTER 2023

INSTRUCTOR:
instructor@[Link]

Vocabulary / Key
Unit 8: The Cell Cycle and Cancer
Terms/ Concepts

anaphase
Student Expectations:
● Know that the cell cycle is a repeating sequence of cellular growth and division during the life of an organism.
● Understand that cells divide to reproduce (in the case of a unicellular organism), to grow, and to replace worn
asexual reproduction
out or damaged cells.
● Describe the stages of the cell cycle
Interphase – cells spend most of their lifetime in interphase. It has three stages:
cancer
G1- First growth phase: cell grows rapidly and carries out routine functions
S-Synthesis phase: cell’s DNA is copied. At the end of phase, each chromosome consists of two chromatids
attached at the centromere.
cell cycle
G2- Second growth phase: microtubules are assembled
● Mitosis: cell division of nucleus

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centrioles Prophase: chromosomes coil up and become visible. The nuclear envelope dissolves and a spindle forms
Metaphase: chromosomes move to the middle of the cell and line up along the equator. Spindle fibers link
the chromatids of each chromosome to opposite poles

centromere Anaphase: Centromeres divide and pull apart. The chromosomes move toward opposite poles as the
spindle fibers attached to them shorten
Telophase: Two genetically identical cells are formed when a nuclear envelope forms around the

chromosome chromosomes at each pole. The chromosomes uncoil and the spindle dissolves.
Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
● Know that the cell cycle in eukaryotes is controlled by proteins at three main checkpoints

cytokinesis Cell growth (G1) checkpoint: makes the decision whether the cell will divide or not. Stimulates the S phase
where the cell will copy its DNA. Some cells like nerve and muscle cells remain in this resting period and will
never divide
DNA Synthesis (G2) checkpoint: DNA replication is checked and if it is passed, proteins help trigger mitosis
epithelium
Mitosis checkpoint: triggers the exit from mitosis. Signals the G1 phase
● Recognize that if any of the genes necessary to make the proteins that regulate cell growth and division are
mutated, the protein may not function, and the regulation of cell growth and division may be disrupted.
gene
● Cancer is a disorder of cell division; mitosis out of control
G0 Checkpoint - Apoptosis - programmed cell Death

interphase
Introduction:
● All cells are derived from pre-existing cells
● New cells are produced for repair and to replace damaged or old cells

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metaphase ● Differs in Prokaryotes (bacteria - binary fission) and Eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, & animals)

Reasons for Cell Division:

● Cell Growth
mitosis
● Repair & replacement of damaged cell parts
● Reproduction of some species
● Why do cells need to replicate their genetic material (chromosomes)
prophase before they go through mitosis?
− The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so
each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules
replication − DNA Replication:

DNA must be copied or replicated before cell division

Each new cell will then have an identical copy of the
spindle DNA

Chromosomes

synthesis ● Structure:
− DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones.
Further condensing forms a chromosome
● Replication:
telophase
− When chromosomes replicate they go from one
chromatid to two identical chromatids (called “sisters”)
attached by the centromere.

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 − When the chromatids are drawn apart toward opposite poles during Anaphase, the separated chromatids
are now each called a chromosome.
● Karyotype
− A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell arranged in
pairs by size
− First 22 pairs are called Autosomes
− Last pair are the Sex Chromosomes
− XX female or XY male
− Boy or Girl? The male parent & the Y chromosome decides

The Cell Cycle

● Five Phases of the Cell Cycle:
1. G1/ Gap 1 – Primary Growth Phase
‒ 1st growth stage after cell division
‒ Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles
‒ Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities
2. S – Synthesis Phase
‒ DNA is copied or replicated
3. G2 / Gap 2 – Secondary Growth Phase
‒ 2nd Growth Stage
‒ Occurs after DNA has been copied
‒ All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles)
‒ Both organelles & proteins are synthesized

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 4. Mitosis
‒ Division of the nucleus
‒ Also called Karyokinesis
‒ Only occurs in Eukaryotes
‒ Has four stages
‒ Doesn’t occur in some cells such as
brain cells
‒ Four Stages:
a. Prophase
Early Prophase
✶ Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes
✶ Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)
Late Prophase
✶ Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are

broken down
✶ Chromosomes continue condensing &
are clearly visible
✶ Spindle fibers called kinetochores

attach to the centromere of each

chromosome
✶ Mitotic Spindle finishes forming - The mitotic spindle forms from the microtubules in plants

and centrioles in animal cells. Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the opposite

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 pole. Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the centromere of the chromosome to
which they attach. Asters are short fibers radiating from centriole

b. Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of
the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator / Middle

c. Anaphase
Occurs rapidly
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by
shortening kinetochore fibers
Polar Microtubules elongate preparing for cytokinesis

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 d. Telophase
Sister chromatids at opposite poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS begins
Chromosomes reappear as chromatin

5. Cytokinesis
‒ Means division of the cytoplasm
‒ Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter cells
‒ In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell
‒ In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell

Daughter Cells
● Have the same number of chromosomes as each other and as the parent cell
from which they were formed
‒ Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell
‒ Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase)

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 Uncontrolled Mitosis:
● If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs causing cancerous tumors
● At Checkpoint G0 - The cell has a decision to make - keep replicating, go perform its function, or Apoptosis- Cell
death. If the cell is beyond its normal replication cycle or has mutations and keeps dividing- Cancer.
● Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell
● What is Cancer?
− Cancer is essentially a disease of mitosis - the normal 'checkpoints' regulating mitosis are ignored or

overridden by the cancer cell. Cancer begins when a single cell is transformed, or converted from a normal
cell to a cancer cell.
− Often this is because of a change in

function or a mutation that occurs in one

of several genes that normally function to
control growth.
− Examples:

1) The p53 gene, the "guardian of the

genome", usually functions to properly

control the cell cycle. However, p53 is
mutated in over 50% of all human
cancers.
2) The BRCA-1 gene, the "Breast Cancer

Gene" normally functions to suppress

tumor formation; but if a gene contains mutations such that BRCA1 does not work properly, tumor

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 formation can begin (Note: mutations in this gene do not mean that a person will develop breast cancer,
just that they have an increased risk for breast cancer).
− Once these crucial Cell Cycle genes start behaving abnormally, cancer cells start to proliferate wildly by

repeated, uncontrolled mitosis.

− Tumors - Good Cells gone Bad...? The cancer cells proliferate to form a mass of cancer cells called a tumor.

As the tumor grows larger, it begins to release proteins from the cell to attract new blood vessel growth (this
is called angiogenesis). At this point the tumor contains ~ 1 million cells and is about the size of a 'bb'.
1) Benign: tumor cells remain at the original site. Can be removed surgically or killed by radiation, usually
eliminating any further cancer development at that site.
2) Malignant: some tumor cells send out signals that tell the body to produce a new blood vessel at the
tumor site. These cells not only have their own food and oxygen supply, they also have an avenue for

escape to a new part of the body - through the new blood vessel and into the bloodstream. Cells that
break away from the tumor begin to spread to surrounding tissues (via the bloodstream or lymph) and
start new tumors = metastasis. Usually surgery is performed to remove the tumor, followed by radiation
and chemotherapy.
− Unusual features of Cancer Cells.

Cancer cells are frequently "immortal ": whereas normal cells divide about 50 times and they die,
cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely if supplied with nutrients
Cancer cells often have unusual numbers of chromosomes or mutations in chromosomes. Aging
(production of toxic oxygen "free radicals"), exposure to toxins (like components of tobacco tar),
mutagens (like ultraviolet light) all cause mutations in genes and cancer; but normal errors in DNA
replication can lead transformation of the cell if they occur in a crucial gene.

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 Cancer cells may also have an abnormal cell surface; instead of "sticky " to its neighboring cells, cancer
cells tend to "round up" and break attachments to its neighbors cells, allowing for metastasis.
Cancer cells ignore the usual density-dependent inhibition of growth in cell culture (or in body tissues),
multiplying after contact with other cells are made, piling up until all nutrients are exhausted.
− Stopping cancer cell growth:
Chemotherapy Drugs stop DNA synthesis/ replication:

✶ Adriamycin and Cytoxan prevent DNA from unwinding properly,

✶ 5FU inhibits incorporation of T nucleotides

✶ Methotrexate and 5-MP prevent cells from making nucleotides

✶ ARA-C is a C nucleotide "mimic" that gets incorporated and stops further DNA synthesis - No DNA

replication, no new cancer cells!

Mitosis - A Summary

Why Growth & Repair

When From fertilization until death

Where Somatic/Body cells - skin, muscle, bone, tissues, etc…

Outcomes 2- Genetically Identical Daughter cells

Notes Summary

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