SUEN 102

UNDERGRADUATE COURSE
B.A - ENGLISH
FIRST YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER

PAPER - II

INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
B.A., ENGLISH PAPER - II
FIRST YEAR INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH
FIRST SEMESTER

WELCOME
Warm Greetings.

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance Education,

University of Madras. It is a proud moment for the Institute of Distance education as you are
entering into a cafeteria system of learning process as envisaged by the University Grants
Commission. Yes, we have framed and introduced Choice Based Credit System(CBCS) in
Semester pattern from the academic year 2018-19. You are free to choose courses, as per the
Regulations, to attain the target of total number of credits set for each course and also each
degree programme. What is a credit? To earn one credit in a semester you have to spend 30
hours of learning process. Each course has a weightage in terms of credits. Credits are assigned
by taking into account of its level of subject content. For instance, if one particular course or
paper has 4 credits then you have to spend 120 hours of self-learning in a semester. You are
advised to plan the strategy to devote hours of self-study in the learning process. You will be
assessed periodically by means of tests, assignments and quizzes either in class room or
laboratory or field work. In the case of PG (UG), Continuous Internal Assessment for 20(25)
percentage and End Semester University Examination for 80 (75) percentage of the maximum
score for a course / paper. The theory paper in the end semester examination will bring out your
various skills: namely basic knowledge about subject, memory recall, application, analysis,
comprehension and descriptive writing. We will always have in mind while training you in
conducting experiments, analyzing the performance during laboratory work, and observing the
outcomes to bring out the truth from the experiment, and we measure these skills in the end
semester examination. You will be guided by well experienced faculty.

I invite you to join the CBCS in Semester System to gain rich knowledge leisurely at
your will and wish. Choose the right courses at right times so as to erect your flag of success.
We always encourage and enlighten to excel and empower. We are the cross bearers to make
you a torch bearer to have a bright future.

With best wishes from mind and heart,

DIRECTOR

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B.A., ENGLISH PAPER - II
FIRST YEAR INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH
FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE WRITER

Dr. V. Meena Kumari M.A (Eng.), M.A. (J.M.C), M.Phil., Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of English
Anna Adarsh College for Women
Chennai

EDITING & COORDINATION

Dr. V. Meena Kumari M.A (Eng.), M.A. (J.M.C), M.Phil., Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of English
Anna Adarsh College for Women
Chennai

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

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 B.A., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR -

FIRST SEMESTER

Paper - II

INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

SYLLABUS
Unit-1: Introduction

 Arrival of East India Company and the associated impact

 History of Indian Writing in English

 Nativisation of English

 Introduction of English Studies in India (Macaulay’s speech)

 Indian Diasporic writers

Unit-2: Prose

1. The World Community - S. Radhakrishnan

Prescribed: Links - Balram Gupta

2. The Argumentative Indian - Amartya Sen

Prescribed: The Diaspora and the World – Chapter 4 only

Unit-3: Poetry

1. The Tiger and the Deer - Sir Aurobindo Ghosh

2. Summer Woods - Sarojini Naidu

3. In India - Nissim Ezekiel

Prescribed (for poems 1-3): An Anthology of Indian English Poetry - Orient Longman

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4. Crab - Arun Kolatkar

5. Eating wheat - Vikram Seth

6. Fireflies - Manohar Shetty

Prescribed (for poems 4-6): Oxford Indian Anthology of Twelve Modern Poets

Unit-4: Drama

Dance like a Man – Mahesh Dattani

Prescribed: Dance like a Man – Penguin Publications

Unit-5: Fiction

1. Swami and Friends - R.K. Narayan

Prescribed Texts:

Links – Balram Gupta

The Diaspora and the World (Chapter 4)

Anthology of Indian English Poetry – Orient Longman

Oxford Indian Anthology of Twelve Modern Poets

Dance like a Man – Mahesh Dattani - Penguin Publications

Swami and Friends - R.K. Narayan

Recommended Texts:

A.K. Mehrotra’s Illustrated History of Indian Literature - Introductory chapter

Indian Writing in English - K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar

Modern Indian poetry in English - Bruce King

Relevant Videos on YouTube:

S. No. Video URL

1 English: An Indian Story https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADRKm82bGM

2 The Rise of English in India https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iDYqYIwdMNU

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 B.A., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR -

FIRST SEMESTER

Paper - II

INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

SCHEME OF LESSONS

Sl.No. Title Page

1. Introduction 001

2. Prose 038

3. Poetry 047

4. Drama 068

5. Fiction 074

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UNIT I
INTRODUCTION

India’s substantial contribution to world literature is largely due to the profusely creative
literary works generated by Indian novelists in English. Their works contemplated and deliberated
on multifarious range of issues like nationalism, freedom struggle, social realism, individual
consciousness and the like. This literary movement was fortified by the overwhelming output
by novelists and distinguished itself as a remarkable force in world fiction. This has been
achieved by novelists who sought to prove their inner creative urges in English language,
which is indeed an alien tongue for them. It is to the credit of these novelists that they have
overcome the hurdles of writing in a foreign language and have evolved a distinctive style for
themselves by mastering the intricacies of the language and assimilating in it the hues and
flavors of the Indian – sub continent.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to

 Understand the growth of Indian writing in English

 Comprehend the major Indian writers writing in English and their works.

 Analyse the historical background

 Appreciate the role of English as a medium for political awakening.

 Realize the use of English in India for creative writing.

Structure
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Arrival Of East India Company And The Associated Impact

1.3 History Of Indian Writing In English

1.4 Nativisation Of English

1.5 Introduction Of English Studies In India (Macaulay’s Speech)

1.6 Indian Diasporic Writers

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1.7 Check Your Progress

1.8 Review Questions

1.9 Web Sources

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit serves as a background study for the paper. The topics covered are Arrival of
East India Company and the Associated Impact, History of Indian Writing in English,
Nativisation of English, Introduction of English Studies in IndiaandIndian Diasporic
Writers. Arrival of East India Company and the Associated Impact gives a detailed account
of English East India Company, formally (1600–1708) Governor and Company of Merchants of
London Trading into the East Indies or (1708–1873) United Company of Merchants of England
Trading to the East Indies, English company formed for the exploitation of trade with East and
Southeast Asia and India, incorporated by royal charter on December 31, 1600. Starting as a
monopolistic trading body, the company became involved in politics and acted as an agent of
British imperialism in India from the early 18th century to the mid-19th century. In addition, the
activities of the company in China in the 19th century served as a catalyst for the expansion of
British influence there. The second topic History of Indian Writing in Englishdeals with a
brief history of Indian Writing in English and its evolution. It has a relatively recent history,
being only one and a half centuries old. This topic explores on various aspects of Indian Writing
in English and about prominent writers. Indian English Literaturehas passed through several
phases such as Indo-Anglian, Indo-English, Indian Writingin English and recently Indian English
literature. Inspite of its diverse cultures, racesand religions Indian Writing in English has
successfully recaptured and reflected themulti-cultural, multilingual society. As a result, it has
aroused a good deal of interest at home and abroad. The third topic covered in this introduction
is Nativisation of English. It explains the term nativization of a language can be defined as
re-defining the language in one’s own linguistic and cultural framework. It is a process of
accumulation of new words and meanings to suit the social and cultural requirements. It is a
known fact that language change over time and place. English used in environments different
from its origin, would adjust and change to suit its new environment. The growth of English in
India in all possible genres acknowledges the fact that it has changed and adjusted to suit its
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Indian environment. Introduction of English Studies in Indiais the fourth topic covered in the
introduction unit. English education was introduced in India in the 19th century. Englisheducation
was made available to vast Indian community. By introducing Englisheducation, Britishers wanted
to create and maintain a class of administrative officers,clerks, and civil servants to govern this
huge country properly.English education brought tremendous changes in the attitude of the
Indians.The young Indians with proper education were able to read, write and speak Englishwith
competence. The final topic is Indian Diasporic Writers. The Indian diaspora is the highest as
compared to the countries all over the world. Much of the literature available on the Indian
Diaspora pertains to Indian migration, their socioeconomic and cultural experiences, experiences
of adaptation and assimilation in the host societies. This topic explores about various Indian
Diasporic Writers and their contribution in the field.

1.2 ARRIVAL OF EAST INDIA COMPANY AND THE ASSOCIATED IMPACT

Between early 1600s and the mid-19th century, the British East India Company lead the
establishment and expansion of international trade to Asia and subsequently leading to economic
and political domination of the entire Indian subcontinent. It all started when the East India
Company, or the “Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies”,
as it was originally named, obtained a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I, granting it
“monopoly at the trade with the East”. A joint stock company, shares owned primarily by British
merchants and aristocrats, the East India Company had no direct link to the British government.

Through the mid-1700s and early 1800s, the company came to account for half of the
world’s trade. They traded mainly in commodities exotic to Europe and Britain like cotton,
indigo, salt, silk, saltpetre, opium and tea. Although initial interest of the company was aimed
simply at reaping profits, their single minded focus on establishing a trading monopoly throughout
Asia pacific, made them the heralding agents of British Colonial Imperialism. For the first 150
years the East India Company’s presence was largely confined to the coastal areas. It soon
began to transform from a trading company to a ruling endeavor following their victory in the
Battle of Plassey against the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daullah in the year 1757. Warren Hastings,
the first governor-general, laid down the administrative foundations for the subsequent British
consolidation. The revenues from Bengal were used for economic and military enrichment of
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the Company. Under directives from Governor Generals, Wellesly and Hastings, expansion of
British territory by invasion or alliances was initiated, with the Company eventually acquiring
major parts of present day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In 1857, the Indians
raised their voice against the Company and its oppressive rule by breaking out into an armed
rebellion, which historians termed as the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. Although the company took
brutal action to regain control, it lost much of its credibility and economic image back home in
England. The Company lost its powers following the Government of India Act of 1858. The
Company armed forces, territories and possessions were taken over by the Crown. The East
India Company was formally dissolved by the Act of Parliament in 1874 which marked the
commencement of the British Raj in India.

Founding of the Company

The British East India Company was formed to claim their share in the East Indian spice
trade. The British were motivated by the immense wealth of the ships that made the trip there,
and back from the East. The East India Company was granted the Royal Charter on 31
December, 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I. The charter conceded the Company monopoly of all
English trade in lands washed by the Indian Ocean (from the southern African peninsula, to
Indonesian islands in South East Asia). British corporations unauthorized by the company
treading the sea in these areas were termed interlopers and upon identification, they were
liable to forfeiture of ships and cargo. The company was owned entirely by the stockholders
and managed by a Governor with a board of 24 Directors.

Early Voyages

The first voyage of the company left in February 1601, under the commandership of Sir
James Lancaster, and headed for Indonesia to bring back pepper and fine spices. The four
ships had a horrendous journey reaching Bantam, in Java in 1602, left behind a small group of
merchants and assistants and returned back to England in 1603.

The second voyage was commandeered by Sir Henry Middleton. The third voyage was
undertaken between 1607 and 1610, with General William Keeling aboard the Red Dragon,
Captain William Hawkins aboard the Hector and the Captain David Middleton directing the
Consent.
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Establishment of Foothold in India

The Company’s ships first arrived in India, at the port of Surat, in 1608. In 1615, Sir
Thomas Roe reached the court of the Mughal Emperor, NuruddinSalim Jahangir (1605–1627)
as the emissary of King James I, to arrange for a commercial treaty and gained for the British
the right to establish a factory at Surat. A treaty was signed with the British promising the
Mughal emperor “all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace” in return for his generous
patronage.

Expansion

Trading interest soon collided with establishments from other European countries like
Spain, Portugal, France and Netherlands. The British East India Company soon found itself
engaged in constant conflicts over trading monopoly in India, China and South East Asia with
its European counterparts.

After the Amboina Massacre in 1623, the British found themselves practically ousted
from Indonesia (then known as The Dutch East Indies). Losing horribly to the Dutch, the
Company abandoned all hopes of trading out of Indonesia, and concentrated instead on India,
a territory they previously considered as a consolation prize.

Under the secure blanket of Imperial patronage, the British gradually out-competed the
Portuguese trading endeavor, Estado da India, and over the years oversaw a massive expansion
of trading operations in India. The British Company’s win over the Portuguese in a maritime
battle off the coast of India (1612) won them the much desired trading concessions from the
Mughal Empire. In 1611 its first factories were established in India in Surat followed by acquisition
of Madras (Chennai) in 1639, Bombay in 1668, and Calcutta in 1690. The Portuguese bases at
Goa, Bombay and Chittagong were ceded to the British authorities as the dowry of Catherine
of Braganza (1638–1705), Queen consort of Charles II of England. Numerous trading posts
were established along the east and west coasts of India, and most conspicuous of English
establishment developed around Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, the three most important
trading ports. Each of these three provinces was roughly equidistant from each other along the
Indian peninsular coastline, and allowed the East India Company to commandeer a monopoly
of trade routes more effectively over the Indian Ocean. The company started steady trade in
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cotton, silk, indigo, saltpeter, and an array of spices from South India. In 1711, the company
established its permanent trading post in Canton province of China, and started trading of tea
in exchange for silver. By the end of 1715, in a bid to expand trading activities, the Company
had established solid trade footings in ports around the Persian Gulf, Southeast and East Asia.

Towards Complete Monopoly

In 1694, the House of Commons voted “that all the subjects of England had an equal
right to trade to the East Indies unless prohibited by act of Parliament.” Under pressure from
wealthy influential tradesmen not associated with the Company. Following this the English
Company Trading to the East Indies was founded with a state-backed indemnity of £2 million.
To maintain financial control over the new company, existing stockholders of the old company
paid a hefty sum of £315,000. The new company could hardly make a dent in the established
old company markets. The new company was ultimately absorbed by the old East India Company
in 1708. A tripartite venture was established between the state, the old and the new trading
companies under the banner of United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East
Indies. The following few decades saw a bitter tug of war between the company lobby and the
British Parliament to acquire permanent establishment rights which the latter was hesitant to
relinquish in view of the immense profits the company brought. The united company lent to the
government an additional £1,200,000 without interest in exchange of renewal of charter
until1726. In 1730, the charter was renewed until 1766, in exchange of the East India Company
lowering the interests on the remaining debt amount by one percent, and contributed another
£200,000 to the Royal treasury. In 1743, they loaned the government another £1,000,000 at
3% interest, and the government prolonged the charter until 1783. Effectively, the company
bought monopoly of trading in the East Indies by bribing the Government. At every juncture
when this monopoly was expiring, it could only affect a renewal of its Charter by offering fresh
loans and by fresh presents to the Government.

The French were late to enter the Indian trading markets and consequently entered into
fresh rivalry with the British. By the 1740s rivalry between the British and the French was
becoming acute. The Seven Years war between 1756 and 1763 effectively stumped out the
French threat led by Governor General Robert Clive. This set up the basis of Colonial monopoly
of East India Company in India. By the 1750s, the Mughal Empire was in a state of decadence.
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The Mughals, threatened by the British fortifying Calcutta, attacked them. Although the Mughals
were able to acquire a victory in that face-off in 1756, their victory was short-lived. The British
recaptured Calcutta later that same year. The East India Company forces went onto defeat the
local royal representatives at the battle of Plassey in 1757 and at Buxar in 1764. Following the
Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Mughal emperor signed a treaty with the Company allowing them
to oversee the administration of the province of Bengal, in exchange for a revised revenue
amount every year. Thus began the metamorphosis of a mere trading concern to a colonial
authority. The East India Company became responsible for administering the civil, judicial and
revenue systems in one of India’s richest provinces. The arrangements made in Bengal provided
the company direct administrative control over a region, and subsequently led to 200 years of
Colonial supremacy and control.

Regulation of the Company’s Affairs

Throughout the next century, the East India Company continued to annex territory after
territory until most of the Indian subcontinent was effectively under their control. From the
1760s onward, the government of Britain pulled the reins of the Company more and more, in
an attempt to root out corruption and abuse of power.

As a direct repercussion of the military actions of Robert Clive, the Regulating Act of
1773 was enacted which prohibited people in the civil or military establishments from receiving
any gift, reward, or financial assistance from Indians. This Act directed the promotion of the
Governor of Bengal, to the rank of Governor General over the entire Company-controlled
India. It also provided that nomination of Governor General, though made by a court of directors,
would be subject to the approval of the Crown in conjunction with a council of four leaders
(appointed by the Crown), in future. A Supreme Court was established in India. The justices
were appointed by the Crown to be sent out to India.

William Pitt’s India Act (1784) established government authority over political policy making
which needed to be approved through a Parliamentary regulatory board. It imposed the Board
of Control, a body of six commissioners, above the Company Directors in London, consisting
of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and a Secretary of State for India, together with the four
councilors appointed by the Crown.
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In 1813 the Company’s monopoly of the Indian trade was abolished, and, under the 1833
Charter Act, it lost its China trade monopoly as well. In 1854, the British Government in England
ruled for the appointment of a Lieutenant-Governor to oversee regions of Bengal, Bihar and
Odisha and the Governor General was directed to govern the entire Indian Colony. The Company
continued its administrative functions until the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.

Takeover of the Company by the British Crown

The brutal and rapid annexation of native Indian states by introduction of unscrupulous
policies like the Doctrine of lapse or on the grounds of inability to pay taxes along with forcible
renunciation of titles sparked widespread discontent among the country’s nobility. Moreover,
tactless efforts at social and religious reforms contributed to spread of discomfiture among the
common people. The sorry state of Indian soldiers and their mistreatment compared to their
British counterparts in the armed forces of the Company provided the final push towards the
first real rebellion against the Company’s governance in 1857.Known as the Sepoy Mutiny,
what began as soldiers protest soon took epic proportions when disgruntled royalties joined
forces. The British forces were able to curb the rebels with some effort, but the munity resulted
in major loss of face for the Company and advertised its inability to successfully govern the
colony of India. In 1858, the Crown enacted the Government of India Act, and assumed all
governmental responsibilities held by the company. They also incorporated the Company owned
military force into the British Army. The East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act was brought
in effect on January 1, 1874 and the East India Company was dissolved in its entirety.

Legacy of the East India Company

Although the East India Company’s colonial rule was hugely detrimental to the interest of
the common people due to the exploitative nature of governance and tax implementation,
there is no denying the fact that it brought forward some interesting positive outcomes as well.

One of the most impactful of them was a complete overhaul of the Justice System and
establishment of the Supreme Court. Next big important impact was the introduction of postal
system and telegraphy which the Company arguably established for its own benefit in 1837.
The East Indian Railway Company was awarded the contracts to construct a 120-mile railway
from Howrah-Calcutta to Raniganj in 1849. The transport system in India saw improvements in
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leaps and bounds with the completion of a 21-mile rail-line from Bombay to Thane, the first-leg
of the Bombay-Kalyan line, in 1853.

The British also brought forth social reforms by abolishing immoral indigenous practices
through acts like the Bengal Sati Regulation in 1829 prohibiting immolation of widows, the
Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, enabling adolescent Hindu widows to remarry and not
live a life of unfair austerity. Establishment of several colleges in the principal presidencies of
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras was undertaken by the Company governance. These institutions
contributed towards enriching young minds bringing to them a taste of world literature, philosophy
and science. The educational reforms also included encouragement of native citizens to sit for
the civil services exams and absorbing them into the service consequently.

The Company is popularly associated with unfair exploitation of its colonies and widespread
corruption. The humongous amounts of taxes levied on agriculture and business led to man-
made famines such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the
18th and 19th centuries. Forceful cultivation of opium and unfair treatment of indigo farmers
lead to much discontent resulting in widespread militant protests.

The positive aspects of social, education and communication advancements were

overshadowed largely by the plundering attitude of the Company rule stripping its dominions
bare for profit.

1.3 HISTORY OF INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

The seed of Indian Writing in English was sown during the period of the British rule in
India. Now the seed has blossomed into an ever green tree, fragrant flowers and ripe fruits.
The fruits are being tasted not only by the native people, but they are also being ‘chewed and
digested’ by the foreigners. It happened only after the constant caring, pruning and feeding.
Gardeners’ like Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, R.K.Narayan, Raja Rao – to name only a few, looked
after the tender plant night and day. In modern time, it is guarded by a number of writers who
are getting awards and accolades all over the world.

Indian English Literature is an honest enterprise to demonstrate the ever rare gems of
Indian Writing in English. From being a singular and exceptional, rather gradual native flare –
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up of geniuses, Indian Writing has turned out to be a new form of Indian culture and voice in
which India converses regularly. Indian Writers – poets, novelists, essayists, and dramatists
have been making momentous and considerable contributions to world literature since pre –
Independence era, the past few years have witnessed a gigantic prospering and thriving of
Indian English Writing in the global market.

Indian English Literature has attained an independent status in the realm of world
Literature. Wide ranges of themes are dealt within Indian Writing in English. While this literature
continues to reflect Indian culture, tradition, social values and even Indian history through the
depiction of life in India and Indians living elsewhere, recent Indian English fiction has been
trying to give expression to the Indian experience of the modern predicaments. There are
critics and commentators in England and America who appreciate Indian English novels. Prof.
M. K. Naik remarks “alone of the most notable gifts of English education to India is prose fiction
for though India was probably a fountain head of story-telling, the novel as we know today was
an importation from the west”.

Raja Rao famously argued in 1938, in the preface to his novel Kanthapura, for using
English, but English adapted to Indian conditions:

English is not an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up – like
Sanskrit or Persian was before – but not of our emotional make-up. We are all instinctively
bilingual, many of us in our own language and in English. We cannot write like the English. We
should not. We can only write as Indians . Our method of expression will someday prove to be
as distinctive and colorful as the Irish or the American.

The struggle for independence was a mighty and momentous movement sweeping the
entire nation and exerting tremendous impact on the sense of national consciousness among
the literary fraternity. Thus the lucid description of the freedom struggle showcased images of
the awakened Indians who sought to regain their freedom from the grueling and torturous
regime of the Britishers. Apart from these reflections, the writers were able to propagate their
point of view, which ultimately helped to motivate and guide the masses. Thus the fixation on
religious aestheticism was replaced by concerns on socio – political issues. The joy of
accomplishing the grandiose feat of obtaining Independence was abruptly marred by the
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horrendous and traumatic partition of 1947. The horrors, tragic consequences and partition
like the large scale migration, reckless looting and merciless massacres were portrayed by the
writers in their works which captured the interest, and imagination of the reader, the Indian
English novels began to prove its mark in the global literary scenario. East – West conflict,
multi – culturalism, social realism, gender issues, comic aspect of human nature, ecological
concerns, magic realism, diasporic writings and the like became the themes of the post –
Independent writers.

English has acquired a rare privilege and popularity in India especially among the elite
and the middle classes. It is increasingly being used by writers to give shape to the conflicting
dilemmas and issues that confront the human psyche. It has definitely become a convenient
medium to express the intrinsic talents of the writers. Moreover the Indian English writers use
it with enviable ease and gaining mastery of a foreign tongue to articulate the vagaries and
vicissitudes of an individual’s consciousness in a realm of its own aptly substantiate the
expansiveness and verve of the Indian English writer.

Indian writing in English has commended unstinted admiration in both home and abroad,
is now in its full swing. It has carved out a new track, a new vision – a vision that is replete with
an un answering faith and hope, myths and traditions, customs and rites etc. If we dive deep
into the works of the Indian stalwarts of English fictions, it is revealed that their works are not
an imitation of English literary pattern but highly original and intensely Indian in both theme and
spirit. They have given a new shape and color to English literature in the same way as the
Australians and Americans have evolved their own literature in their respective countries.

Indian English literature is two hundred years old. Sri Aurobindo stands like a huge oak
spreading its branches over these two centuries. The contribution of Sri Aurobindo as a perfect
writer and craftsman is undoubtedly great. He is the first poet in Indian English writing who has
given the re – interpretation of myths. Sri Aurobindo envisages spiritual humanism. What Sri
Aurobindo points out to the philosophers of today is that human life, body and mind are the
evolved forms of super mind. Aurobindo’s famous works “The Human Cycle and The Ideal of
Human Society” taken together to give a complete picture of Aurobindo’s version of the future
possibilities of man and shows the humanistic trend in his thought. In the Human cycle, the
poet – philosopher offers us a social philosophy of history illuminated by a splendid spiritual
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vision of future. It is self-evident that Indian English drama could not secure a firm foothold and
build s tradition of its own about which M.K. Naik says:

“Owing to the lack of a firm dramatic tradition nourished on actual performance in a live
theatre, early Indian English drama in Bengal, as elsewhere in India, grew sporadically as
mostly closet drama; and even later, only Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore and
HarindranathChattopadhyaya produced a substantial corpus of dramatic writing.”

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) is a celebrated name in the sphere of English literature.

His creative genius is so much accounting and his literary output is so much rich and varied
that the phrase ‘myriad – minded’, which Mathew Arnold had used for Shakespeare, can aptly
be used for him also. He won Nobel Prize for literature in 1913, for his immortal poetic work
Gitanjali(1913). Besides being a great universal poet, the genius Tagore is also a novelist,
dramatist, Short – Story writer, musician, philosopher, painter, educationalist, reformer and
critic in every field and had earned a niche for himself. The setting of his novel is representative
and reflective, their characters are natural, realistic, full – blooded and life – like. The socio –
religious culture of Bengal is brilliantly portrayed in his novels. Through his novels he brings out
some of the problems of the woman of his age. Different kinds of human relations are portrayed
and analysed through the different social settings. Some of his novels deal with the modern
problems of our society and the interest in them centers round the psychological development
of characters under the compelling stress of circumstances. To his credit, there is a long list of
poems and plays, both in Bengali and English which had made his place among the world’s
greatest writers. In Iyengar’s words;

As the years passed, he became more and more a legendary figure; in his flowing bead
and immaculate white robes he was truly in the line of the great Rishi of Upnishadic times, and
indeed he was truly in the line of the great bearing witness to the triune Reality, seeing the way
showing it to others.

Tagore neither does nor adheres to the conventional narrative method, nor does he use
the principles of organic, consequential plot – structure. He also tries through his novels, to
focus the attention on some of the bitter truths and cruel customs of the lives and society as
well. His novels amuse, perplex and bring out the real literary pleasures. Tagore has written
 13

thirteen novels of which nine are translated into English. The translated works are Gora, The
Home and The World (1910), The wreck (1921), Binodini (1964) and many more. Tagore wrote
his first original dramatic piece when he was twenty – ValmikiPratibha (1881) and stated that
his works sought to articulate “the play of feeling and not of action.” Tagore’s dramas used
more philosophical and allegorical themes. Tagore’s plays also are important to Bengali literature.
All of his plays have been repeatedly staged and re-interpreted over the years. His most famous
play, perhaps, is Raktakaravi (1926) (“Red Oleanders”) – the name of a red flower. It tells of a
king who lives behind an iron curtain while his subjects have cruelty and death delivered upon
them at the slightest pretext. People are forced to work in the mines so that the kleptocratic
king and his cronies may render themselves even wealthier. The play follows the heroine
Nandini, who leads the people and finally the king himself towards the destruction of this
artifact of subjugation. However, this ultimate victory is preceded by numerous deaths, most
importantly that of Ranjan, Nandini’s lover, and Kishore a young boy devoted to her. Tagore
devoted much effort to Raktakaravi (1926), with (at least) eleven extant revisions. Tagore’s
Chandalika (1938) was modeled on an ancient legend describing how Gautama Buddha’s
discipline asks water of a tribal girl.

K.S.Venkataramani (1892-1952) is an Indo – Anglian writer of the pre – Independence

era brilliantly focuses on the stupendous impact of Mahatma Gandhi in general. He is a novelist
and Short – Story writer. He interweaves the centrality of the novel keeping in view the Gandhian
ideology of a self – sufficient, morally and economically integrated village community as the
elemental unit of the superstructure of the Indian society. He wrote two novels Murugan, The
Tiller (1927), Kandan, The Patriot (1934) and his collection of short stories are Jatadharan and
other stories (1937).

Bhabani Bhattacharya (1906-1988) is one of the novelists of the older generation of Indo
– Anglian writers. He is endowed with a transparently positive vision of life, explored and
expressed artistically in his novels. He throws that the novel must have a social purpose, his
stories abound in social and historical realities, quite often bitter and gruesome, such as the
Bengal Famine of 1943, the tragedies of freedom struggle and partition, and the evils of poverty,
corruption, ignorance, superstition, exploitation, greed etc. Bhattacharya affirms that an artist
should inevitably be concerned with truths and social reality. In his first six novels, Bhattacharya
14

has treated culture with different angles. His first five novels are set against Indian social sense
in the perspectives of world shaking historical events, whereas the sixth one has its setting
both in India and America’s Hawaii Island and deals with the theme of spiritual quest. His
novels are So Many Hungers (1947), Music for Mohini (1952), He Who Rides Tiger (1955), The
Goddess Named Gold (1960), and Shadow FromLadakh (1966), A Dream of Hawaai (1978).

Post – Independent India has been making quick strides in the field of science and
technology. There has been an admirable economic growth in India in recent times. So, the
novel proved to be an effective medium for the reflection of the spirit of the age, encompassing
the bitter and sweet realities of the period. The great proliferation of the Indian English novel
also owes its credit to the sudden increase of interest in the new literature of post colonial
nations by the west.

The Indian English fiction has had a meteoritic growth during the dawn of the millennium
year and the writing in all genres of literature has gained momentum, particularly the Indian
novel, the doyens of the Indian writing like R.K.Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand, and their ilk promoted
the conventional mode of writing. The crusaders of the contemporary and modern era include
Salman Rushdie, AmitavGhosh, Vikram Seth and many more. They elucidate and substantiate
strength of the emerging modern voice of India, which has the vibrancy and energy of a gushing
artesian along with an unmatched resolve to experiment and explore new avenues of writing
novels. A host of contemporary post – colonial writers like Rushdie, Arundati Roy, Meena
Alexander, Anita Nair and JhumpaLahiri have initiated the process of decolonizing the ‘Colonial
English’ and using it as a medium to express Indian thoughts and sensibilities with a distinctive
Indian style.

The freedom movement spearheaded by Gandhi inspired a flurry of activity in the literary
world. The need for an autonomous, independent country lead to an explosion of creativity,
which sought to appeal to the masses to take up the cudgels and oust the Britishers from the
Indian soil. Therefore, there was a flourish of novels in both regional and as well as in the
national stream. This burst of energy in regional literature, laid the ground work of fine – tuning
and enhancing the vibrancy and the scope of the Indian English Fiction.

The dual combination of independent movement and nationalist consciousness gave

much impetus and spur to the outflow of novels in which affection for motherland was the crux
 15

and this served to invoke the patriotic sentiments of the masses. Raja Rao’sKanthapura(1938),
K.S.Venkataramani’sKandan, The Patriot (1934 ) and Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable(1935),
Coolie (1936), The Sword and the Sickle(1942 ), revolved around the varying themes of the
independence struggle. Post – Independent India also produced number of novels involving
the causes and aftermaths of the freedom movement. The novels that belong to this category
include NayantaraSaghal’s A Time to be Happy(1952), Khwaja Ahmed Abbas’ Inquilab(1955),
R.K.Narayan’s Waiting for the Mahatma(1955) etc.

The triumvirs Mulk Raj Anand, Raja Rao and R.K.Narayan were the novelists who stabilized
and fortified the Indian English Fiction with their ample works and unique literary style. Thus, it
was aptly noted by William Walsh regarding the afore mentioned writers:

Distinguished not only for their own work but as the inaugurators of the form itself since
it was they who defined the area in which the Indian novel in English was to operate, drew the
first models of its characters and themes and elaborated its particular logic. Each used its own
version of an English freed from the foggy taste of Britain.

The majority of Mulk Raj Anand’s (1905 – 2004) novels brings to the limelight the
inequalities of society and trials and tribulations of the less fortunate. Untouchable(1935),
Coolie(1936 ), The Village(1939 ), and The Private Life of an Indian Prince(1953) addresses
the evils existing in the society in the Marxist terms. His novels also give a graphic description
of the daily existence of his characters, their tale of woe, sweat and misery. Untouchable(1935)
targets the evil of casteism and brings to the surface the issue of segregation of people on the
basis of their profession. In Coolie(1936 ), he presents a poverty-stricken protagonist, Munoo
who portrays the hollowness of the society and the curse faced by the proletariat. He was
instrumental in bringing about an awareness of the inequality that existed in India. He also
advocated solutions for the issues. Both novels are: “a plea for downtrodden, the poor and the
outcast, who face economic hardship and emotional humiliation in a rigid social structure”.

R.K.Narayan (1906-2001) is another celebrity author who enjoys a unique position in the
crowded literary scene of Indian Fiction. He is undoubtedly the master of portraying the socio-
comic aspects of the ordinary Indian’s family and idiosyncrasies of human which form the crux
of his novels. The greatest merit of his language and style lives in its simplicity. His subtle use
of ironic humor explores the oddities of human nature and juxtaposing it with a dose of harmless
16

humor. His fiction revolves around the imaginary sleepy South Indian town of Malgudi but
expresses an outlook which has universal appeal. His famous novels are The Bachelor of Arts
and The Painter of signs (1933). Swami and Friends (1935), The English Teacher (1945),
Waiting for Mahatma (1955), The Guide (1958), The Sweet Vendor (1967. The vividness in
character portrayal is balanced by ironic humor, which is his characteristic style. His writing has
stretched across seven decades and occupies a remarkable position in the history of Indian
English Fiction. Narayan has gained mastery of the art of portraying characters and nuances
of the English language.

Raja Rao’s (1908-2006) reputation as a novelist of metaphysics and philosophy is amply

justified by his substantial contribution in upholding these themes in his novels. Women in Raja
Rao’s novels suffer from domestic injustice and tyrannical tradition, but the writer suggests no
way out of their dilemma. His women characters, who are a little ambitious, end up playing the
devoted role of a wife like Savitri in The Serpent and the Rope(1960). Indian culture being
rooted into his consciousness fails him to offer any concrete solution to the besetting women’s
issue. He analysis modern India from a different perspective and elevates Hindu orthodoxy to
a grand metaphysic. His work The Serpent and the Rope(1960) abounds with various themes.
It is the story of an intellectual Rama who is in quest of personal enlightment and seeks inspiration
and revelation from eastern and western metaphysics. He has a French wife and his association
with Savithri brings to the forefront the contemplation of the Feminine Principle and endeavors
to correlate the eastern and western views. The later works by Raja Rao includes The Cat and
The Shakespeare (1956) and Comrade Kirillov (1976). Kanthapura (1938) by Raja Rao
emphasizes the influence of the Gandhian movement by highlighting the 1920’s and the Gandhi
– Irwin Pact of 1931. He focuses a small village through which he explores the impact of the
freedom movement on the villagers and also captures their roles in the struggle for
Independence. Rao uses his novels to spread the Gandhian message and as propaganda
against social evils.

Mulk Raj Anand (1905-), R.K.Narayan (1906-2000) and Raja Rao (1909-) became the
trinity of Indian writing in English. Speaking of The Big Three, Walsh said:

“It is these three writers who defined the area in which the Indian novel was to operate.
They established its assumptions; they sketched its main themes, freed the first models of its
 17

characters and elaborated its particular logic. Each of them used an easy, natural idiom which
was unaffected by the opacity of a British inheritance. Their language has been freed of the
foggy taste of Britain and transferred to a wholly new setting of brutal heat and brilliant light.”

The sudden spirit of creative writing in the eighties reflects the sense of awareness of the
plurality of the nation. It transcends the east – west conflict and portrays the new Post Colonial
India with its evolving outlook, which is essentially a blend of tradition and modernism. It reveals
the cosmopolitan outlook of the new generation who strives to strike a balance between the
inherited traditional values and imbibed foreign culture. The treatment and technique of the
novel is Trans-national and Trans – continental. Salman Rushdie, AmitavGhosh and
Upamanyachatterjee are the writers who reigned supreme with their momentous work. Their
works delve into the hurdles faced by newly independence nation, which at times a harsh
depiction of reality. These writers have made bold attempts to recapture the altered perceptions
of Post – colonial India and the use of revolutionary narrative technique has elevated their
position among the writers of Indian Fiction in English.

Salman Rushdie (1947) was born and brought up in Bombay and later went to England
for higher education. Thus, his roots and early education in India combined with the exposure
to higher education in a foreign country, has played a stupendous role in shaping the mind of
this writer. His novels abounds with myths, symbols and motifs. The arrival of his best novel
Midnight Children(1981) shook the very foundation of the complacency of the Indian English
Fiction. The language, style theme and narrative technique employed by Rushdie is entirely
novel and highly innovative. He initiated a trend which cared very less about the continental
method of writing novels. Incredible imagination, amazing comic sense and absolute word –
play are the hallmarks of Rushdie’s works. Midnight’s Children(1981), the novel has three
parts and based on the crucial role by history in the narrative, it can be categorized as the
growth of the characters during pre – Independence, partition and post – Independence. His
works abounds with the lavish use of symbols and fantasy. Rushdie will always be remembered
for his dare devil techniques, narrative spanning generations, depiction of characters with
eccentricities, experimentation with style, abundant usage of allegory, symbols and thinly veiled
disguise of real life people and political overtones.
18

A Suitable Boy(1993), by Vikramseth was the cynosure of all eyes on its publication. Seth
delves in detail on the social milieu of post – Independent India. The novel portrays the concerns
of the middle aged lady, Mrs.RupaMehra, who embarks on a mission suitable groom for her
daughter Lata and succeeds when she meets the young HareshKanna. Though match making
is the novel’s theme, the major attraction of the novel is the depiction of social panorama of
India which encompasses cultural arena, politics in academics circles and the like also form an
integral part of the novel. Inexhaustible. It is also remarkable that the theme and technique of
novels in Indian literature during this period found based on social upset, poverty, untouchability,
exploitation, social movement, political movement etc. Iyengar observes,

Some of the best studies of social life are, naturally enough, in the regional languages;
and it is not easy to translate the racy idioms of every day speech into English. This is particularly
true of life in the country side, the seaside, the hillside where life has, perhaps, changed very
little indeed during the last two thousand years. Urban life in India attracts the novelists by its
excitement, perversions, sophistications and violent alternations between affluence and poverty,
splendor and squalor; but the interior, the areas of obscurity and inaccessibility have their
attractions too, and sometimes bring out the best in the creative novelist.(165)

Women novelists have played a crucial and momentous role in enhancing the quality
and quantity of the Indian English Fiction. They have further added the woman’s perspective
and feministic dimensions to the novels. These rich contributions have widened the spectrum
of issues deliberated in the novel. In the past, the work by the Indian women authors has
always been undervalued because of some patriarchal assumptions. Indian societies gave
priorities to the work of male experiences. In those days, women used to write about a women’s
perception and experiences within the enclosed domestic arena. On the other hand, male
authors used to deal with heavy themes. Thus, it was assumed that their work would get more
priority and acceptance in the society. During the eighteenth century, these factors led towards
the decline of Indian women writing. And with all these factors, production of women’s literature
declined further. In the nineteenth century, more and more women actively participated in India’s
reformist movement against the British rule. It again led to the women’s literature. At that time,
their write – ups mainly concentrated on the country’s freedom struggle. Over the years, the
world of feminist ideologies began to influence the English literature of India.
 19

The contributions by women writers cannot go unnoticed. In fact the works by women
writers constitute a major segment of the contemporary Indian writing in English. Today women
are seen establishing their identity in almost all walks of life and they have heralded a new
consciousness in the realm of literature too. Anees Jung in her book Unveiling India states her
ideology in the following words:

In the complex pantheon of diversities, the Indian woman remains the point of unity
unveiling through each single experience a collective unconscious prized by a society that is
looked in mortal combat with the power and weakness of age and time. She remains the still
centre, like the centre the potter’s wheel, circling to create new forms, unfolding the continuity
of a racial life, which in turn has encircled and helped her acquire a quality of concentration.
(48)

Among the women writers Sarojini Naidu, the great poetess charmed the readers with
her writings. Feminism themes have also been used by authors like NayantaraSahgal and
Rama Mehta. Regional fiction theme has been aptly used by Kamala Das, Anita Nair and
Susan Viswanathan. Novelists like Kamala Markandaya and Anita Desai captured the spirit of
Indian cultures and its traditional values. During 1990’s India became a popular literary nation
as a number of women authors made their debut in this era. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni,
SunitiNamjoshi and AnuradhaMarwah Roy used realism as main theme of their novels. The
novels of authors like NamitaGokhale or Shobha De are really out – spoken. Most of these
female novelists are known for their bold views that are reflected in their novels. Basically,
these are the novels of protest and an outburst of reservations and contaminations. Unlike the
past, where the works of women novelists were given less priority and were actually undervalued,
classification of feministic or male writings hardly makes any sense today.

In the twentieth century, women’s writing was considered as a powerful medium of

modernism and feminist statements. The last two decades have witnessed phenomenal success
in feminist writings of Indian English literature. Today is the generation of those women writers
who have money and have mostly western education. Their novels consist of the latest burning
issues related with women as well as those issues that exist in the society since long. The
publishers feel that the literature actually survives because of these types of bold topics and
commercials used by the women novelists. They describe the whole world of women with
20

simply stunning frankness. Their write – ups give a glimpse of the unexplored female psyche,
which has no accessibility. The majority of these novels depict the psychological suffering of
the frustrated housewife. At this pint of time, it is essential to quote Virginia Woolf,

It is probable, however, that both in life and in art, the values of women are not the values
of man. Thus, when a woman comes to write a novel, she will find that she is perpetually
wishing to alter the established values – to make serious what appears insignificant to a man,
and trivial what is to him important. (75-81)

Since long, feminism has been used by women novelists. Their novels reflect that the
present age women have realized that she is not helpless and is not dependent. They feel that
a woman is an equal competent just like a man. Today a woman has also become a direct
money earner and she is not only confined to household works. The women of modern era
think on different lines and that is what is depicted in the novels of the Indian women authors.
These facts are incorporated by the women writers. Indian women writers explore the feminine
subjectivity and apply the theme that ranges from childhood to complete womanhood. These
women writers say that feminism means putting an end to the silent sufferings of women.

Women writers in India are moving forward with their strong and sure strides, matching
the pace of the world. We see them bursting out in full bloom spreading their own individual
fragrances. They are recognized for their originality, versatility and the indigenous flavor of the
soil that they bring to their work. Indian women writers like Kamala Markandaya,
BharathiMukherjee ,Anita Desai, Nayantarasaghal and many more have played a pioneering
role in conveying the readers a wild range of indigenous Indian issues, punctuated by a strong
feministic outlook. It is amazing to note that these writers have climbed the ladder of success
in a slow and painful way. Thus, this new voice of emerging modern India succeeded in drawing
the attention of the public towards the pressing problems of gender inequality, social evils, and
encroachment of land by foreign nationals and exploitation of women in a patriarchal society.

Kamala Markandaya (1924-2004) was brought up in South India, but her works do not
confine to provincial characters and themes. Kamala’s oeuvre explores a multitude of issues
and the choices of themes exhibit her potential to approach the subject with appreciable maturity
and good organisation. Her works are a realistic delineation of the double pulls that the Indian
 21

women is subjected to, between her desire to assert herself as an individual and her duty in the
capacity of a daughter, wife and mother. She also points out how the socio-economic conditions
affect the women most. Nectar in the Sieve (1954) is her first novel, which delineates the tragic
outcomes of penury, natural calamities and intruding modernization with its horrendous
aftermaths. It is a well constructed novel on the classical mode on the theme of hunger and
starvation. Some Inner Fury (1955) and Possession (1963) and The Golden Honey Comb
(1977) are her popular novels, wherein she gives a clear and economical account of the life
style of the peasants, the middle classes and the aristocracy and also focuses on the conflicting
East – West relations. Kamala’s ability to depict her social observations comes to the force in
A Handful of Rice (1966). In Pleasure City (1982), Kamala concentrates on the intrusion of
modernity in a traditional world and its consequences. The routine life of the fisher folk with its
simplicity and awareness of the complexity of unknown dangers in the sea and the like are
portrayed vividly by Kamala. The characterization in the novel is a testimony to Kamala’s caliber
to etch characters realistically and humorously.

Nayantara Sahgal (1927) is another popular woman novelist who dominated the Post –
Independence scenario of an Indian novel in English. She dealt with issues concerning women
that later became major issues in the feminist movement launched in the sixties. With delicate
sensitivity, she exposes the prejudices women face in the male-dominated society.

1.4 NATIVISATION OF ENGLISH

The process of nativization is due both to transfer from local language as well as to the
new cultural environment and communicative needs Because of deep social penetration and
the extended range of functions of English in diverse sociolinguistic contexts there are several
varieties, localized registers and genres for articulating local social, cultural and religious identities
Also, factors such as the absence of a native group, inadequate teaching and acquisitional
limitations. Scholars have all concluded that the South Asian varieties of English are being
nativized by acquiring new identities in new socio-cultural contexts. They have emerged as
autonomous local varieties with their own set of rules that make it impossible to treat them
simply as mistakes of deficient Englishes.

South Asian English has developed to a more distinctive level than in other countries
where English is used as a second language. English in India has evolved characteristic features
22

at the phonological, lexical, syntactic and even at discourse level. Initially, these innovations
were rejected by purists, but they are becoming increasingly accepted: English is not anymore
treated as a foreign language; it is part of the cultural identity of India. These innovations have
led to some problems related to pedagogical standards, national and international intelligibility
and typology .

It is often the case that a foreign language can have such power and influence over an
individual or country as to be adopted into their culture and way of life.

As in the case of India, the English language was introduced decades ago and used
prolifically by the English colonists who settled there and governed the country for over one
hundred years. It stands to reason then that some nativization of Indians could and did occur!
Especially since Indian natives were used as servants, nannies, workers, and comrades-in-
arms throughout the years! The Indians literally lived, worked, and associated with the English
in every aspect of their lives, adopted their dress, ate their food, and learned to speak their
language. Then, these natives took that culture back to their own homes and influenced their
own families.

Over the years, because every Indian was exposed to the English language, it started to
become a way of life for them. The merchants were English; the schoolteachers were English,
the government officials were English; the factory owners were English. Everywhere they
turned were the English and their language! They had to speak it in order to live their lives!
Even after Mahatma Gandhi’s work liberated India in the 1940’s and the English government
officials had gone home, the English culture and language still remained, having become
entrenched in their society.

Within the last 65 years since freedom was granted to them, Indians have interacted
internationally with the rest of the world, and speaking the English language has become an
almost absolute necessity. Most Indians have become modernized, their children get college
educations, and a lot of them use computers. In the case of Indian children: the English their
parents introduced into their homes is their language now! They speak it fluently and sometimes
prefer it to their own native tongue.
 23

The danger of the total nativization of the English language into the Indian society is the
eventual breakdown of their own native tongue to the point that it becomes obsolete and is no
longer spoken. To counteract this, Indian parents need to keep their native tongue alive in their
homes by speaking it to their children and requiring them to learn it. Indian schools need to
teach it as a required course to ingrain it into their students. And, all responsible adults of India
need to teach their young people coming up that they have a beautiful country, a rich heritage,
and a unique language that must never be lost!

1.5 INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH STUDIES IN INDIA

(MACAULAY’S SPEECH)

In the 18th century, Indian masses received religious education pertaining to Christianity
through Christian missionaries. However, when the East India Company came to India they
did not allow the missionaries to propagate religious education to the common people in India.
They felt that, the education from the missionaries would encourage religious sentiments among
the people in India that could affect the business policy and the diplomatic role of East India
Company.

It was through the Charter Act of 1813 that a state system of education was officially
introduced in the Indian history. This clause of the Charter Act of 1813 compelled the East India
Company to accept responsibility for the education of the Indian people. As a result, from 1813
to 1857, the company opened many schools and colleges under their control, which laid the
foundation of the English system of education in India

In this clause, Governor-General-in-Council directed that a sum of one lakh of rupees,

each year shall be set apart for the revival and improvement of literature and encouragement
of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the
science among the inhabitants of the British territories in India. For the first time official money
was allotted to expand the education of the Indians.

Macaulay’s Minute

Lord Macaulay landed in India on June 10, 1834 and was immediately appointed as
president of General Committee of Public Instruction. Macaulay arrived in Madras on June 10,
24

1834, and proceeded to Ootacamund, Nilgiris, where the Governor General of India William
Bentinck was camping for the summer. Macaulay wrote of his initial experience as follows: “To
be on land after three months at sea is of itself a great change. But to be in such a land! The
dark faces, with white turbans, and flowing robes: the trees not our trees: the very smell of
atmosphere that of a hothouse, and the architecture as strange as the vegetation” (Trevelyan
1876: 334). There was a salute of fifteen guns when he set his foot on the beach! . Lord
Macaulay wrote a minute on 2ndFebruary 1835, where he made the decision regarding the
controversy. Macaulay always devoted his best to the job on hand. In his youth, Macaulay
exhibited “vehemence, over-confidence, the inability to recognize that there are two sides to a
question or two people in a dialogue,” just as other young men displayed (Trevelyan 1876;
112). While these traits were tempered in his later years, Macaulay was always a man of his
own ideas. And he was greatly influenced in his ideals, ideas, and ideologies by the great
achievements of Western civilization, sciences, philosophy, and theology. His nephew-biographer
writes, “His speeches and essays teem with expressions of a far deeper than official interest in
India and her people; and his minutes remain on record, to prove that he did not affect the
sentiment for a literary or oratorical purpose” (Trevelyan 1876: 235).

In 1835, the arguments Orientalists were put before Lord Macaulay, who rejected the
arguments of the Orientalists through a very forceful minute wherein he supported the education
of the classes and made a vigorous plea for spreading Western learning through the medium
of English.

On March 7, 1835, Lord William Bentinck also accepted Macaulay‘s recommendations

and sanctioned it officially. In 1837 English was made the court language and a Government
Resolution of 1844 threw high posts open to Indians. These measures resulted in a rapid
growth of English education. The missionaries also established a number of English schools
and colleges

Macaulay wrote in his minute “we must at present do our best to form a class of persons
Indian in blood and colour and English in taste, opinions in morals and in intellect,”

Macaulay’s arguments in favour of English: Macaulay rejected the claims of Arabic and
Sanskrit as against English, because he considered that English was better than either of
them. His arguments in favour of English were
 25

1. It is the key to modern knowledge and is therefore more useful than Arabic or Sanskrit.

2. It stands pre eminent even among the language of the west in India, English is the language
sponsored by the ruling class. It is likely to become the language of commerce throughout
the seas of the east.

3. It would bring about renaissance in India, just as Greek or Latin’s did in England or just as
the languages of western Europe in civilized Russia

4. The natives are desirous of being taught English and are not eager to learn Sanskrit or
Arabic.

5. It is possible to make the natives of this country good English scholars, and to that end
our efforts ought to be directed

6. It was impossible to educate the body of people but it was possible through English
education to bring about “a class of persons Indian in blood and colour and English in
taste , opinions in morals and in intellect”, and that education was to filter down from them
to the masses

Macaulay concluded his Minute with a characteristically dramatic flourish, threatening to

resign from his position as President of the GCPI if his proposals were rejected. He knew that
this was an empty threat, and, as he anticipated, Bentinck immediately gave his ‘entire
concurrence’ to the Minute.

Bentinck appears to have been anxious to settle the education controversy before his
departure from India . As noted above, he gave the Minute his immediate assent, and to effect
its speedy implementation, he deliberately prevented any discussion of Macaulay’s scheme in
the GCPI. Seed (1952) claims that Bentinck purposely withheld action on the education question
until the very end of his term in office because he feared that the radical nature of the policy
would arouse the opposition of the Court of Directors in London, upon whose blessing all
policies ultimately depended. Seed further argues that the timing of Bentinck’s decision was
shaped by his experience in Madras in 1807, when he was dismissed from the Governorship
for his alleged insensitivity to Indian religions and customs.By introducing the controversial
new policy on the eve of his departure, Bentinck perhaps calculated that he would succeed in
avoiding a similar humiliation.
26

Bentinck’s underlying caution is evident in his Resolution of 7 March 1835 giving effect to
the new policy. In accordance with Macaulay’s proposals, the Resolution stated that ‘the great
object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European literature and science
among the natives of India, and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education
would best be employed on English education alone’ . However, in a significant departure from
theMinute, Bentinck disavowed any intention ‘to abolish any College or School of Native learning,
while the Native Population shall appearto be inclined to avail themselves of the advantages
which it affords’ . Although the Resolution stipulated that no further stipends be awarded for
Oriental studies, it was careful to direct that native scholars already in receipt of government
grants would continue to enjoy their allowances. Bentinck’s concessions on these points seem
to have been prompted by pressure from influential groups in Calcutta’s Muslim and Hindu
communities, who, upon hearing news of Macaulay’s scheme, submitted petitions to the
government protesting against the new policy. The Governor-General’s softening stance towards
Oriental studies a matter of weeks after expressing his ‘entire concurrence’ with the Minute
would therefore appear to bear out Rosselli’s contention that ‘Bentinck let Macaulay fire the
rhetorical big guns while ensuring that vested interests suffered little actual damage’.

Macaulay left India in December 1837, apparently with satisfaction for the job he did in
India.

Analysis of Macaulay’s Minute

Since the decision to promote English education had been taken well before the Minute’s
composition, Macaulay’s purpose was essentially to justify the policy which had already been
agreed upon rather than to persuade Bentinck to support the Anglicist position. Macaulay was
aware that in formulating its education policy the GCPI was bound by the Charter Act of 1813,
which required the East India Company to encourage both Western and Oriental learning.
While the Anglicists’ project accorded with the Act’s stipulation that funds be assigned for ‘the
introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences’, it was apparently at variance with
its requirement that education policy should also be directed towards ‘the revival and
improvement of literature, and the encouragement ofthe learned natives of India’. Though
perhaps not an explicit statement of British intentions, it was generally accepted that this objective
envisaged the revival and improvement of Arabic and Sanskrit literature ratherthan English
literature.
 27

Indeed, as Spear(1938 )notes, the flimsiness of Macaulay’s legal case accounts for the
content and tone of the Minute: the withering attack on Indian learning, the source of its continuing
notoriety, was intended to distract attention from the provisions of the Charter Act, which he
knew provided the Orientalists with their strongest argument. Given the fragility of his case, it
is not surprising that Macaulay addressed the legal issue in a perfunctory manner, brushing
aside the arguments of the Orientalists with what Spear (1938: 84) describes as ‘an Olympian
statement of opinion that the Act of 1813 intended the exact opposite of what its words implied’.

Having concluded that the grant at the Government’s disposal could be used to promote
learning ‘in any way which may be thought most advisable’ ,Macaulay proceeded to discuss
the most useful way of employing it. Since all parties agreed that the vernacular languages
contained ‘neither literary nor scientific information’ and were thus too ‘poor and rude’ to be
used as instructional media, the GCPI was faced with a straightforward choice between Sanskrit/
Arabic and English, the central question being, according to Macaulay, ‘which language is the
best worth knowing?’ (p. 1405). Macaulay’s case for English was founded on his belief in the
intrinsic superiority of English literature and science over Indian learning, and on his conviction
that a strong desire for English-language education existed among certain segments of the
Indian population.

Macaulay maintained that his low estimate of the value of Indian learning was shared by
his adversaries in the Orientalist camp: ‘I have never found one among them who could deny
that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and
Arabia’(p. 1405)

According to Macaulay, the claims of English were hardly necessary to recapitulate. It

stood pre-eminent among the languages of the West. Whoever knew English had ‘ready access
to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and
hoarded in the course of ninety generations’ .The important political and economic role which
English was beginning to assume in India and in the emerging Empire also provided a strong
justification for promoting education in the language. Thus, whether viewed from the perspective
of Britain’s growing imperial interests, or its value as the repository of a superior body of
knowledge and thought, English was the language which Macaulay believed would be ‘most
useful to our native subjects’ (p. 1406). The simple question before the British authorities was
28

whether, when it was in their power to teach English, they would instead teach languages in
which there are no books on any subject which deserve to be compared to our own,whether,
when we can teach European science, we shall teach systems which, by universal confession,
wherever they differ from those of Europe differ for the worse, and whether, when we can
patronise sound Philosophy and true history ,we shall countenance, at the public expense,
medical doctrines which would disgrace an English furrier, astronomy which would move laughter
in girls at an English boarding school, history abounding with kings thirty feet high and reigns
thirty thousand years long, and geography made of seas of treacle and seas of butter.

Apart from extolling the virtues of English literature and science vis-à-vis traditional Indian
learning, Macaulay sought justification for his plan by arguing that Indians evinced a far stronger
desire to learn English than Sanskrit or Arabic. In setting out his case, Macaulay challenged
the time-honoured Orientalist argument that the promotion of Oriental studies helped to conciliate
the influential classes in Indian society. Macaulay contended that ‘unanswerable evidence’
existed to prove that ‘we are not at present securing the co-operation of the natives’; in fact, the
policy of engraftment was having quite the opposite effect.

For Macaulay, the ‘state of the market’ should determine language policy (p.1409): We
are withholding from them the learning which is palatable to them.Weare forcing on them the
mock learning which they nauseate. This is proved by the fact that we are forced to pay our
Arabic and Sanskrit students while those who learn English are willing to pay us. (p. 1408)

Having presented his case for English, Macaulay advanced the idea of ‘downward filtration’,
which proposed that the meagre parliamentary grant be used to cultivate a class of anglicised
Indians who would not only serve as cultural brokers between the British and their Indian
subjects, but who would also refine and enrich the vernacular languages, and thereby render
them fit media for imparting Western learning to the masses:

In one point I fully agree with the gentlemen to whose general views I am opposed. I feel
with them that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of
the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between
us and the millions whom we govern – a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but
English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine
 29

the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed
from the western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying
knowledge to the great mass of the population.

While the sentence advocating the creation of an acculturated Indian elite is justifiably
regarded as the epitome of cultural and linguistic imperialism, Macaulay’s critics have tended
to overlook the significance of the preceding sentence, which indicates that his controversial
scheme was entirely dictated by government parsimony, and have similarly chosen to ignore
the import of the following sentence, which reveals that the development of vernacular education
constituted an important element in the Anglicists’ project.

Macaulay accompanied his plan with three specific measures designed to ‘strike at the
root of the bad system which has hitherto been fostered by us’ (p. 1412). Though careful to
stress that existing interests should be respected, he nevertheless proposed that the
CalcuttaMadrasa and Sanskrit College (Calcutta) be abolished,that the printing of Arabic and
Sanskrit books be discontinued, and that no further stipends be awarded to students wishing
to pursue Oriental studies at the Delhi Madrasa and Sanskrit College (Benares).

It is important to note, however, that the authorities in Calcutta formulated and began
implementing the new policy on their own initiative rather than seeking prior approval from the
Court of Directors. In fact, the documents relating to the new policy did not reach the company’s
London offices until January 1836, that is, almost a year after Bentinck had given his initial
assent. It was not, however, until January 1841 that the controversy over Macaulay’s Minute
was finally laid to rest, and it would be a further 13 years before the British produced, in the
shape of Wood’s despatch, their definitive statement on language policy in India.

1.6 INDIAN DIASPORIC WRITERS

Writers of Indian Diaspora are at the centre stage since last decade because of their
capturing works. Indian Diaspora occupies second largest place in the world. The population
of Diaspora is approximately 25 million, who settled whole notable regions of the world. Indian
immigrants in the overseas are for various reasons like free trade, better standards of life and
earning. Diasporic or immigrant writing occupies a great place of significance between cultures
and countries. Writings Diaspora benefits many ways and a powerful web connects the entire
30

globe. The foremost characteristic features of diaspora writings involve the quest for identity,
nostalgia, familial and marital relationships apart from re-rooting, uprooting,multi-cultural milieu
etc.

Bharati Mukherjee is an Indo American writer and professor at the University of

California,Berkeley. She wrote numerous works that cover both fiction and non-fiction. Mukherjee
hasgone to the extent of contemplating herself as an American writer and not a migrant writer.Her
works include novels, short story collections, and one memoir non-fiction. She has wonNational
Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 for ‘The Middle and other stories’. Her other works are
‘Jasmine and Wife’.

The Middle Man and other stories present the theme of immigration while Jasmine is the
story of woman who is reluctant to accept the outdated traditional society. The collection of
stories Darkness (1985) focusses the immigrant experience in the USA. In the novel DimpleDas
Gupta who dreams to marry a neuro surgeon, had to marry according to the wish of her father
and she couldn’t adapt herself to the real life situations.

Shauna Singh Baldwin is the Indo-Canadian Diasporic writer. She is the author of two
shortstory collections ‘we are not in Pakistan’ and ‘English Lessons and other stories’. Her
stories in the short story collections have been published in various literary magazines.

The setting of the novel What the Body reminds the partition theme and revolves
mainlyaround three characters Roop, second wife of Sardarji, infertile first wife and Sardarji
who always struggle for his identity. This book bagged Commonwealth Writers Prize for the
bestbook from the region of Caribbean and also long listed for the Orange Prize in fiction.

Jhumpa Lahiri was born to Indian parents from London, who settled in the USA after
her birth. Lahiri’s debut collection of short stories ‘Interpreter of Maladies’ (1999) brought laurels
to her by clenching Pulitzer Prize for fiction. In her first novel ‘The Namesake’ and her short
story collections, she is successful in presenting discontentment at the core in the families she
portrays. Her ‘Low Land’ is the story of blood relationship that was brutally spoiled by politics,
which got shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize.

Anjana Appachana is a novelist of Indian origin who lives in the United States. She has
written a book of short stories titled ‘Incantations’ and a novel titled Listening Nowis anovelist of
 31

Indian origin who lives in the United States. Her debut work‘Incantations andOther Stories’ was
first published in England, in United States and was translated intoGerman language.
AnjanaAppachana is the recipient of O.Henry Festival Prize and National Endowment for the
Arts Creative Writing fellowship.

Her first novel ‘Listening Now’ based on the themes of female bonding, female sexuality
andmother-child relations relationships spans three generations in a narrative that is
notsequential, elliptical. The novel is written in English, but we find nativity in the rhythms of the
language and the metaphors

Anita Nair is an EnglishLanguage writer of India. Nair, who hailed from a small village of
Kerala was educated in Chennai. Her ‘Satyr of the Subway’, a collection of short stories wonher
a fellowship from Virginia.

Nair ’s novels The Better Man and Ladies Coupe were translated into 21
collections.Her‘Ladies coupe’ is about a middle aged Indian unmarried woman on her journey
of self-discovery.The theme of the story is based on a one way train journey which transforms
thelife and changes the protagonist into a new woman.

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is poet, essayist, author, fiction and short story writer, book
reviewer. She is an Indo American poet. Her short story collection Arranged Marriage and
other Stories brought her the credit of winning the American Book Award in 1995. Her works
are largely set in the United States as well as in India. Her focus sometimes is on the experiences
of South Asian migrants.

Manjula Padmanabhan is a playwright, journalist, comic strip artist, an artist, illustrator

and cartoonist. She was born in India and grew up in Sweden, Pakistan and Trinidad. Her play
Harvest was selected for the Onassis Prize in 1997 out of 1470 and bagged the prize.

Marginalization and separation are the themes of her writings. Her semi-autobiographical
work ‘Getting There’ depicts the plight of a young woman illustrator in Bombay.

Anita Rao Badami is a writer of South Asia who settled in Canada. Her novels handle
with intricacies of Indian family life, cultural gap that is encountered by the immigrants who
settle in the west. The Hero’s Walk was placed on the top five finalists for CBC Canada Reads
32

Competition. The book,‘The Hero’s Walk’ describes the problems in the family life and atlast
how peace evolved in the family.

V.S.Naipaula Nobel Laureate belongs to Trinidad born in a Hindu Brahmin family. Writer
of Indian descent, popular for pessimistic themes. In the novel ‘Area of Darkness’ he focuses
on the post-Independence problems like poverty, caste system, neglected areas of sanitation
and segregation by society. In ‘A House for MrBiswas’, Naipaul presents the sorry state of
protagonist having house on his own. ‘The Mimic Men’ criticizes the newly liberated countriesand
individual’s sense of identity.

Kamala Markandeya born in Mysore belongs to a Hindu family. She is not only a writer
but journalist and activist too.Her marriage toEnglish man, made her settle in London. During
intervals, she used to make visits to India. Her ten novels are ‘A Silence of Desire’, ‘TheNowhere
Man’, ‘The Coffer Dams’, ‘A Handful of Rice’,‘Possession’, ‘Two Virgins’, ‘ThePleasure city/
Shalimar in the American Edition’ and ‘The Golden Honey Comb’. Her novel‘Nectar in a Sieve’
is translated into more than dozen languages with the theme, the pathetic plight of a poor
peasant. Markandeya is ahead of twenty years in predicting the diasporicexperiences in her
work ‘The Nowhere Man’.

Anita Desai is an Indian writer and professor of Humanities at Massachusetts. Her name
was shortlisted for the Booker Prize three times. Desai’s novel,‘Fire on the Mountain’ won
Sahitya Academy Award in the year 1978. Her works mainly focus on family in particular,
matters about women. Clear light of the day presents the importance of family life. In the work
Custody, she describes the problem of alienation of college teacher from his deeprooted culture.
Anita is expert in handling literary technique, the stream of consciousness in the novel Cry the
peacock. In another novel ‘Bye Bye Black Bird’, she deals with theproblem of adaptability; the
theme of the story revolves around the three characters Adit, Dev. And Sarah.

Salman Rushdie was born in India and studied at Cambridge in England. He is popularly
known for his controversial works. His ‘Satanic Verses’ was published amid controversy and
violence. It has been banned in various countries. Death sentence was proclaimed against him
by the then President ofPakistan. His themes are innovative and about migration and spiritual
alienation.
 33

Meera Sayal was born and brought up in an immigrant Punjabi family in England. Meera
Saya lMBE is a British Indian comedian, writer, playwright, singer, journalist and actress. Her
Punjabi-born parents came to Britain from New Delhi and she has risen to prominence as one
of the most UK’s best-known Indian personalities. She was awarded the MBE in the NewYear’s
Honours List of 1997.

In ‘The House of Hidden Mothers’, Meera Sayal, as an accomplished novelist, takes on

thetimely but underexplored issue of India’s booming surrogacy industry. Western couple pays
ayoung woman to have their child and then fly home with a baby, an easy narrative that ignores
the complex emotions involved in carrying a child.Shyama, a forty-eight-year-old London
divorcée, already has an unruly teenage daughter, but that doesn’t stop her and her younger
lover, Toby, from begetting a child together. Their relationship may look like a cliché.But despite
the news from her doctor that she no longer has any viable eggs, Shyama’sunfair pair is not
ready to give up their dream of having a baby. So they decide to find an Indian surrogate to
carry their child, which is how they meet Mala, a young woman trappedin an oppressive marriage
in a small Indian town from which she’s desperate to escape. But as the pregnancy progresses,
they discover that their simple arrangement may be far more complicated than it seemed.

Meena Alexander is an internationally acclaimed poet, writer and scholar. Born

inAllahabad, India and brought up in India and Sudan. At present she lives in New York City.She
is the author of numerous collections of poetry, essays, and works of fiction, literary memoirs
and literary criticism.

Her novel ‘Nampally Road’ published in the year 1999 is haunting and lyrical. The novel
Nampally Road brightly portrays contemporary India a woman’s struggle to cut together her
past. In the middle of the novel she becomes thevictim of the gang rape by the police. The
people in that place rise up and burn the police station. The incidents in the novel resemblethe
recent tragic events in Delhi.

Amit Chaudari belongs to a new group of writers whose roots trace back to the post
emergency period in India. Setting in his works is in India and in England. His themes are not
revolutionary and turbulent but deals with city life servants, Indian culture and family life.
34

Themes are close to diasporic experiences. His major works are ‘A Strange and sublime
Address’ (1991), ‘Afternoon Raag’ (1993) ‘Freedom Song’ (1998), ‘A New World and RealTime’
(2002)

Vikram Seth became world famous through his novel‘A Suitable Boy’. Setting of the
novelis in a late post-independent India. The theme of the story is social and financial issues;
aHindu Mother who searches a suitable son in law for her daughter. It highlights the issues like
land rights, inter religious marriages and identity crisis in sections. This novel is frequently
compared to Leo Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ by critics and reviewers.

Kiran Desai is an Indian author. Her novel ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ won the 2006 Man
Booker Prize and the National Book Critics Circle Fiction Award, is one of the most highly
praised Indian writers of second generation. She grew up in India, the U.K. and the U.S.A.where
she has settled down. Her debut novel, ‘Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard’ published has praised
so much for its subtle portrayal of India. ‘The Inheritance of loss’ eclipsed the first novel. This
book won the Man Booker Prize in the year 2006 and received The National Book Critics Circle
Fiction Award in the year 2007. Themes include post-colonialism andglobalization as they
relate to a modern India. It is considered a master piece of Indianliterature in 21st century.

This extraordinary novel, long listed for the Man Booker prize and produces a strange
effect.It is a lengthy novel that stretches from India to New York; an ambitious novel that reaches
into the lives of the middle class and the very poor; an exuberantly written novel that blends
colloquial and more literary styles; and yet it communicates nothing so much as how impossible
it is to live a big, ambitious, exuberant life. Everything about it dramatizes the factthat although
we live in this mixed-up, messy, globalised world, for many people thedominant response is
fear of change, based on a deep desire for security.

Sunetra Gupta Bengali born settled in London, who spent her childhood in Ethiopia,
Zambia and Liberia. Her debut novel ‘Memories of Rain’ published in 1992 won her Sahitya
Academy Award in 1996. Her works mainly present stream of consciousness style entering
on the interior monologues of the characters. Her writings reflect cultures, histories and
human understanding and considerations. Her fiction moves the central preoccupation of
diasporic writings from the crisis of uniqueness to the mapping of a process of experience and
feeling.
 35

In ‘Memories of Rain’, plot from beginning to the end is concentrated within the span of
asingle day. On that day, Moni, an Indian woman who had come to England after having
married the English Anthony, decides to leave her untrustworthy husband and returns to India
with her daughter. The association between Moni and Anthony presents regular paraphernalia
of cross-cultural differences and racism, with the responsibility of ‘originality’ reversed and
applied implicitly to cold England.

However, writing is not something that we encounter everyday. The prose seems to
mimic the rain, sometimes it’s a downpour like when Anthony and Moni meet and fall in love.
Sometimes, it is light like when Moni is feeding the doves in England and puttingwater in the
bird bath and she remembers her grandmother’s words.

The list of Diaspora writers is very lengthy and elaborative. The roots of Diaspora spreading
from time to time had been representing their home land culture and their nostalgia through
their works.The readers of such literature sporadically experience different and relatively
unpalatable trends of life in alien lands. At times, they even identify themselves withprotagonists
and other influential characters in the works. The fundamental element and innate soul in
ordinary Indian families under no circumstances are eclipsed by almost all writers.The
indissoluble attachment to one’s ground and roots is the common under current in allworks

1.7 Check Your Progress

1. What was the Royal Charter?

2. Who was Warren Hastings?

3. Wrrite a note on the founding of the East India Company.

4. What happened during the early Voyapes of the East India Company.

5. How did the British overcome the

5. How did the British overcome the Portuguese in India?

6. Write a note on the Seven Years War.

7. What is the William Pitt Act of 1784?

8. How was the Company taken over by the Crown?

36

9. What were sme of the famous works of

a) Raja Rao b) Bhahari Bhattacharya

c) R.K. Narayanan d) Mult Raj Anand

10. What was the unique position held by R.K. Narayanan?

11. Who were the trinity of Indian Writing in English?

12. Which novels of Rushdie is written in three parts?

13. List some of the women writers of India.

14. Write a note on Nayantara Sahgal.

15. What was the Charter Act of 1813?

16. What were Macaulay’s arguments is favour of English?

17. List some of the famous Indian diasporic writer

1.8 Review Questions

1. When was the British East India Company formed?

2. Write a brief essay on the expanion of the East India Company.

3. What was the legacy left behind by the East India Company.

4. Elaborate on the nativation of English.

5. Write in detail about Macaulay’s Minute.

6. Write in details about the history of Indian Writing in English.

7. How did the freedom movement influence literature?

8. Write an essay on Women writers in Indian writing in English.

 37

1.9 WEB SOURCES

 https://learn.culturalindia.net/brief-history-british-east-india-company-essay.html

 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-literature/the-introduction-to-indian-writing-
in-english-english-literature-essay.php

 http://www.postcolonialweb.org/india/hohenthal/5.5.html

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
233595541_Nativization_of_English_in_India_and_its_effect_on_multilingualism

 https://www.scribd.com/document/284928001/Nativisation-of-English

 http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=538

 http://publications.anveshanaindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/INDIAN-
DIASPORA-WRITERS%E2%80%93-A-STUDY-1.pdf
38

UNIT - 2
PROSE

Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow
of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the
case of traditional poetry.Prose is ordinary language that follows regular grammatical conventions
and does not contain a formal metrical structure. This definition of prose is an example of
prose writing, as is most human conversation, textbooks, lectures, novels, short stories, fairy
tales, newspaper articles, and essays.

The word “prose” comes from the Latin expression prosaoratio, which means
straightforward or direct speech. Due to the definition of prose referring to straightforward
communication, “prosaic” has come to mean dull and commonplace discourse. When used as
a literary term, however, prose does not carry this connotation.

Prose is a communicative style that sounds natural and uses grammatical structure.
Prose is the opposite of verse, or poetry, which employs a rhythmic structure that does not
mimic ordinary speech. There is, however, some poetry called “prose poetry” that uses elements
of prose while adding in poetic techniques such as heightened emotional content, high frequency
of metaphors, and juxtaposition of contrasting images. Most forms of writing and speaking are
done in prose, including short stories and novels, journalism, academic writing, and regular
conversations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will able to

 Develop language ability.

 Exposure to the style of writing.

 Aspire for better things in life.

 Understand English in the conversational style.

 Enrich active and passive vocabulary.

 39

Strcutrue
2.1 Introduction

2.2 The World Community - S. Radhakrishnan

2.2.1 Introduction to the Author

2.2.2 Introduction to the Prose

2.2.3 Synopsis

2.3 The Argumentative Indian - Amartyasen

2.3.1 Introduction to the Author

2.3.2 Introduction to the Prose

2.3.3 Synopsis

2.4 Review Questions

2.5 Web Sources

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The second unit introduces the reader to the humongous world of reading and
understanding prose. This unit comprise of two prose works. The World Community by S.
Radhakrishnanand The Argumentative Indian byAmartya Sen. The World Community by
S. Radhakrishnan.”The World Community” emphasizes the need for establishing a world
government. Its great powers in the world must try to establish peace which is essential for the
survival of the human race.The human race is a involved in a new stage of history. The profound
changes, spreading over the whole world. Nuclear weapons threaten the society. This world is
too small for nuclear weapons. Hence we must think calmly and deeply and try to put an end to
this problem. S.Radhakrishnan wishes that issues which were decided by wars so far should
hereafter be decided by other means conflicts and disputes between nations should be settled
by a world organisation. Such world organisation should be provided with powers to maintain
law and order. The present moral social and political conditions of the world have to be altered
to have a world community. The second prose piece The Argumentative Indian by Amartya
Sen.The Argumentative Indian has brought together a selection of writings from Sen that outline
40

the need to understand contemporary India in the light of its long argumentative tradition. The
understanding and use of this argumentative tradition are critically important, Sen argues, for
the success of India’s democracy, the defense of its secular politics, the removal of inequalities
related to class, caste, gender and community, and the pursuit of sub-continental peace.

2.2 THE WORLD COMMUNITY - S. Radhakrishnan

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTHOR

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan(1888 - 1975) was an Indian philosopher and statesman who

served as the President of the nation from 1962 to 1967. Prior to this, he had served as the first
Vice President of India from 1952 to 1962. An educator by profession, he had ventured into
politics quite late in life. Born into a poor Brahmin family in southern India, he grew up to be an
intelligent and bright boy with an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. His conservative father
did not want the boy to learn English and hoped that he would become a priest. But the young
Radhakrishnan excelled in his studies and attended the Madras Christian College on a
scholarship and graduated with a master’s degree in philosophy. He embarked on an academic
career and with time established himself as one of India’s most distinguished 20th century
scholars of comparative religion and philosophy. He was influential in shaping the understanding
of Hinduism, in both India and the West. It was only after India’s independence in 1947 that he
became involved in politics. After representing India at UNESCO, he was made the country’s
first vice president and later the president. His birthday, 5 September, is celebrated in India as
Teachers’ Day.

2.2.2 INTRODUCTION TO PROSE

“The World Community” by Dr.S.Radhakrishnan is a plea to the great powers of the

world to unite under a single umbrella, namely, a world federal government. To achieve this, he
enumerates on the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and wars. According to him, world
peace is not a dream in a shrinking world. It is a necessity, an essential condition for the
survival of the human race. For this, a world federal government is the way out; with powers
limited to establishing and maintaining law and order among the nations of the world.
 41

2.2.3 SYNOPSIS

Wars – An Illegitimate Instrument of Politics:

In World War I, of the ten million people who were killed, 95 per cent were soldiers and
five per cent were civilians. In World War II, of the fifty million people who were killed, 52 per
cent were soldiers and 48 per cent were civilians. In the Korean War, of the nine million killed,
84 per cent were civilians and 16 per cent soldiers. Thus, war has degenerated into mass
murder of the defenceless, women and children. It has become an illegitimate instrument of
politics.

Dangers Posed by Nuclear Weapons:

Nuclear developments have given enough power to the great countries to annihilate the
human race many times over. Politicians have become indifferent to this growing danger. The
apathy and indifference among the masses have resulted in a creeping paralysis of the people.
The building of nuclear armaments means, the destruction of cities, the ruin of countries, the
suffering of millions of human beings and the demoralisation of the world. There is no protection
from nuclear weapons through shelters or emergency regulations.

Alternatives for the Military Methods:

In a world, where peace is becoming more and more precarious, the great powers have
a special responsibility. William James in a famous essay on “The Moral Equivalent of War”
proposed a ‘substitute for war’s disciplinary functions’. It is necessary that we devise alternatives
for the military methods. Issues which were hitherto decided through wars should hereafter be
decided by peaceful means. In political life, we cannot exclude conflicts altogether.

These have to be settled by a world organisation, an international authority. Kant, in his

essay on “Perpetual Peace”, suggested a group of states’. Observing minimal rights of
civilisedbehaviour. He proposed a notion of world citizenship without the support of an overall
sovereignty. World control by a single authority is an illusion. A federal solution is the way out,
a world community which substitutes the processes of law for armed conflicts. Dharma, in
Indian thought means a gathering in, a binding together, integration; adharma, its opposite, is
a scattering out, a falling away, disintegration. Thus, a world federal government capable of
42

establishing and maintaining law and order among the nations of the world is a practical way of
achieving just and lasting peace.

Pre-requisites for a World Community:

For a world authority to be effective, a world understanding is necessary. We should

work for a world community, for, the alternatives are chaos or world tyranny. The Hammurabi
code of the Babylonians, and the Egyptian Book of the Dead contain suggestions of the Ten
Commandments of the Israelites. One of them reads, “Thou shalt not oppress the stranger for
ye were once strangers in Egypt”. Alexander looked upon the whole inhabited world as his
fatherland. All good men are of this world; the wicked are the aliens. Ashoka, Harsha, and
Akbar represent this view of life. By continually dwelling on the selfishness of others, we ourselves
become more selfish. Not by accusing others do we get out of our selfishness, but by purifying
ourselves.

Jesus could not accept the primitive morality of an ‘eye for an eye’. ‘Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself. Return good for evil. Bless those that curse you’, he said. Professor Max
Mueller, who did a great deal for the interpretation of Indian religion to the Western world said
that the aim of human existence was a world community. The real force working for world unity
is man’s inborn compassion for others.

2.3 THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN - AmartyaSen

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTHOR

AmartyaSen ( 1933 ) is a much-admired, award winning economist, writer and philosopher.

A voice of the poor and malnourished, tirelessly engrossed in the problems of the society’s
poorest people, he has devised practical solutions to prevent food shortage and starvation.
This Nobel laureate has helped create the United Nations Human Development Index and was
featured on Time Magazine’s list of ‘World’s 50 Most Influential People Who Matter’. A leading
intellectual, Sen’s books have been translated in more than thirty languages across the world.
Some of his noteworthy publications include, ‘Development as Freedom’, ‘Poverty and Famines:
An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation’, ‘On Economic Inequality’, ‘Inequality Reexamined’,
‘The Argumentative Indian’ and ‘The Idea of Justice’. Currently a Professor of Economics and
 43

Philosophy at Harvard University, Sen has also been a Professor at the London School of
Economics and The University of Oxford. He has won an array of laurels including the Bharat
Ratna, the highest civilian award in India. Committed sincerely to the cause of ending poverty
and deprivation, this celebrated economist, is the sixth Indian to receive a Nobel and the first
Asian recipient of the Economics Prize. To learn more interesting facts about his childhood,
personal life and achievements in the field of writing and academics, scroll down and continue
to read this biography.

2.3.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROSE

Argumentative Indian is a collection of essays by AmartyaSen, an economist and Nobel

Prize winner. It focuses on the ‘Argumentative history of India’. The first essay in this collection
is titled ‘Argumentative Indian’ which comes under the broader heading Voice and Heterodoxy.
This essay explains in detail about contemporary India (2005), tracing back the history from
traditional ancient India.

2.3.3 SYNOPSIS

The essay starts with a negative introduction about India, “Prolixity is not alien to us in
India” with an illustration about the longest speech record set by an Indian, Krishna Menon.
Then this statement is further substantiated from ancient Indian epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata, comparing its length with Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

Dialogue and Significance

From the epics, the argumentative tradition is traced out from the argument of Krishna
and Arjuna that is quoted in Bhagavad Gita. Not only the argument that won but also the other
side of the argument is given the equal significance “A defeated argument that refuses to be
obliterated can remain very alive”.

These dialogues of Krishna and Arjuna is borrowed by European culture and certain
famous personalities like J. Robert Oppenheimer due to its significance. First world borrowing
from the third world that shows ‘the gap that can be filled by borrowing’ in postcolonial reading.
The argument has not lost its significance even in the contemporary time is the assertive
statement of Amartya Sen.
44

Gender, Caste, and Voice

The tradition of arguments is confined to an exclusive part of the male elite, who have
taken the place left by the Britishers in India. Though India is said to be patriarchal, it had and
has women leaders governing the country, that is traced from ancient text Upanisad and Indian
history.

Yet such women leaders are not elected in the US (first world). In the case of caste, the
argument has not come to an end yet. This is centered on ‘Hinduism’, brahmin- dominated
orthodoxy, that the other underprivileged changed their religion and got educated to be privileged.

Democracy as Public Reasoning

Indian democracy is formed by the impact of British, which itself is under queen’s rule.
Definition of democracy is ‘government by discussion’, which was never practiced in India.

As said earlier the privileged upper elite male community occupied the place of Britishers
in independent India and governed it according to their desire. People in India have lost their
argumentative tradition that they accept all policies without questioning it.

Understanding Secularism

India is a secular country that gives place for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Jews, Christians,
Muslims, Parsees, Sikhs, Bahas and others. The origins of all these religions are also discussed
in detail from history.

Account of religion, and anyone is to be allowed to go over to a religion that pleases him’,
is different from that of the west. But Indian secularism has also changed with the rise of
Hindutva and its policies.

Skeptics, Agnostics, and Atheists

All these concepts are also explained by the religious secularism and heterodoxy that is
traced from the traditional past of India. As India has a massive religious literature attempting
to arrive at a solution to the religious problem, which gave rise to these philosophical concepts.
 45

Science, Epistemology, and Heterodoxy

Before the history of scientific contributions across the world began, it has already begun
in India. This can be proved by the history of ancient India. Many philosophical understandings
sprang up in Indian writings before it appeared in the western mind. Yet it was not recognized,
as India is a third world country. Contribution by Indians in trigonometry and astronomy are of
historical importance.

The importance of Arguments

Argumentative heritage of India is needed to look at the impact of different influences

that have shaped India and its traditions. It helped in the development of the democracy,
intellectual and social history of India. The essay ends with a positive note praising the importance
of arguments. Not only India, Indians also develop the developing tradition.

2.4 Review Questions

1. Write an essay on the necessity of ‘The World Community’ according to S. Radhakrishnan?

2. Write a short note on the dangers posed by nuclear weapons.

3. Discuss ‘The World Community’ as a plea to the great powers of the world to unite.

4. Write an essay on the measures suggested by S. Radhakrishnan to bring about world

community.

5. What are the alternatives for the Military Methods suggested by S. Radhakrishnan?

6. Write a note on the exploration of modern culture in “Argumentative Indian”

7. How does the essay “Argumentative Indian” explore the Indian History, Culture and Identity?

8. Enumerate “Argumentative Indian” as a brilliant corrective to the myths surrounding the

homeland of Amartya Sen.

9. How does AmartyaSen bring out the importance of Arguments in his say “Argumentative
Indian”?

10. Explain Secularism as explored in the essay “Argumentative Indian”.

46

2.5 WEB SOURCES

 https://rufusonline.blogspot.com/2005/10/world-community-drsradhakrishnan.html

 https://archive.org/stream/drsradhakrishnan00naga/drsradhakrishnan00naga_djvu.txt

 https://englishsummary.com/argumentative-indian-amartya-sen-summary/

 https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/capsule-review/2006-05-01/argumentative-indian-
writings-indian-history-culture-and-identity
 47

UNIT-3
POETRY

Poetry is a literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by
the use of distinctive style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of literature.Indian
English Poetry is not just a branch of Indian literature in English. It is now an essential part of
Indian- English literature. Infact, it primarily defines Indo-Anglian literature in the sense that
inits birth, Indian-writing in English came to the fore with a globalrecognition. Like American
poetry, Indian English poetry is highly distinctive in various aspects. It is not a product that
sprang into being in a span of a few years or a few decades. It is a well-furnished product,
thoroughly polished from its raw state into itspresent having undergone an evolution for more
than a century sinceits inception in the early nineteenth century.

True to India’s diversity, Indian-English poetry, the product ofIndian soil, is a multicultural,
multi-lingual and multi-racial phenomenon. The varied regions, cultures, races, languages and
religions existing in India contributed amply to the enrichment of Indian-English poetry.

Indian English poet, however, retains his distinctive Indian identity wherein lies his
uniqueness, strength and grandeur. In the early nineteenth century, the poets were severely
assaulted andmercilessly ridiculed for their so called anti-national Anglophile tendencies. They
were condemned and dismissed as the pseudointellectuals caught in Trisanku Swarga belonging
neither to India nor to the western world and were accused of pseudo-Indianism and having
borrowed westernism. Nevertheless, the Indian English Poet quite heroically, weathered all the
humiliations, battles and crises and emerged successful, asserting his Indianness, vindicating
hissterling worth, winning global recognition and reputation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will able to

 Develop the power of imagination.

 Appreciate the nuances of the poem.

 Develop the aesthetic sense.

 Create love for Indian English poetry.

 Enjoy the poem with proper rhythm and intonation.

48

Structure
3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Tiger And The Deer - Sir Aurobindoghosh

3.2.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.2.2 Introduction To The Poem
3.2.3 Summary Of The Poem
3.3 Summer Woods - Sarojini Naidu
3.3.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.3.2 Introduction To The Poem
3.3.3 Summary Of The Poem
3.4 In India - Nissim Ezekiel
3.4.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.4.2 Introduction To The Poem
3.4.3 Summary Of The Poem
3.5 Crab - Arun kolatkar
3.5.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.5.2 Introduction To The Poem
3.5.3 Summary Of The Poem
3.6 Eating Wheat - Vikram Seth
3.6.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.6.2 Introduction To The Poem
3.6.3 Summary Of The Poem
3.7 Fireflies - Manohar shetty
3.7.1 Introduction To The Poet
3.7.2 Introduction To The Poem

3.7.3 Summary Of The Poem

3.8 Review Questions

3.9 Web Sources

 49

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit comprises of six poems The Tiger and the Deer by SirAurobindoGhosh,
Summer Woods by Sarojini Naidu, In India by Nissim Ezekiel, Crab by
ArunKolatkar,Evening wheat by Vikram Sethand Fireflies by ManoharShetty. The Tiger
and the Deeris a poem which explores the contrast between good and evil in the world. The
poet brings out the two contradicting opposites in nature with the images of tiger and deer. The
tiger symbolizes death, darkness and arrogance and the deer innocence, softness and love.
Though the poem opens on a dark note, it ends on a positive note that suffering is not for
eternal. The second poem is Summer Woods. In this poem the poet expresses the escapist
longings of a lonely soul and decadent life of the people. She also fused Indian experiences
with English rhythm. Her expertise in putting Indian village life and its delights into English
verses are praiseworthy.In Indiais the third poem in the list. This poem shows the harmony
between the problems of life. The poem also conveys pictorial quality and therefore shows an
affinity with the visual arts. The poet has given us concrete and vivid pictures of a city of sick
people. The poet speaks ironically about the physical environment and mental sickness of the
metropolis, what gives an abiding interest to the poem is Ezekiel’s direct and simple style.Crabby
ArunKolatkaris the fourth poem in the unit. Penned down with fascinatingly scary lines, this
poem awakes our intrinsic emotions in a most delicate way possible. The very thought of
realizing the arrival from the world of crab to the reality creates a fear of losing our home and
that’s how the poet beautifully synced to the alienation of one. Evening wheat by Vikram
Seth the fifth poem of the unit explains about natural beauty of wheat especially at the evening
time. His simplicity of style and unassuming tone of his poetry can be appreciated in this
poem.Fireflies by Manohar Shetty mark the end of this unit. This poem reflects on childhood
memories. But these memories are expressed in a tragic sense. The child who used to get the
insects trapped has now got himself trapped in the web of life’s complexities and falsities.

3.2 THE TIGER AND THE DEER - Sir Aurobindo Ghosh

3.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

AurobindoGhose, (1872 – 1950) better known as Sri Aurobindo is known to the entire
world as a great scholar, a national leader and a spiritual guru. He attained his basic as well as
higher education from the United Kingdom. His literary excellence had been exemplary and
50

brought him innumerable acclaims. He returned to India as a civil servant to the ‘Maharaja of
State of Baroda’. Sri Aurobindo’s participation in the Indian national movement was short but
impactful. His writings promoted the idea of complete independence for India thereby landing
him in jail for political unrest. He came to limelight with his active participation in the freedom
struggle against the British in India but he gradually evolved to become a spiritual and yogic
guru. Some powerful visions backed by spiritualism encouraged him to move to Pondicherry
where he worked on human evolution through spiritual activities such as ‘Integral Yoga’. Having
chosen the mystical path for the rest of his life, he collaborated with people with similar pursuits.

3.2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

Aurobindo’s The Tiger and the Deer is a short didactic poem written in 1930, revised in
1942. It is a contrast between good and evil, innocence and experience, and life and death.
Generally, people are afraid of the tiger. They hate it because it is rough and dangerous. In the
poem, the world of tiger stands for death, darkness and arrogance. The innocent deer drinks
water from the great pool in the forest. It is unaware of the tiger’s plan of attack. The tiger
crouches slowly to attack the deer; the fierce tiger has leaped up over the deer and torn it to
pieces. The deer died pathetically thinking about its mate.The poet closes the poem with a
note of optimism. He says that in spite of the various blows of death and darkness, life is a
thing to be enjoyed. Sufferings are not eternal.

3.2.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

Sri Aurobindo is one of the supreme masters in Indian English Literature. His poetry may
be divided into two broad groups, i.e., Poetry of action and Poetry of meditation.His short poem
“The Tiger and the Deer” is a philosophical and didactic poem. It is a contrast between good
and evil, innocence and experience, and life and death. It is a poem which deals with life and
death through the symbols of the deer and the tiger.

The poem begins with the description of the tiger, who is crouching and slouching brilliantly
through the green forest. It has gleaming eyes, mighty chest and soft soundless paws.

Brilliant, couching, slouching, what crept through the green heart of the forest.

Gleaming eyes and mighty chest and soft soundless paws of grandeur and murder?
 51

These opening lines show the balanced approach of Aurobindo’s views about the tiger.
Generally, people are afraid of the tiger and they hate it because it is rough, savage and
dangerous. But the poet’s attitude towards the tiger is both positive and negative. The world of
tiger stands for death, darkness and arrogance.

The innocent deer drinks water from the great pool in the forest. It is unaware of the
tiger’s plan of attack. The tiger crouches slowly to attack the deer;

… But the great beast crouched and crept, crept and crept and crouched a last time,
noiseless fatal.

Then the fierce tiger has leaped up over the deer and torn it to pieces. The deer died
pathetically thinking about its mate.

- Destroyed, the mild harmless beauty by the strong cruel beauty in Nature.

The deer in the poem suggests innocence, softness and love. The killing of the deer by
the tiger suggests the death and destruction of healthy values of life by the cruelty of modern
civilization.On the social and historical plane, it suggests the cremation of old ideals and traditions
by the fire of modern science and fashion. On the ethical and mystical plane, it suggests the
mass neglect of the voice of soul by the various waves of mind.

The poet closes the poem with a note of optimism. He says that in spite of the various
blows of death and darkness, life is a thing to be enjoyed. Sufferings are not eternal. He
teaches the lesson that those who harm others will be destroyed like the mammoth. The
mammoth shook the plains of Asia once upon a time. But it is extinct now. Since the tiger kills
and harms other animals the same fate of mammoth would come to it. But then the deer would
drink without any fear in the cool ponds of the forest. The poet beautifully tells,

Still then shall the beautiful wild deer drink from the coolness of great pools in the leaves
shadow.

The mighty perish in their might;

The Slain survive the Slayer.

Thus, the poem expresses the poet’s longing for a peaceful and harmless world.
52

Here, the last alliterative line suggests the strong optimism of the poet. The sentence
has the theme of blood and murder; but the language is not cacophonic. The author has
deliberately created music and melody in this sentence. It shows that in spite of death and
desolation, life is a thing to be enjoyed. The phrase ‘coolness of great pools’ suggests love and
sympathy, peace and prosperity.

It is interesting to note that in this poem, the poet has presented a balanced picture of
nature where both nectar and poison are equally essential for the existence of life. Everything
which God has made has some meaning. Perhaps this is way in this poem he has praised
even the cruel beauty of nature. There are some certain terms in this poem which very well
show the poet’s impartial attitude to life and death, light and darkness. The poet uses the
words ‘strong beauty’, ‘soft paws’, ‘mighty chest’, ‘gleaming eyes’, etc. for the ferocious tiger.
On the other hand, he uses some negative words e.g. ‘wild deer’ two times for the innocent
deer. Here this rich philosophy reminds us of the Vedas and Upanishads and also of the last
poems of John Keats where the darkness has also a fruitful meaning. In “Ode to Nightingale”
Keats uses the phrases like ‘verdurous glooms’, ‘embalmed darkness’, ‘easeful death’, etc. for
showing death as part and parcel of life.

Check Your Progress - A

1. What message does Aurobindo Ghosh try to convey or help you understand from the
poem “The Tiger and the Deer”?

2. Discuss “The Tiger and the Deer” by Aurobindo Ghosh as a philosophical poem.

3. How does Shri Aurobindo emphasise on the healthy values of life in the poem “The Tiger
and the Deer”?

4. What is the symbolic significance of the tiger in “The Tiger and the Deer”?

5. How does the poem “The Tiger and the Deer” reflect on the cruelty of modern life?

3.3 SUMMER WOODS - Sarojini Naidu

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

Sarojini Naidu,(1879 –1949) also known as Sarojini Chattopadhyaya, was a famous Indian
poet and a major freedom fighter who went on to become the first Indian woman to be appointed
 53

the president of the Indian National Congress and the Governor of any state in India. Most of
all, she was a noted child prodigy and a master of the children’s literature. Naidu was given a
sobriquet Bharat Kokila (The Nightingale of India) on account of her beautiful poems and
songs. Some of her best books that established her as a potent writer include The Golden
Threshold, The Gift of India, and The Broken Wing. An active participant of the Indian
Independence movement, Naidu joined the national movement taking Gandhi’s call and joined
him in the popular Salt March to Dandi. With the Indian Independence in 1947, Sarojini Naidu
was made the Governor of the Uttar Pradesh in the wake of her contribution to the movement.

The Nightingale of India, Sarojini Naidu was a prolific writer and poet. The first volume of
her poems. The Golden Threshold was published in 1905, after which two more collections
The Bird of Time and The Broken Wing arrived in 1912 and 1917 respectively. Meanwhile in
1916, she authored and published a biography of Muhammad Ali Jinnah entitled “The
Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”. Other acclaimed poems that came following are The
Wizard Mask and A Treasury of Poems. Other selected works written by her include The Magic
Tree and The Gift of India. She was given the name Bharat Kokila on account of the beautiful
and rhythmic words of her poems that could be sung as well.

3.3.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

Summer Woods narrates the romantic longings of the protagonist to get away from the
drudgery of everyday life. It resembles the poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree by WB Yeats. The
poem begins with the poet’s expression of boredom with the city life and the desire to go to the
Woods. Woods are imagined as the opposite of the city- a place where human life is
uninterrupted. The poet invites her beloved to come to the woods and enjoy the life among the
trees. She paints life in the woods in highly sensuous verses and elaborates the ecstasies the
woods offer. The poet tempts the lover to come to the woods to listen to the songs of birds, the
fragrance of the jasmine, bath in the river where golden panthers drink etc. She wishes to live
with the wildness of the woods with her instincts. In the last part of the poem, she canonizes
her love and equates their love with that of Radhika and Krishna. She also invokes Indian
myths to express the depth of her passion.
54

3.3.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

Sarojini Naidu is a poet of ardour, agony and ecstasy. In her perfect lyricism and mellifluous
melody, she is indeed the Nightingale of India. Her poetic sensibility is essentially romantic. In
‘Summer Woods’ she communicates her aversion to the artificiality of the pseudo-modernism
that she thrived in. She seeks to discover refuge in Nature from the monotony of her existence
and her mechanical routine.

She begins by ranting that she is sick of ‘painted roofs and soft and silken floors’ or the
mendaciousness of the so-called civilized and sophisticated life. She probably refers to the
process of automation and industrial revolution. On the other hand, she craves for summer-
houses with over-hanging canopies of bright-red Gulmohars. These appear lovely and
enchanting when accompanied by the breeze-like wind. She is also fed up of strife and song
and festival and fame. The affectation and luxury of the contemporary times seems too hollow
for her tastes. They only leave in her a sense of void. She yearns to retreat into the forests
where the cassia flourish and aspires to dwell in the rapturous and enthralling atmosphere
there.

She implores her lover to recoil with her to the pastoral vicinity of Nature where passion
and instinct reign over calculation and manipulation. It is where the koels call to each other call
to each other from glades and glens. Their voices enflame our passions .She wants to let go of
the flamboyance of social living, and the ostentation of public life. She ardently desires to put
her worries aside and lie in the company of her beloved below the entangled boughs of
tamarind,molsari and neem that assuage their fatigue with their natural shades.

The poetess wants to join their brow with jasmines. They long to play on carved flutes to
awaken the slumbering serpents among the thick banyan roots .The serpent has phallic
connotations .The poetess has utilized it as a symbol of phallic fear in a village song. Later at
dusk, she wishes to roam with her lover along the bank of the river and bathe in water lily pools
where golden panthers drink.

In the concluding stanza,

Companions of the lustrous dawn, gay comrades of the night,

 55

Like Krishna and like Radhika, encompassed with delight.

The poetess tells her love that they should lie with love-voiced silences in the deep
blossoming woods. These love voiced silences are more eloquent than simulated speeches
and affected dialogues. They are companions of the bright day, merry comrades of the night
and shall be encompassed with delight like Krishna and Radhika.

The transition in the three stanzas from day to dusk to night, sends out the impression
that she wants to spend all of her time with her beloved. In the movement from stanza to
stanza, she transcends from vegetation to animal existence, and then further to the divine level
of Krishna and Radha. It signifies the elevation of her spirit. At another level she transcends
from refined reality to the raw reality of myth(in the form of Krishna and Radha). This appears
to be her panacea to the Nihilism that exists in the modern living, this is her concept of
existentialist escapism.

Check Your Progress - B

1. How does Sarojini Naidu portray the relationship of man with nature in her poem?

2. Write an appreciation of the poem “Summer Woods” by Sarojini Naidu?

3. How does Sarojini Naidu explore her concept of existentialist escapism in the poem
“Summer Woods”?

4. How does Sarojini Naidu portray the relationship of man with nature in her poem?

5. Write a short note on the themes employed by the poet in the poem “Summer Woods”.

3.4 IN INDIA - Nissim Ezekiel

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

Nissim Ezekiel(1924 –2004) was an Indian Jewish poet, playwright, editor and art-critic.
He was a foundational figure in postcolonial India’s literary history, specifically for Indian writing
in English.

He was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1983 for his Poetry collection, “Latter-
Day Psalms”, by the Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy of Letters.
56

Ezekiel’s first book, The Bad Day, appeared in 1952. He published another volume of
poems, The Deadly Man in 1960. After working as an advertising copywriter and general manager
of a picture frame company (1954–59), he co-founded the literary monthly Jumpo, in 1961. He
became art critic of The Names of India (1964–66) and edited Poetry India (1966–67). From
1961 to 1972, he headed the English department of Mithibai College, Bombay. The Exact
Name, his fifth book of poetry was published in 1965. During this period he held short-term
tenure as visiting professor at University of Leeds (1964) and University of Pondicherry (1967).
In 1967, while in America, he experimented with LSD. In 1969, Writers Workshop, Kozhikode
published his The Damn Plays. A year later, he presented an art series of ten programmes for
Indian television. In 1976, he translated Jawarharlal Nehru poetry from Marathi, in collaboration
with VrindaNabar, and co-edited a fiction and poetry anthology. His poem The Night of the
Scorpion is used as study material in Indian and Columbian schools. Ezekiel also penned
poems in ‘Indian English’ like the one based on instruction boards in his favourite Irani café.

3.4.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

Nissim Ezekiel was one of the seminal figures in postcolonial history, so his poetry is
quite often read in that context. His poem “In India” creates an ultimate reality without delving
into traditional stereotypes. He brings out very important social ideas in his poems. For example,
he delineates the problematization of the usage of English in India as well as the politics of
power that are implicit in this culture.

3.4.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

Nissim Ezekiel is easily one of the most notable writers of the verse of historical importance
in Indian English Literature. His poetry having many facts has enriched Indo-English poetry
and gave a new dimension to it by extending its scope and range. Ezekiel has made a substantial
contribution by having written poems depicting Indian life in vivid and realistic manners. Many
are the poems in a witty and satirical vein exposing the sight happening routinely in city life.
The poem entitled “In India” is an outstanding example of the prevalent absurdities showing
the ugliness of modern life. The use of realistic imaginary sharpens the effect and provides an
authenticity to his somber voice.
 57

Ezekiel enumerates the city sights focusing our attention on the poverty of the people
represented by the beggars’ hawkers, pavement sleepers, and the dwellers in the slums. The
poet draws our attention to the burning of women who did not bring enough dowry and to the
virgins who are frightened of being molested by rogues and ruffians. Children lose their innocence
and purity while animals get no respite from the brutality of men. Noise and pollution fill up the
major space of living. Suffering is all pervasive and the entire canvas of the city imparts
commotion. In the poems related to India and especially city life, Ezekiel appears more of a
critic and a sensor than an admirer or champion of those condition of life. The human souls
choked by immense misery and gods afraid to tread such a horrible landscape, the poem
would but seek an escape from the suffocating atmosphere of an Indian metropolis. In another
poverty poem, Ezekiel depicts the inhabitants as sick people and sickness seems to be having
a death-wish.

In fact, he self-confronted the fallen world and stood in ironic contrast to the ideal world.
The poem refers to his personal disgust in having to witness these sights. At the same time,
Ezekiel tries to explore the labyrinths of his own mind as well as the minds of others in order to
achieve a feeling of stability and comfort. He presents the beggars and the pavement sleepers
but he also examines his own plight, saying.

“I ride my elephant of thoughts

A Cezanne slung around my neck”.

Many of his poems ridicule the follies of the Indian people and his chief weapon of attack
is irony. He does not feel shy of poking fun at the Indians for their hypocrisy and their pretense
at piety. People belonging to different religious sects indulged in all sorts of cheap and nasty
deeds but never missed their prayers. The Roman Catholic boys confessed their amorous
games but hastened to prayers. The Anglo-Indian of Christian faith cherished a strong hatred
for the Jew but never hesitated in drinking whiskey in their den in the company of the Muslim
boys for whom carousal is a cardinal sin. The biting sarcasm becomes more ludicrous when
the poet sees them creeping in slowly before or after their prayers in the Jewish hideout.

The life in the city maintains its own way of entertainment and excitement. Party hopping
is one of the prime hobbies of these people who exude global bonhomie on such occasions.
58

Women with semi-bare bosom bring charm and glamour to these celebrations. But the wines
of India cut a sorry figure, the shy women are complete mistful in the jovial Jamboree. But
husbands make the most of the merriment because they have learned the art of flirtation.
There is also the intellectual Indian girl who thinks and talks big. Art and literature is the subject
of discussion with the English loss. She also highlights the necessity of progress which India
needs. In the background, there are bottles of beer and music system. Her great expectations
are suddenly frustrated when she finds her relationship with the boss finally reduced to the
basic level of man-woman connection. The girl leaves the courteous British boss after possessing
the gift of a safety pin. These people can at best be described as men of straw, having no
direction or sensibility.

As a matter of fact, Ezekiel hates the many unpleasant and disgusting aspects of city life
in India yet he feels tempted to improve the condition of life which confirms his commitment to
this country. In another poem, he speaks that the city remains within him wherever he goes.

Ezekiel’s aim has been to write clear and direct poetry. “In India” show harmony between
the life lined and the poem written. In the poem, he adopts a conversational style. The poem
conveys pictorial quality and therefore shows an affinity with the visual arts. He has given us
concrete and vivid pictures of a city of sick people. The poet speaks ironically about the physical
environment and mental sickness of the metropolis, what gives an abiding interest to the poem
is Ezekiel’s direct and simple style.

Check Your Progress - C

1. Evaluate the use of nature imagery in Ezekiel’s poem.

2. Write about the unpleasant parts of the city as explored in the poem “In India”.

3. How does Ezekiel portray the attitude of the British Boss towards the Indian working
women?

4. How does Ezekiel reveal the significance of ordinariness in his poem “In India”?

5. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “ In India”.

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3.5 CRAB - Arun Kolatkar

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

Arun Balkrishna Kolatkar [1932-2004] was an Indian poet who wrote in both Marathi and
English. He was winner of the Commonwealth Writer’s Prize in 1977 with his first book of
poetry in English. Kolatkar was one of the post-independence bilingual poets who combined
their mother tongues with international styles to create new poetic traditions.

His poems found humour in many everyday matters. His poetry had an influence on
modern Marathi poets. His first book of English poetry, Jejuri, is a collection 31 poems about a
visit to a religious shrine of the same name Jejuri in Maharashtra. That book won the
Commonwealth Writers’ Prize in 1977.

His ‘Marathi’ poems of the 1950s and 1960s are written “in the Bombay argot of the
migrant working classes and the underworld, part Hindi, part Marathi. His Marathi verse collection
BhijkiVahi won a SahityaAkademi Award in 2005. His Collected Poems in English, edited by
Arvind Krishna Mehrotra, was published posthumously in Britain by Bloodaxe Books in 2010.

3.5.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

Arun Balakrishna Kolatkar, a Sahitya Akademi Awardee is basically a Marathi poet, who
then ventured into English and influenced many modern poets. His writings which had some
unusual connections unlike other poems always had a classy Indian writing in a complicated
way yet relatable. One such Marathi poem “Khekde” was translated into English in the name
of “Crab”.

3.5.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

Crab is one of his early poetry which was an experimental one that brings out the depth
of one’s perceptive nature to light. It’s a surrealist evocation that figures out the truths of alienation
and latent fears. Alienation here is understood as the isolation one loses the connection and
path to the normal reality, the opposite of the imaginations.

The poet beautifully sows the thought to dig out one’s poetic self by sprinkling the words
which tunes the reader to search for the crabs right after as the poem begins :
60

“Look Look

Just look at them

The Crabs,

They are two of them.”

And the crabs are searched by us which unconsciously becomes the act out of curiosity
that exhibits the unusual side of this poem. The poet makes you beleive that there are two
crabs and questions you about its looks and describes the way they look. He says they look
naturally, closer to the reality, nothing artificial. He inscribes the beauty of the way the crabs
looks at us, within.

Their blinks even cannot be witnessed by us, quotes the poet. He announces
enthusiastically that there are two crabs, and introduces as if they have arrived for us to look at
them. He is awestruck by their aura and asking the readers to sink in it as well. The crabs are
existing at an angle of hundred and sixty degrees one to right side and the other to the left. At
this point of the poem, the crabs are glued towards us and already set to make something
happen and for a minute they find our inner introvert nature so that we are equally care only
about their existence. And then there comes the extremely frightening words that they might
eat our own eyes and that can happen any time, which prepares us for a deadly experience
that explains enough about the crabs’ capability.

But the poet asks us to chill down and sarcastically convinces says it can happen anytime
but not just immediately and there is no necessity to get scared. Here he takes us to the dark
world of questions like What if the crabs really eat our eye, which spontaneously creates a fear
of blindness both physically and mentally? After winning these fears of the readers, the poet
asks to turn the head towards the opposite side of the crabs’ direction which is none other than
us. He complicates the fear more badly by inverting the direction from the crabs, the world he
created for the readers to enjoy for a period of time and comments that those crabs came from
us, from our heads says he.

This aura of the shock created by the poet stands still and makes us realize the
transformation to the other world, the loss of track to our very own reality. He scares us a bit
 61

when he asks “Where else do you think the crabs had come from?” and shocks us, the readers
straight into pendulum of a simple yet scary experience to the other world. And in the concluding
lines of the poem, it makes sense that the crabs have said to come from one’s head itself but
indeed it was always there from the very initial point. By the poet’s prolific inclusions of inextricable
metaphors and metonymies where the outside world disintegrates, he manifests the fear of
settling into the unconscious world where one is in fright that those crabs might eat the eyes.
But at the end, it’s us; it’s our own mind that explains the nature of one’s whimsical wayward
emotions. Kolatkar’s poem the Gab stands out among the other poems in his collection on
account of its extreme symbolism.

Check Your Progress - D

1. Bring out the uniqueness of the poem “Crab”.

2. Bring out the revelation of world by Arun Kolatkar

3. Explore the importance of symbolism in the poem.

4. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Crab”.

5. Explore symbolism in the poem “Crab”.

3.6 EVENING WHEAT - Vikram Seth

3.6.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

Vikram Seth (1952)is an Indian novelist, poet, and travel writer, best known for his epic
novel ‘A Suitably Boy’. He has been in the field of writing for more than three decades and is
regarded as one of the most influential writers of the modern era. Vikram Seth was born in
Kolkata, India and studied in India, before going to England for higher studies. He graduated
from Corpus Christi College, Oxford and did his master’s in economics from Stanford University,
U.S.A. before embarking on a literary career. His first book, a collection of poems, titled
‘Mappings’ did not get much attention but he came into attention with his second book ‘From
Heaven Lake’ which chronicled his journey from China to India. The novel ‘The Golden Gate’
published in 1986 made him one of the most highly acclaimed novelists of his time and the
book won him plenty of accolade from readers as well as critics. However, it was his novel ‘A
62

Suitable Boy’ that really catapulted him into the league of the most well-known novelists of his
time and remains his most famous work. The novel is one of the longest novels written in the
English language and is regarded as a modern classic due to the range of topics that it touched
upon.

3.6.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

The poem “Evening Wheat” mirrors about Seth’s writing style. His poetry structures were
even compared with of Leo Tolstoy’s and Charles Dickens’s. His way of writing is such that it
can be labeled clear and easy to understand and he creates positivity as a whole picture by
word usage. Mastering poetry is never a cake walk and Seth says it well with his joyful use of
language and mastery of irony. His poems are mostly influenced by the surroundings and how
he is able to picturize beauty in everything around him. He takes his inspiration from different
literatures especially Russian and Greek but still remains an Indian writer at heart.

3.6.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

While Seth’s is thematically a postmodernist, simplicity of style and the unassuming tone
of his poetry can be noted well. His sense of humor; finding of sheer joy in small daily moments
and strong sense of irony speaks about Seth’s ability for identifying the beauty of anything and
everything. He not just wants to enjoy it himself but makes efforts to celebrate it with every
other soul as well; We can sense the commitment and sincerity towards his emotions which is
simply beautiful and holistic.

One such happening has been recorded in this poem “Evening Wheat”. It reflects his
concern to make the readers enjoy the beauty in small things while most of us are attracted to
bigger stuffs and go in search of complicated meanings but Seth welcomes us all to a much
simpler world yet beautiful through this poem.

As the poem begins :

“ Evening is the best time for wheat

Toads croak.
 63

Children ride buffaloes home for supper

The last loads are shoulder-borne.”

By this, we could draw out that it happens in a countryside ‘s dusk time. He sets up the
atmosphere right by opening the curtains by quoting that the evening is the best time for the
wheat to get portrayed, to grow, to be there.

He re-confirms the evening dusky time by nailing hard his aestheticism towards the
children’s procession for their supper time in buffaloes in the countryside. As a last leg, the field
workers were also done for that day as well and begun their journey back home with shoulder
full, explains the poet. The readers are toned right to the dusky evening period where every
motion gets back to a rest point in a subtle way,a kind where the target for the day is done. And
then the poet takes us to the wheat which is in golden color, he is so very much stunned by its
charisma, texture and its color which is usually ignored by the average crowd but not by the
soulful ones. He does not even want to look at the other side where there is emerald rice which
actually shines a lot more than any golden wheat. But the poet refuses to come out of the
feeling of that dark golden wheat which that exhibits his childlike nature.

He makes the relationship between the wheat’s existence and his connection of love
towards it very pure, which makes him forget the originally shining emerald rice. After all this at
the end he reveals that not only him but there might be a stray pig from the brigades which may
also enjoy this whole incident subtly. He has a hope that there might be another twin soul like
him who enjoys the same things as him, who has a similar thirst to attain the beauty of simple
little things aesthetically and get satisfied in nature.

Vikram Seth’s ideology of bringing out the little happiness in an easier way in an
understandable content makes his writing stands out. The effort to spread the joyful nature just
by watching a wheat exists.
64

Check Your Progress - E

1. Justify the title of the poem “Evening Wheat”.

2. Summarize the poem “Evening Wheat”.

3. “And Wheat sags with a late gold” - Explain.

4. How does the poet describe the beauty of the Evening Wheat?

5. Vikram Seth, a poet of nature. Explain.

3.7 FIREFLIES - ManoharShetty

3.7.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

ManoharShetty(1953)is a Goa-based poet, who has eight books of poems to his credit
and is considered one of the prominent Indian poets writing in the English language.

He has been a Senior Fellow with the SahityaAkademi, the Indian academy of arts and
the letters, and Shetty’s work is found in several anthologies, including The Oxford India
Anthology of Twelve Modern Indian Poetsedited by Arvind Krishna Mehrotra and anthologies
edited by Eunice de Souza, Vilas Sarang and JeetThayil.

He has published five books of poems including Domestic Creatures (Oxford University
Press, New Delhi). His new book is Body Language (Poetrywala, 2012). In the UK his poems
have appeared in London Magazine, Poetry Review, Wasafiri and Poetry Wales. He has edited
a special edition on English language poets of India for Poetry Wales. In the United States his
poems have been published in Chelsea, Rattapallax, Fulcrum, Shenandoah, The Common,
The Baffler, Atlanta Review and New Letters, besides Helix in Australia. Several anthologies
feature his work, notably The Oxford-India Anthology of Twelve Modern Indian Poets (edArvind
Krishna Mehrotra, OUP, N Delhi) and in anthologies edited by Eunice de Souza and Vilas
Sarang. His poems have been translated into Italian, Finnish, German, Slovenian and Marathi.
Shetty has been a HomiBhabha and Senior SahityaAkademi Fellow. He was also awarded a
Fellowship by FundacaoOriente.
 65

3.7.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM

Reflections on childhood constitute the subject of many of Shetty’s poems. And it is not
always found that Shetty necessarily idealizes childhood.Recollection of childhood here speaks
of a tragic sense. The child who used to get the insects trapped has now got himself trapped in
the web of life’s complexities and falsities. Trapping is found to be a recurrent metaphor in the
poetic oeuvre of Manohar Shetty. In this world of neo-colonialism, open market and globalization,
each human individual finds himself or herself trapped in an overwhelming trap, working
cinematically everywhere in the world. Shetty’s “firefly” in that sense has become a metaphor
of globalised man trapped in the web of information explosion.

3.7.3 SUMMARY of the Poem

Poetry from the perspective of Manohar Shetty is the art of telling details coiled around a
central core of memory and emotion. This poet does not take refuge in huge, all meaning
ambiguity and rhetoric. His art is exact. Creatures, from the spider to the king cobra to a
peacock is observed in Shetty’s poetic world.

“Fireflies”, is a poem about childhood memories of trapping and caging fireflies. This
introduces several of Shetty’s main themes, including the problem of growing up and the contrast
between the attractiveness of the outside world and its reality when seen closely and the way
that routines of adult life kill their spontaneity. Memories of past experience are brought into the
present to become the subject for reflection. The child’s cruelty towards the firefly is innocent
as the child is only aware of a desired attractiveness. The adult, is knowing by caged into a
routine made necessary by the economics of survival is no longer innocent and he himself is
like the trapped insects.

“I felt nothing then,

Only a small pang for the loss

Of a schoolboy’s ornament.

But now, traveling my daily groove

In the hunt for food and habitat

I remember their trapped blank lights.

66

Shetty’s fireflies are the nightingales of disillusioned experience, observed closely they
are found disappointing insects that soon die”. But they represent the active, attractive, free,
natural world of childhood. With the shift from child to adulthood the hunt changes from youthful
illusions of ‘emerald embers’, to learning the reality that attracted is merely an insect and life
will not consist of a deadening routine. Fireflies is unusual in that the child, though innocent, is
a hunter and the child’s hunt un-necessarily kills what is attractive. Youth in Shetty’s poem is
not joyful.

The poem should be considered for their pictorial quality, not their technical
accomplishment. They show what a great extent his verification is occupied by the animal
imagery. They form his major concerns. These images are not mere external ornaments. They
originate from the force of the themes in the poem. They are typical of Shetty’s ingenuity. His
similes and metaphors also originate in animal world. In short, Shetty is master of striking
simile and metaphor. The recurring motif in Shetty’s poetic world is animals. These acquire
human countenances in his poems. They symbolize human suffering and joys. However, the
keynote in Shetty’s poems is positive and assuring. Experience helps people to learn and gives
them an opportunity to see life with greater profundity and scope. His poems assure us of the
process of humanization of the animals. The activities of animals and human are part and
parcel of the great movement of nature. His verse reflects concern for the preservation of
nature, but also a confidence in its ability to heal itself and recover from damage inflicted by
man.

Check Your Progress - F

1. Critically analyse the childhood experience of ManoharShetty in his poem Fireflies?

2. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Fireflies.”

3. “I felt nothing then,Only a small pang for the loss Of a schoolboy’s ornament.” Comment.

4. Enumerate the recurring motif in Shetty’s poem “Fireflies.”

5. What is the main theme employed by ManoharShetty in the poem “Fireflies”?

 67

3.8 Review Questions

1. What message does Aurobindo Ghosh try to convey or help you understand from the
poem “The Tiger and the Deer”?

2. Discuss “The Tiger and the Deer” by Aurobindo Ghosh as a philosophical poem.

3. How does Shri Aurobindo emphasise on the healthy values of life in the poem “The Tiger
and the Deer”?

4. What is the symbolic significance of the tiger in “The Tiger and the Deer”?

5. How does the poem “The Tiger and the Deer” reflect on the cruelty of modern life?

6. How does Sarojini Naidu portray the relationship of man with nature in her poem?

7. Write an appreciation of the poem “Summer Woods” by Sarojini Naidu?

8. How does Sarojini Naidu explore her concept of existentialist escapism in the poem
“Summer Woods”?

9. How does Sarojini Naidu portray the relationship of man with nature in her poem?

10. Write a short note on the themes employed by the poet in the poem “Summer Woods”.

11. Evaluate the use of nature imagery in Ezekiel’s poem.

12. Write about the unpleasant parts of the city as explored in the poem “In India”.

13. How does Ezekiel portray the attitude of the British Boss towards the Indian working
women?

14. How does Ezekiel reveal the significance of ordinariness in his poem “In India”?

15. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “ In India”.

16. Bring out the uniqueness of the poem “Crab”.

17. Bring out the revelation of world by Arun Kolatkar

18. Explore the importance of symbolism in the poem.

19. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Crab”.

20. Explore symbolism in the poem “Crab”.

68

21. Justify the title of the poem “Evening Wheat”.

22. Summarize the poem “Evening Wheat”.

23. “And Wheat sags with a late gold” - Explain.

24. How does the poet describe the beauty of the Evening Wheat?

25. Vikram Seth, a poet of nature. Explain.

26. Critically analyse the childhood experience of ManoharShetty in his poem Fireflies?

27. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Fireflies.”

28. “I felt nothing then,Only a small pang for the loss Of a schoolboy’s ornament.” Comment.

29. Enumerate the recurring motif in Shetty’s poem “Fireflies.”

30. What is the main theme employed by ManoharShetty in the poem “Fireflies”?

3.9 WEB SOURCES

 https://www.englishnoteshelper.com/2018/08/in-india-poem-by-nissim-ezekiel-
summary.html

 http://rukhaya.com/poetry-analysis-sarojini-naidus-summer-woods/

 https://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/seth-1995-collected-poems.html

 https://www.enotes.com/topics/vikram-seth/critical-essays

 http://www.academia.edu/27504542/The_Tiger_and_the_Deer_by_Maharshi_Aurobindo

 http://postmodernbanglapoetry.blogspot.com/2013/04/an-explorative-self-in-poetry-
of.html

 https://www.studocu.com/en/document/university-of-delhi/english/mandatory-
assignments/arun-kolatkar-as-a-modernist-poet/1775671/view
 69

UNIT – 4
DRAMA

In literature, a drama is the portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events through the

performance of written dialog (either prose or poetry). Dramas can be performed on stage, on
film, or the radio. Dramas are typically called plays, and their creators are known as “playwrights”
or “dramatists.”Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance.
It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will able to

 Deliver audience-appropriate theatrical presentations.

 Acquire and develop dramaturgical skills.

 Analyse the character critically

 Comprehend and analyze historical movements in dramatic literature and practice.

 Learn the theatre techniques.

Summary
4.1 Introduction

4.2 Dance Like A Man – Mahesh Dattani

4.2.1 Introduction To The Author

4.2.2 Introduction To The Drama

4.2.3 Synopsis

4.3 Review Questions

4.4 Web Sources

70

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces the play ‘Dance like a Man’. It is a stage play in two acts. It is one of
the most wonderful dramatic creations of Mahesh Dattani. It tells the story of three generations;
their personal ambitions, sacrifices, struggle, compromises, internal conflicts and the way they
try to cope up with the life; and mainly focuses on a dancing couple. The pathos of human
predicament is explored in the subtlest way. It embodies a brilliant study of human relationships
as well as human weaknesses through its characters. The play depicts the clash between
issues such as marriage, career and the place of a woman in patriarchal social set up. It deals
with the lives of the people who feel exhausted and frustrated on account of the hostile
surroundings and unfavourable circumstances. The story is unfolded in time past and time
present. The play was first performed at Chowdiah Memorial Hall, Bangalore on 22 September
1989 as a part of the Deccan Herald Theatre.

Dattani’s plays presents the socio-political issues, domestic and individual problems. In
the play Dance like a man, Dattani focuses on the conflict and clash between three generations,
their conflicts and individual struggle.

4.2 DANCE LIKE A MAN – Mahesh Dattani

4.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTHOR

Described as ‘one of India’s best and most serious contemporary playwrights writing in
English’ by Alexander Viets in the International Herald Tribune, Mahesh Dattani is the first
playwright in English to be awarded the SahityaAkademi award. Born on August 7, 1958,
Mahesh Dattani received his early education at Baldwin’s High School and then went on to join
St. Joseph’s College of Fine Arts and Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka.

Prior to his stint with the world of theater Mahesh used to work as a copywriter in an
advertising firm. He has also worked with his father in the family business. In 1984 he founded
his playgroup ‘Playpen’ and in 1986 he wrote his first play ‘ Where There’s A Will’. Since then
he has written many plays such as Tara,Night Queen, Final Solutions and Dance Like A Man.
All the plays of Mahesh Dattani are based on the social issues. Apart from theater Mahesh
Dattani is also active in the field of film making. His films have been appreciated all over the
 71

world. One of his film ‘Dance Like A Man’ has won the award for the best picture in English
awarded by the National Panorama.

Besides being a playwright and a director, Mahesh Dattani adorns the mantle of a teacher
with equal ease. He teaches theater courses at the summer session programmes of the Portland
University, Oregon, USA. He also imparts training in the field of acting, directing and play
writing at his own theater studio in Bangalore.

4.2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE DRAMA

“Dance like a Man” is a two-act stage play. The story revolves around three generations,
their personal ambition, their sacrifices, their struggle and compromises, internal conflict and
the way they cope up with life and dance being the major topic of discussion in the house as it
is a topic of debate between the father and his son and daughter in-law.

Dattani in the very start of the play puts a question on a man’s identity and his sexuality.
The title itself suggests so. The play deals with the self and the significance of others in a
manner of gender specific roles assigned by the society and how if you deviate from it, you are
being sidelined by the people and the society.

4.2.3 SYNOPSIS

The story revolves around three generations. Jairaj and Ratna want to develop their
career as a dancer. Dance for them is not only their passion but also their life and soul. They
want to develop their careers in this field. The stereotypes of gender roles are set in the society
and in spite of that Jairaj goes on to pursue his career as a dancer. This is the twist that the
playwright gives to the stereotypes associated with ‘gender’ issues that view solely a woman at
the receiving end of the oppressive power structures of the society. The play flips open in the
opposite gender’s point of view and shows that even men can be a part or a victim to such
circumstances by being oppressed, and suppressed by the opposite gender and society.

Jairaj and and Ratna have to live within the domain of the ‘patriarch’ Amritlal, father of
Jairaj. Dance for Amritlal is a profession of a prostitute and which is why he cannot accept his
daughter-in-law learning it and is unimaginable for his son to learn it and make career out of it.
Mostly this is also because he was a reformist and people would laugh at him for Jairaj’s
actions and his reputation would be sacrificed.
72

He cannot tolerate the sound of dancing bells in his home and his son roaming around
with the tinkling of bells in his leg during the practice session. His father also hates the effeminate
guru that comes to their house and also the long hair that he and his son both have kept. So
Ratna goes on to learn the dance from a lady who lives in a brothel. Amritlal thinks that the
temples have slowly turned to brothels as they practise dance there. He forbids Ratna to visit
the old devdasi who teaches her the old forms and techniques of ‘Bharatnatyam’ which were
slowly extinguishing.

Here there are subtle signs that learning dance and having a guru like that would definitely
make him an effeminate man which suggests the idea of homosexuality though it is not explicitly
mentioned anywhere in the text.

As he cannot accept his son pursuing his career as a dancer, he tries all the possible
means to stop him from seeking his ambition. He removes them/ disowns them from his house
and his property, not giving them a single penny to survive.

Jairaj, leaves and take Ratna along with him. But the results are disastrous. They stay at
Ratna’s uncle’s house and he tries to take advantage of her and so they leave the house only
to return.

He then later makes a deal with Ratna. He says that he will allow her career to take off
only if she helps him pull Jairaj out of his passion and make him a more ‘manly’ man.

The character of Ratna can be called as that of a selfish one because she agrees to her
father-in-law’s demands and also considers that there would be one less person to compete
with. She constantly misguides him and plays with his emotions in spite of being his partner.
Though Jairaj was a male member, he never forced his opinions on anybody and istead of that
Ratna would always dominate and take decisions for herself, for him and now their daughter
as well.

She wanted her own career to prosper and so she is willing to sacrifice her husband’s
career in the process. She was blinded by her passion so much so that she joined hands with
Amritlal. This subtly displays the relationship she herself shared with Jairaj which was more for
her own personal motive than anything else. She married him because Jairaj himself was a
 73

dancer and he would never stop her from dancing even after getting married. Had it been that
she would have married another man, there was a possibility that she would be deprived of her
career and her passion and she would be helpless.

When Jairaj possibly knew about her motives, the purpose was already achieved, that
he was a failed dancer and that he did not make much out of his life. He had become an
alcoholic. She constantly took advantage of Jairaj’s love for her and being his wife. She pushed
him into the world of dance though she knew that he was not a great dancer himself, and would
not reach the place amongs the top dancers, as he was just a mediocre dances. She was
responsible for Jairaj’s undoing as a character as well as a dancer.

Ratna here did not stop but went on to make her daughter Lata, also a Traditional dancer.
She used her daughter too, to earn fame and money all over the world. She schemes and
manipulates and uses all her contacts to put her daughter’s career on the right track right from
the start. She also uses the contacts to get appreciative reviews for her daughter’s performance.
Lata here is seen as the younger Ratna who succeeds with the help of her mother.

Later, in the play Jairaj blames his wife for their son’s death as she wanted to be successful
and she had left him home along with a nanny. The nanny had given him a sleeping dose so
that he would stop crying and that she could also sleep peacefully but unfortunately, she gave
it too much in quantity which ultimately led to his death. Jairaj blames her for his unsuccessful
career.

Dattani uses the technique of Traditional Dance as a medium to portray the conflict of
gender issues in the play. Hence his plays are relevant and will be relevant even for years to
come. Amritlal would never accept his son becoming a dancer, Ratna misguided him, Jairaj
was blamed to be not being a man enough to earn and support his family. All these things led
to the circumstances that show how gender stereotype works in the Indian society.

In short the play “Dance Like a Man” poses serious questions to the reader. It makes
one think and rethink about how our actions are shaped according to the society and how we
accept them without questioning. This conditioning is done right from childhood and it is nobody’s
fault. The rules were made according to the society then and is impossible to stay put on them
even now especially when society is constantly evolving. Rules should be mended according
74

to the situations and time period. The characters are shaped in such a manner that one cannot
term them as a proper white or a proper black character. It displays shades of gray.

4.3 Review Questions

1. Discuss Gender issues as portrayed in “Dance like a man”.

2. Critically examine the play “Dance like a Man” as a play of Indianess.

3. Sketch the character of Ratna in the play “The Dance like a Man”.

4. Bring out the aptness of the title “Dance like a Man”.

5. Describe the significance of dance in the play “Dance like a Man”.

4.4 WEB SOURCES

 https://medium.com/@FictionPulp/dance-like-a-man-mahesh-dattani-ea8a0621932

 http://creativewritingandacademicspace.blogspot.com/2014/10/critical-analysis-of-
mahesh-dattanis.html

 https://www.thoughtco.com/drama-literary-definition-4171972
 75

UNIT-5
FICTION

A work of fiction is created in the imagination of its author. The author invents the story
and makes up the characters, the plot or storyline, the dialogue and sometimes even the
setting. A fictional work does not claim to tell a true story. Instead, it immerses us in experiences
that we may never have in real life, introduces us to types of people we may never otherwise
meet and takes us to places we may never visit in any other way. Fiction can inspire us, intrigue
us, scare us and engage us in new ideas. It can help us see ourselves and our world in new
and interesting ways.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will able to

 Describe how a character’s personality, attitudes, conflict and relationships change with
the progress of the novel.

 Understand the historical background of the novel.

 Explain how the author develops the theme in the novel.

 Describe a character in-depth and explain how various aspects of the character relate to
other literary elements of the novel.

 Infer the author’s purpose for writing this novel.

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Swami And Friends - R.K. Narayan
5.2.1 Introduction To The Author
5.2.2 Introduction To The Fiction
5.2.3 Synopsis
5.3 Check Your Progress
5.4 Summary
5.5 Review Questions

5.6 Web Sources

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5.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit deals with the most famous fiction ‘Swami and friends’ by R.K.Narayan. The
protagonist of the story is a 10-year-old boy. He is an unconstrained, indiscreet, wicked but
then also an exceptionally honest child. His character is a kid in the fullest feeling of the world.
How he grows up, his mischiefs which made his family irritated, his wonder, growing pains and
innocence and many aspects are being portrayed in the novel. He lives in a universe of bossy
grown-ups. He is a student at Albert Mission School. It is a British established school where
importance is given to Christianity and English education.

One of the most watershed moments in the novel is the time when Rajam joins the
school and he becomes friends with Swami. That was a life-changing stage for him. But later
he breaks his friendship due to some reasons.

Everyone can relate to R.K. Narayan’s account of childhood games and friendship. It’s
an age where friendship is more important than family and more urgent than school. Also,
holidays are heaven on earth during those days. The author effectively sketches those days
through Swami and Friends.

5.2 SWAMI AND FRIENDS - R.K. Narayan

5.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTHOR

R.K. Narayan (1906 –2001) was raised in the city of Madras in South India and was
cared for largely by his grandmother, whose stories and friends are said to inspire much of
Swami and Friends. Although writing was an uncommon career for Indian men of his time, his
family was supportive of his choice. Narayan also broke with tradition by deciding to forgo an
arranged marriage and instead choose his own wife, although she died of typhoid fever in
1939, only five years after their marriage. Narayan raised his one daughter on his own and
never remarried. Swami and Friends was Narayan’s first published book and was championed
by the English author Graham Greene, Narayan’s friend and mentor. Narayan went on to
publish 15 novels as well as a memoir and numerous essays and short stories, and he also
became an activist for causes including environmentalism and children’s rights.
 77

5.2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE FICTION

Swami and Friends was written between the first and second World Wars, a literary
period of notable creative experimentation that likely encouraged Narayan in his mission to
create a uniquely personal, comedic depiction of his remembered childhood. The historical
context of British colonial rule over India is also particularly crucial to the story, as Swami and
his friends begin to comprehend the essential oppression of their country while simultaneously
growing up loving aspects of England, in particular the sport of cricket. Britain would continue
to rule India until the late 1940s, so Swami witnesses the stirrings of the independence
movement—led by Mahatma Gandhi—that would come to redefine the nature of India in the
coming years.

5.2.3 SYNOPSIS

A young boy named Swami wakes up on Monday morning in the town of Malgudi in
South India. He rushes through his homework at his desk in his father’s room and then goes to
the Mission School, where he is bored throughout most of his classes. Swami gets a bad grade
on his mathematics homework and then, in his scripture class, gets into an argument with his
teacher Mr. Ebenezar, a Christian fanatic. Swami is offended at his teacher’s dismissal of the
value of Hinduism and arrives at school the next day carrying a letter from his father to the
Mission School Headmaster, in which his father complains to the headmaster that the school
does not welcome non-Christian boys.

Swami tells his four closest friends about the letter. These boys are Somu, the friendly
class monitor; Mani, a powerful but lazy bully; Sankar, “the most brilliant boy of the class”; and
a small boy named Samuel, nicknamed “The Pea,” who is not remarkable in any way except
that he makes Swami laugh more than anyone else. Later in the day, the headmaster scolds
Ebenezar but also tells Swami not to report incidents to his father in the future, saying that the
boys should instead turn to the headmaster with any problems.

On the subsequent evening, Swami and Mani sit on the banks of the Sarayuriver,
discussing a classmate named Rajam who Mani wishes to throw into the river. It becomes
clear that Rajam is known in school as a kind of rival to Mani, due to his fearlessness, intelligence,
and wealth. Rajam’s father is also the Police Superintendent. Swami insists that he supports
78

Mani more than anyone else, and when they return to school Swami begins acting as a go-
between for the two rivals. Eventually, they decide to meet for a fight on the banks of the river
to see who is more powerful. But when the time for the fight comes, Rajam suggests that they
put aside their differences and become friends, to which Mani happily agrees. Having always
admired Rajam, Swami is also delighted at this turn of events and glad to be the friend of both
powerful boys.

The reader is introduced to Swami’s grandmother, whom he calls Granny. She lives with
Swami’s family in a small passageway, and Swami feels safe and secure in her company.
Swami excitedly describes Rajam to Granny and, although she tries to tell him stories of his
own grandfather’s similarly impressive accomplishments, Swami refuses to listen. On a Saturday
shortly thereafter, Swami ignores his grandmother’s requests to spend time with him and instead
goes with Mani to Rajam’s house, where they are impressed by his luxurious home, numerous
toys, and the delicious food his cook serves.

Back at school, Swami runs into his three friends Somu, Sankar, and The Pea. However,
they are unfriendly to him and make a joke about a “tail.” After school, Swami makesSomu tell
him about their joke, which it turns out refers to their calling him “Rajam’s tail” because they
believe Swami now thinks himself too good for his old friends. The rejection by his friends is
the “first shock” of Swami’s life, and he reflects miserably on how quickly people can change.
At home, he makes a paper boat and puts an ant on it, then watches as the boat is consumed
in a flood of water. As the days continue, Swami’s friends continue to ignore him, and school
becomes an increasingly painful experience.

On another Saturday, Swami excitedly prepares for Rajam to visit his house. He anxiously
orders his father, mother, grandmother, and cook various preparations. The visit goes well,
and Rajam even charms Granny with his stories. The next time Swami attends school, he is
again faced by his old friends mocking him, and he slaps both the Pea and Sankar. Joined by
Somu and Mani, the group goes outside, and Swami explains to Mani that the other three call
him Rajam’s tail. Mani defends Rajam and fights with Somu until the other boys get the
headmaster to break up the fight.

Three weeks later, Swami and Mani go to Rajam’s house again, this time because Swami
told them he had a surprise for them. When they arrive, they jokingly pretend to be a blind
 79

puppy and a blind kitten to get Rajam to let them in, only to discover when they open their eyes
that Somu, Sankar, and the Pea are also present. Rajam serves the group food and then
lectures them all on the value of friendship, offering them each a gift if they promise not to be
enemies any more. One by one, each boy accepts his gift.

At Swami’s home, his mother has been in bed for two days and seems confusingly
changed to him. Granny tells him that he is going to have a baby brother, but he is indifferent
even when the baby is born, telling the Pea that the baby is “hardly anything.” The Pea assures
him that the baby will grow up quickly.

In April, Swami and his classmates have only two weeks before their school exams.
Swami’s father forces him to study constantly, and all of his friends are also unhappy under the
stress of studying. Swami only feels that his efforts are worthwhile when his father compliments
his work. Shortly before the exam, Swami makes a list of supplies that he needs and,
disappointed that “his wants were so few,” he makes a more complicated list and brings it to his
father. His father scolds him and refuses to give him money to buy supplies, instead telling him
to take supplies from their desk at home.

At last, Swami’s final exam is over. He worries that he finished faster than his friends and
did not write enough for one question, but his worry quickly turns to excitement as the other
students finish and form a joyful crowd to celebrate the end of school. The group of boys
destroys paper and ink bottles, creating happy chaos until a school administrator breaks up
their celebration.

Without school in session, Swami realizes that he is closer friends with Mani and Rajam
than with Somu, Sankar, and the Pea. He also wishes to get a hoop to play with, and gives
some money to a coachman who promises to get him one, only to realize that the coachman
tricked him. Rajam forms a plan in which Mani will kidnap the coachman’s son as revenge, but
the plan goes awry when the boy gets away and his neighbors attack Mani and Swami to chase
them away. Sitting on a road outside town and feeling frustrated, the three friends accost a
young cart boy named Karuppan, frightening him with claims that they are the Government
Police before eventually letting him go.
80

Soon thereafter, Swami’s father begins making him study again even though school is
out. Feeling sorry for Swami after a long day of work, however, his father also brings him along
to visit his club in the evening. Swami enjoys the visit until he realizes that the coachman’s son
works at the club. He becomes increasingly fearful that the boy will attack him, not even trusting
his father to protect him, and cannot relax until they leave.

In August, Swami and Mani find themselves in the midst of a protest for Indian
independence. Moved by the speakers, Swami and Mani swear to support India against England
and boycott English goods, with Swami even burning his cap when someone suggests that it’s
foreign-made. The next day, Swami is nervous about not wearing a cap to school, but finds a
crowd of protesters blocking entrance to his school. The group says that school is canceled
due to the imprisonment of an Indian political worker, and Swami gets caught up in breaking
windows and destroying property at both the Mission School and the nearby Board School.
Eventually, the protest moves to a square in town, where Swami sees Rajam’s father order his
policemen to violently disperse the crowd, a sight that shocks and frightens Swami. Later, his
father expresses sympathy for the protesters but scolds Swami for losing his cap, saying it was
made in India all along. The next day in school, the headmaster punishes all of the students
who participated in the protest and Swami angrily runs away in the middle of class.

Six weeks later, Rajam finds Swami to tell him that he forgives his political activity and to
invite him to form a cricket team. Swami has transferred to the Board School, while his group
of friends back at the Mission School has broken up: Somu was held back, Sankar moved
away, and the Pea started school late. Swami agrees to join the cricket team, and he and
Rajam call themselves the M.C.C. With Mani, they write a letter to a sporting goods company
ordering supplies. Although the company writes back asking for a deposit, the boys continue
believing that their supplies will arrive and begin practicing with improvised equipment in the
meantime. Swami quickly reveals himself to be a good bowler and earns the nickname Tate,
after a famous bowler.

Swami discovers that the workload at the Board School is heavier than he is used to and
also that it requires him to participate in daily afterschool drill practices. Consequently, Swami
leaves school too late to attend cricket practice on time, which makes Rajam angry. One
evening, Swami is concerned about his grandmother, whom he ignored earlier in the day when
 81

she said she didn’t feel well. He is relieved to find that she is well, but she disappoints him when
she does not know what cricket is. However, Swami decides to educate her rather than scolding
her. When Swami continues to be late to practice, Rajam decides to confront the Board School
Headmaster and convince him to let Swami leave school early. Although Swami protests, he
insists, and leads Swami to the headmaster’s office. The headmaster ignores their request
and Rajam eventually gives up his effort.

The M.C.C. schedules a cricket match against another local team, but Swami is still not
able to get enough practice time. With only a week left before the match, he decides to try and
get a pass from a physician named Dr. Kesavan. Dr. Kesavan proclaims Swami healthy but
agrees to tell his headmaster that Swami should get to miss drill practice. Delighted, Swami
skips drill practice every day to attend cricket, only to find at the end of the week that the doctor
never spoke to the headmaster. The headmaster threatens to cane Swami, but Swami throws
the cane out the window and runs away. Swami fears that his father will be too angry to let him
live at home without attending school, so he decides to run away. He goes to the Mission
School and, after reminiscing about how much he loved being a student there, he finds Rajam
to say goodbye. However, Rajam convinces Swami to run away only briefly before participating
in the match and then leaving for good.

The narration’s perspective switches to Swami’s father, who wanders the town alone late
at night, looking for Swami. Swami has not been seen for hours and his mother and grandmother
are sick with worry, with his father growing anxious as well. After looking everywhere else he
can think of, Swami’s father fearfully peers into the Sarayu to see if Swami has drowned. Not
finding him, he continues to walk along the rail lines.

The narration returns to Swami, who is wandering on a quiet road far from home. He
reflects that he was foolish to leave over such a trivial problem and wishes to be back home
with his family. He decides to return home but unwittingly goes the wrong way, becoming more
and more lost until he at last begins to hallucinate in despair, thinking that he is being attacked
by animals. He falls unconscious after a fantasy of winning the cricket match. The next morning,
a cart man named Ranga finds Swami in the road and takes him to the District Forest Office,
where an officer named Mr. Nair helps Swami figure out who he is and where he is from. Soon,
Swami’s father takes him home with the assistance of Rajam’s father, where he is content to
82

celebrate among his family until Mani arrives and informs him that he has missed the cricket
match. Having thought that the match was the next day, Swami is devastated. Mani also says
that Rajam is furious, so Swami resolves to speak with Rajam the next day and repair their
friendship.

Ten days later, Swami still has not spoken with Rajam due to fear of his reaction. However,
he has learned that Rajam’s father has been transferred and the family is about to move away.
Swami searches his possessions for a going-away present for Rajam, settling on a book of
fairy tales, and resolves to go to the train station in the morning to give it to Rajam. Swami goes
to the station but is again too intimidated to talk to Rajam, who gets on the train without saying
goodbye. Panicking, Swami asks Mani for help and the two boys run alongside the train, finally
giving Rajam the book. Rajam seems to say something to Swami, but his words are lost under
the noise of the train. Mani tells Swami that Rajam has his address and will write, but Swami is
unsure if Mani is telling the truth.

5.3 Check your progress

1. Where did Swami and his friends live?

2. How did swami manage to get the permission of the drill master?

3. What is the reason behind the hartal or strike?

4. What does Swaminathan’s father say when he gets to know that Swami lost his cap?

5. How is Swaminathan’s worry solved?

5.4 Summary

CHAPTER 1 - MONDAY MORNING

A schoolboy named Swami wakes up on Monday morning, reluctant to get out of bed. He
dreads facing his school, teacher, and the Mission School’s Headmaster, especially since he
has left all of his homework to do in the two hours before school starts. He settles into his desk
in a corner of his father’s dressing room and begins to work.

Swami sits in his classroom, bored throughout the first few hours of school. He can only
stand to be at school at all because he enjoys watching the toddlers in the nearby Infant
 83

Standards classroom. His teacher, Vedanayagam, appears very ugly to him and pinches his
hand when he finds that Swami’s math homework is incorrect. Swami enjoys his next class
more, because it is a history class taught by a kind man named D. Pillai who tells stories of
great battles in history rather than following any “canon of education.”

The final class of the morning is scripture class, taught by Mr. Ebenezar, a religious
fanatic. Swami and his classmates sometimes enjoy the colorful Bible stories they learn there,
despite the fact that Mr. Ebenezar insults the beliefs of the non-Christian students. Mr. Ebenezar
launches into a rant about the failings of the Hindu god Krishna in comparison to Jesus, which
causes Swami to stand up and argue against his teacher. Mr. Ebenezar twists Swami’s ear as
punishment.

Swami arrives at school the following day, feeling guilty about a letter that he carries in
his pocket. He thinks that he is an idiot for telling his father about the trouble with Mr. Ebenezar.
Swami delivers the letter to the Mission School Headmaster, at which point the reader learns
that Swami’s father has complained to the headmaster about discrimination against non-Christian
students. The letter states that the school should be more tolerant of students of other religions
and requests that the headmaster inform Swami’s father if Hindu boys are not welcome at the
school, so that he can send Swami to school elsewhere.

When Swami exits the Mission School Headmaster’s room, his classmates crowd around
to find out what happened. However, Swami refuses to tell anyone but his four best friends,
who are introduced one by one. The first friend is Somu, the class monitor, who is a mediocre
student but relaxed and well-liked by everyone, including the teachers. The next friend is Mani,
described as “the Mighty Good-For-Nothing.” Mani is a powerful bully who never does his
homework but is never punished. Swami is especially proud to be Mani’s friend. The third
friend is Sankar, known as the smartest boy in class, and whom Swami greatly admires. Swami’s
final close friend is Samuel, who is known as “the Pea” because he is small and unremarkable.
The Pea has “no outstanding virtue” but gets along well with Swami because they have similar
senses of humor.

Swami tells his friends about his father’s letter and all four of them approve of his telling
his father about Ebenezar’s behavior, although Mani wishes he could have attacked the teacher
84

himself. The Pea feels embarrassed because he himself is a Christian and agrees with Ebenezar,
but he does not say so to his friends. The day’s scripture class proceeds normally at first, with
Ebenezar vigorously denouncing Hinduism, but then the Mission School Headmaster enters
the class and criticizes Ebenezar’s teaching, embarrassing the teacher.

At the end of the day, Swami is called to see the Mission School Headmaster, who has
Ebenezar waiting in his office. Swami is uncomfortable talking with Ebenezar present and
wishes to leave, but the headmaster keeps him in the office long enough to tell him that, in the
future, Swami should trust the headmaster and come to him with complaints instead of telling
his father. The headmaster gives Swami a letter to give his father and Swami runs home,
relieved.

CHAPTER 2–RAJAM AND MANI

Swami and his friend Mani are sitting on the banks of the River Sarayu, a pleasant area
near the center of their town, Malgudi. Mani tells Swami that he wants to throw Rajam, a new
student at their school, into the river. Rajam dresses well, speaks good English, gets good
grades, and has impressed the class enough to be a rival to the powerful Mani. Swami points
out that Rajam’s father is the Police Superintendant, but Mani says that he doesn’t care and
hints that he might beat up Swami if Swami gets too friendly with Rajam. Swami protests that
he hates Rajam, convincing Mani that he, Swami, is on Mani’s side.

As the conflict between Mani and Rajam grows in the following days, Swami acts as their
go-between, passing notes full of insults and challenges from one to the other. During class,
Swami is forced to stand on a bench as punishment for getting a question wrong. At the end of
the day, Swami, Mani, and Rajam gather and Mani and Rajam challenge each other to a fight
at the river the following evening. Mani asks Rajam to promise not to tell Rajam’s father about
the fight and Rajam agrees.

The next evening, Mani arrives at the river carrying a club, ready to fight Rajam, and
Rajam himself arrives with an air gun. The two talk awkwardly for a few minutes and then
Rajam asks Mani what he has done to offend him. Mani answers that he had heard Rajam had
called him a sneak behind his back, but Rajam denies doing so and says that he wouldn’t mind
being friends. Mani agrees that he would also be glad to be friends, and the two drop their
 85

weapons. Swami, having secretly admired Rajam, is delighted at the turn of events, and the
new friends sit by the river eating cookies that Rajam brought to share.

CHAPTER 3 – SWAMI’S GRANDMOTHER

The reader learns about Swami’s grandmother, who lives with him in a passageway of
his parents’ house and whom he calls Granny. Swami spends time with his grandmother after
eating dinner, feeling warm and safe with her. He tells his grandmother about his new friend
Rajam and how wonderful he is, and he expresses particular excitement that Rajam’s father is
the Police Superintendent. Swami goes on to list all of Rajam’s good qualities, often cutting his
grandmother off rudely when she tries to speak. She tells him about his brilliant grandfather,
but Swami ignores her and continues talking about Rajam.

Swami becomes suspicious that his grandmother is not listening to him and that she
does not believe how wonderful Rajam is, but she emphasizes her approval of Rajam and
Swami is comforted. She begins to tell him a story that Rajam reminded her of, but Swami falls
asleep halfway through her telling.

Swami sits at home studying at his father’s orders, trying to understand the meaning of a
poem. His mother brings him a snack and then, finally, his father leaves for work at the court.
As soon as his father is gone, Swami runs out of the house to visit his friends, ignoring Granny
when she calls to him. He goes first to Mani’s house and then, together, they go on to Rajam’s
house. Although they are nervous at first, the policeman outside Rajam’s house is polite to
them and takes them inside to see Rajam.

Swami and Mani are impressed by Rajam’s house, which is large and tidy. Rajam comes
to meet them and shows off his amazing collection of toys. Then, Rajam orders his cook to
bring in a plate of snacks. Rajam bullies the cook in order to impress his new friends, but the
cook talks back to Rajam, at which point Rajam brings the snacks in himself while telling his
friends that he left the cook lying unconscious in the kitchen.

CHAPTER 4 – WHAT IS A TAIL?

Between classes on a Wednesday, Swami is unable to find his friends and wanders
alone around his school. He stops to look at the younger children in the Infant Standards area,
86

feeling “filled with contempt” at how small and unintelligent they are. Eventually he happily runs
into Sankar, Somu, and the Pea, who he had thought were not at school. However, his three
friends barely acknowledge Swami and refuse to let him join their game. They call Swami a
“tail,” saying that it means “a long thing that attaches itself to an ass or a dog.” Swami doesn’t
know what this means but he feels upset and embarrassed. On his way home, he catches up
to Somu, who tells Swami that they now call him Rajam’s Tail, because he acts like he is too
good for his old friends now that he spends time with the police superintendent’s son.

This experience is Swami’s “first shock in life.” In particular, he feels unsure of who his
friends are and confused that someone as nice as Somu could be so angry with him. Swami
returns home and watches water and debris rush through a gutter by his house. He builds a
paper boat and places an ant inside it, then launches the boat into the water. Swami watches
in excitement as the boat progresses, recovering from several dangerous turns. Finally, however,
a leaf falls onto the boat and overturns it, and Swami is unable to find the boat or the ant. He
pinches some dirt in the gutter and says a prayer “for the soul of the ant.”

Over the next few days, Swami gets used to being cast out by his friends but still finds
himself wishing to talk to them. At times, he thinks that they might be looking at him in a friendly
way, but at other times he sees them reject him and feels self-conscious walking near them.
He walks behind them leaving school, but he reflects on how frightening they have become to
him and wishes to get away. Swami finally pretends to have left his notebook at school and
runs away from his former friends.

CHAPTER 5 – FATHER’S ROOM

On Saturday, Swami prepares excitedly to host Rajam, who has promised to come to his
house that afternoon. Swami wonders where to host Rajam and realizes that, because his
father will be out at court, he can host Rajam in his father’s room, pretending that the room is
Swami’s own. Swami’s grandmother is also excited about the visit and asks Swami to bring
Rajam to see her, but he refuses, telling her not to interact with Rajam because she is “too old.”

Swami continues to prepare for Rajam’s visit, demanding that his mother make good
coffee and something “fine and sweet” for the afternoon snack. He also tells the cook to change
into clean clothes and asks him to bring the food directly to him and Rajam. Finally, Swami
 87

asks his father if he can use his room to host Rajam, and his father agrees when he hears that
Rajam’s father is the Police Superintendent.

To Swami’s surprise, Rajam’s visit goes well, with all of Swami’s demands met except for
the fact that the cook does not change his clothes. Rajam and Swami talk happily for hours,
until Rajam notices Swami’s father’s large books and asks Swami if he reads them. Embarrassed
that Rajam has discovered the room is not his own, Swami admits that the table belongs to his
father and, in order to distract Rajam from asking about his own possessions, he mentions his
grandmother. Rajam says that he would love to meet her and Swami runs to see Granny,
hoping that she is asleep. Swami is disappointed to find her awake, but she is delighted to
meet Rajam and impressed with the luxurious details of his life.

On a subsequent school day, Swami enters class to find that “TAIL” is written on the
blackboard. Swami’s whole class giggles at him and Swami slaps the Pea and Sankar in
anger. The three begin to fight in earnest and they only stop when Somu and Mani enter the
classroom and separate them. Swami, Mani, Somu, Sankar, and the Pea all go outside the
school, where Mani accuses Swami’s former friends of writing the word on the board. They all
deny it and Swami, crying, explains to Mani that “tail” refers to him being Rajam’s tail. Mani
angrily defends Rajam and Somu tells Mani that he thinks too much of himself. The two begin
to punch and kick each other, at which point Swami, Sankar, and the Pea run in panic to get the
Mission School Headmaster, who breaks up the fight.

CHAPTER 6 - A FRIEND IN NEED

Three weeks later, Swami and Mani are on their way to Rajam’s house. Rajam has
invited them to his house, telling them that he has a surprise waiting for them. On the way,
Mani muses about the ways that he’d like to inflict violence on Somu, Sankar, and the Pea.
When they arrive at Rajam’s house, Rajam peeks out but then closes the door again. To get
him to let them in, Swami pretends to be a blind kitten and Mani and blind puppy, mews and
barking at the door. Rajam opens the door and the two enter, still pretending to be animals with
their eyes closed, while Rajam barks and mews in response.

When Swami and Mani open their eyes, they discover that Somu, Sankar, and the Pea
are in the room with Rajam. Swami is embarrassed at his behavior and Mani becomes angry at
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Rajam, threatening to leave. Rajam comforts both and convinces them to stay, offering everyone
a snack. After they all eat, Rajam gives a long lecture on the value of friendship and all the
terrible things that the Vedas say will happen to a person who makes enemies. At the end of his
lecture, Rajam asks the other five boys to swear that they won’t have enemies any more, and
offers them each a gift if they do so.

The Pea is the first to accept his gift and the other four boys soon do the same. The Pea
receives a fountain pen, Somu gets a new belt, Mani gets a new knife, Sankar receives a
bound notebook, and Swami gets a green clockwork engine.

CHAPTER 7– A NEW ARRIVAL

Swami’s mother has been in bed for two days and he misses the attention that she
usually pays to him. He sees her lying in bed looking unwell and speaks to her coldly, thinking
that she “seemed to be a different Mother.” His Granny tells Swami that he will soon have a
baby brother, but he is not excited about this news.

Swami sleeps in Granny’s room, listening to people moving around throughout the night
and seeing a female doctor entering his mother’s room. Although Granny asks, they get no
news of what is happening. Swami feels safe and comfortable with Granny and does not worry
about what is happening to his mother.

In school the next day, the class grows restless during a boring lesson. Swami sits next
to the Pea and tells him about the birth of his new brother early that morning. Swami tells the
Pea that the baby is “hardly anything” and “such a funny-looking creature.” The Pea laughs
and tells Swami that the baby will grow up quickly.

CHAPTER 8 – BEFORE THE EXAMINATIONS

Two weeks before his April school exams, Swami notices that his father is becoming
more strict about making him study. He pesters Swami frequently, eventually pointing out that
Swami will have to be in a different class from his friends if he fails the exam. At that point
Swami listens to his father and begins to study harder.

All of Swami’s classmates and friends are overwhelmed by the pressure of the upcoming
exams. Mani is particularly worried and attempts to get information about the exam questions
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from the school clerk, who is rumored to know everything. He bribes the clerk with food and
although the clerk is pleased, he tells Mani that he doesn’t know anything about the test
questions. Mani persists, and eventually the clerk gives him advice about what to study, despite
not actually knowing what will be on the exam. Mani is pleased with the information he gets
from the clerk and shares his knowledge with Swami.

Swami arrives home feeling bored and is disappointed that his Granny doesn’t feel like
talking to him. He goes to look at his brother, who is now six months old. Swami now finds his
brother charming and “love[s] every inch of him.” However, the baby is asleep and Swami,
even more bored, wishes that his father would let him go out to play with Mani. Swami tries to
study a map of Europe and wonders about the people who live there, and about how the
people who make maps know the shapes of countries. He thinks that perhaps they look down
from a high place to see the shape. He eventually finishes his map and his father comes home
to compliment him on his work, which Swami feels is “worth all his suffering.”

Two days before the exam, Swami makes a list of everything he will need for the exam
and is disappointed that he can only think of five things, thinking that he had “never known that
his wants were so few.” Swami makes his list longer and more complicated and then brings it
to his father, who is busy working. Swami tries to go away and not interrupt him, but his father
hears him at the door and calls him in, demanding to see the paper he’s holding. Swami’s
father calls his list “preposterous” and tells Swami to take supplies from his desk instead.
Although Swami gets most of what he needs, he is sad not to be able to go and buy everything
on his list. As he leaves his father’s office, his father asks him to move the baby out of the hall
so that his father won’t have to hear the baby crying.

CHAPTER 9 – SCHOOL BREAKS UP

Swami exits his classroom after taking his final examination. He waits outside, worrying
because he turned in his exam 20 minutes early while most of the other students were still
working. He reflects on the exam questions and feels especially confident about the last question,
which involved explaining the moral of a story about a man who is fooled by a tiger offering him
a gold bangle. Swami wrote a simple, single-line answer: “Love of gold bangle cost one one’s
life.” Then, he sat restlessly pretending to revise his work until he saw a few other boys leaving,
at which point he did the same.
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The exam ends and the rest of Swami’s class comes outside. Swami asks a classmate
what he wrote for the last question, and the classmate reveals that he wrote a full page. Swami
tells Rajam and Sankar about the classmate and they reply that they wrote only half or three-
quarters of a page for the last question. Swami tells them that he also wrote half a page,
fooling even himself into thinking he actually did so.

The rest of Swami’s friends arrive and they discuss their feelings about the exam and
their excitement that school is now over for the time being. Fifteen minutes later, the whole
school goes back into the hall, where everyone is laughing and joking, even the teachers. The
Mission School Headmaster announces that the school will be closed until the nineteenth of
June and tells the students that he hopes they will continue to read over the vacation. The
assembly ends with a short prayer.

At the end of the prayer, the boys begin tearing up paper, smashing ink bottles, and
destroying whatever they can find. Swami sticks close to Mani at first, afraid of the rumor that
enemies stab each other on the last day of school, even though he doesn’t think he has any
enemies. Then as the excitement builds, Swami joins in the destruction and even pours his ink
bottle over his own head. Mani calls jokingly to a policeman to arrest the rowdy boys and then
threatens to steal the turban of the school peon and dye it with ink. The peon breaks up the
crowd of boys.

CHAPTER 10–THE COACHMAN’S SON

Swami realizes that his friendships with Somu, Sankar, and the Pea are not meaningful
to him outside of school. His friendships with Mani and Rajam are “more human” and the three
spend nearly all of their time together with school out. Without school to worry about, Swami
wants a hoop to play with more than anything and thinks constantly about getting one. He tells
a coachman about his wish and the coachman claims that he can get Swami a hoop quickly in
exchange for five rupees. Swami can barely imagine having that much money, but the coachman
says that he has a way of converting copper coins into silver, so all Swami needs to do is bring
him six paise (a smaller denomination) to start the process.

Swami is convinced of the coachman’s plan and immediately begins trying to find six
paise, which the coachman says he needs within six hours. He asks his Granny first, but she
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has no money to give him, even though she wants to. Swami’s mother and father also refuse
his request. Unable to find any coins in his house, he remembers that Ebenezar claimed that
God would help those who pray to him and wonders if he might be able to perform magic. He
gathers six pebbles and puts them in a box with sand, then prays over them in the room where
his family keeps images of gods and idols. He decides to wait for half an hour but only lasts ten
minutes before opening the box. He is at first enraged to find pebbles instead of coins, but then
he becomes afraid that the gods will punish him for his anger and instead buries the box
reverently.

Swami departs for Mani’s house and arrives to find a large, imposing man at the door
who initially frightens him but turns out to be Mani’s uncle. Swami asks Mani to lend him six
paise, but Mani has no money and refuses to look through his uncle’s possessions. Two weeks
later, Swami goes to Rajam and asks to borrow a policeman, saying that the coachman robbed
him. Rajam suggests attacking the man but Swami says that he is frightened to confront him.
Swami then confesses to Rajam that he ended up giving the coachman twelve paise after
being told that six was not enough. Finally, he mentions that the coachman’s young son makes
faces and threatens him whenever he tries to go to the coachman’s house.

The next day, Swami and Mani go to the coachman’s house. Rajam has made a plan for
Mani to befriend and then kidnap the coachman’s son, with Swami going along to point out the
correct house. On the way, Swami gets frightened and tells the Mani that the coachman returned
the money, but Mani doesn’t believe him and insists on continuing with the plan. Swami points
out the house and Mani decides at the last minute that Swami should come to the door with
him.

Outside the house, Mani hits Swami and yells at him until a crowd gathers, including the
coachman’s son. Mani tells the crowd that Swami is a stranger who has demanded money
from him, and the coachman’s son says that Swami should be sent to jail. Swami turns and
confronts the son about his missing money that the coachman took, but Mani interrupts by
offering the boy a toy top and promising him a bigger one if he leaves with them. The boy
agrees but then runs back into his house with the top. Mani knocks on the door until the
coachman’s neighbors violently drive Swami and Mani from the neighborhood, throwing rocks
and chasing them with dogs.
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CHAPTER 11 - IN FATHER’S PRESENCE

Although many people view Swami’s hometown of Malgudi as intolerably hot in the
summer, Swami, Mani, and Rajam enjoy going out together in the summer afternoons and
barely notice the heat. They sit together just outside town and discuss the ways that their plan
with the coachman’s son went wrong, with Mani admitting that he was wrong to give the boy
the top so quickly. Swami complains that his neck still hurts where Mani attacked him, but Mani
says that he only pretended to attack Swami.

A young boy driving a cart pulled by a bull comes down the road toward the boys, and
Rajam yells at him to stop the cart. The boy pleads that he has to leave, but Swami and his
friends make him stay, saying that they are the Government Police and threatening to arrest
him. The continue to harass the boy, whose name is Karuppan, before finally writing him a fake
pass and allowing him to pass.

As the summer continues, Swami’s father stays home on vacation from his job at the
courts. On his third day at home, Swami’s father tells Swami that he cannot go out to meet
Mani and Rajam but instead must stay at home and study. Swami protests that he should not
have to read when school is out, but his father disagrees and makes him sit down with his
books. Asked to find a cloth to clean off his dusty books, Swami grabs a cloth from under his
baby brother, causing his mother to scold him. His father sits with him while he attempts to
solve a math problem involving two men selling mangos. Swami is unable to understand the
problem and gets distracted thinking about the characters of the two men in the problem,
frustrating his father, who calls him an “extraordinary idiot.” Swami’s father walks him through
the problem step by step, and Swami bursts into tears when he finally gets the correct answer
half an hour later.

Later that evening, Swami’s father feels sorry for making Swami study all afternoon and
invites Swami to join him at his club. Swami changes his clothes and gets in the car with his
father. Swami is “elated” to go to the club and wishes his friends could see him traveling in the
car. When they arrive at the club, Swami happily watches his father play tennis, but his mood
changes when he discovers that the coachman’s son works at the club as a ball boy. The boy
sees Swami and turns to smile at him, holding up a pen knife. Swami is terrified and sticks
close to his father as they leave the tennis courts.
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Swami feels safe again when he is inside with his father in the card room, but it is dark
outside by the time they leave the club and Swami becomes afraid again. He begins to imagine
that the coachman’s son has a gang waiting to attack him and almost tells his father about his
fears, before changing his mind and staying silent. Swami sits in the back of the car, feeling
very far from his father and his father’s friend in the front seat, and he cannot relax until they
pass through the gates of the club.

CHAPTER 12 – BROKEN PANES

While sitting on the bank of the Sarayu one August evening, Swami and Mani encounter
a large group of people protesting the arrest of a political worker. They listen to an activist
saying that the people of India are slaves and should remember their own value and power. He
asks the crowd to defy England and its rule, a speech that Swami and Mani find very moving.
They get upset about Indian peasants and vow to boycott English goods, especially certain
kinds of cloth made by particularly despicable Englishmen. Mani tells Swami that he is wearing
a coat made of that English cloth, which makes Swami feel ashamed. A bonfire is lit and the
crowd begins to throw articles of clothing into it, and when someone points out that Swami is
wearing a foreign cap, he throws it into the fire “with a feeling that he was saving the country.”

The next day Swami wakes up feeling anxious and remembers that he has no cap to
wear for school. He leaves for school anyway and is happily surprised to find a crowd blocking
the gate of the school. A student tells Swami that the school is closed due to the jailing of the
political worker, and Swami is relieved that he won’t get in trouble for not wearing his cap. He
sees the Mission School Headmaster and some of the teachers standing on the school veranda,
calling for the students to go to their classes and threatening punishment.

The self-appointed leaders of the crowd of students yell that it is a “day of mourning” and
should be observed in silence. However, other students are throwing rocks at the windows of
the school. Swami joins in and he is excited to be able to break the ventilator in the Mission
School Headmaster’s room, finding the experience of being in the crowd “thrilling.”

Someone runs into the crowd and announces that classes are happening at the Board
High School, so the crowd, including Swami, moves to that school. A representative from the
crowd asks the Board School Headmaster to close the school, but the headmaster refuses and
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threatens to call the police. The crowd angrily begins to vandalize the Board School, joined by
many of its own students. Swami enthusiastically joins in the shouting and destruction, feeling
happy at how much glass there is left to break. He even threatens the children in the school’s
Infant Standards and stomps on the cap of one small child.

The crowd moves on to the square in the center of town, where a large group of police is
waiting. Swami realizes that Rajam’s father is leading these menacing men, a fact which horrifies
him. Swami watches as Rajam’s father orders the crowd to disperse and, when it doesn’t,
orders the troops to charge. The policeman run into the crowd, “pushing and beating everybody,”
and Swami begs them to leave him alone because he knows nothing. The policemen taunt
Swami but let him run away.

Swami plans to keep his experiences in the riot secret from his father, but upon arriving
home his father immediately begins talking about how Rajam’s father is “a butcher,” which
Swami finds himself agreeing with as he remembers his brutal behavior. Swami’s father asks
him if he was involved in the riot, in which many people were injured and a few may have died.
Swami realizes that he now has an excuse for losing his cap and tells his father that someone
tore it off in the crowd because it was made of foreign material. His father tells him that it was
made in India and that he would never buy his son something made abroad. Swami lies in bed
thinking about all the injuries he got during the day, and is especially angry at the policemen for
hitting him and calling him a monkey.

At school the next day, the Mission School Headmaster enters Swami’s class and reads
a list of all the students who were missing the day before, forcing them to stand on their
benches as punishment. One by one, he asks them to explain why they weren’t in school the
previous day, with each giving a different excuse. The headmaster punishes each boy in turn,
rejecting their excuses. Swami gets more and more nervous, and when the headmaster gets
to him, he gives a confused, muddled answer using pieces of his experiences at the recent
protests. The headmaster hits Swami with his cane as punishment for not speaking clearly and
says that he saw him breaking the ventilator in his office. The headmaster hits Swami several
more times until Swami grows desperate and runs out of the school, saying to the headmaster:
“I don’t care for your dirty school.”
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CHAPTER 13 – THE ‘M. C. C’

Six weeks pass, after which Rajam comes to Swami’s house to tell him that he forgives
him for everything, from his political activities to his new status as a student at the Board
School. The reader learns that Swami refused to return to the Mission School and that his
father sent him instead to the Board School. Swami quickly found himself happily the center of
attention at his new school, though he does not yet have close friends there. Back at the
Mission School, Somu was left behind after failing an exam, Sankar moved away after his
father was transferred, and the Pea began school months late due to mysterious causes.
Swami still sees Mani every day but had not seen Rajam since leaving the Mission School.

Rajam finds Swami trying to build a camera, and Swami explains that a boy in his new
class had done so. Rajam criticizes Swami for thinking that his new school is superior and
Swami, wanting to win Rajam over, agrees that he does not like the Board School but says that
he had no choice in leaving the Mission School. Rajam tells Swami that he should have stayed
away from politics in the first place, and Swami agrees. Rajam is convinced by Swami’s consent
and tells him that they should go back to being good friends.

Rajam suggests forming a cricket team, and although Swami initially feels that he’s not
good enough to play, Rajam convinces him to try. Rajam says that the team will be called the
M.C.C. but Swami worries that they could get into legal trouble, since there is already a
professional cricket team using that name. Swami suggests some other names for the team
and they make a list of all the possibilities, choosing Victory Union Eleven as an additional
name. Swami brings up the idea that they might need to pay a tax to the government, concerned
that their name will not be reserved unless they do so. Considering all of the Swami’s points,
Rajam reflects that starting a cricket team is “the most complicated problem on earth” and
feels sympathetic toward Gandhi’s opposition to the government.

Swami and Rajam go to Mani’s house to choose cricket equipment from a sporting goods
catalogue. Mani insists that a certain kind of bat, the Junior Willard Bat, is the best kind and
that their team must order them. The three friends choose the goods they need from the
catalogue, arguing good-naturedly about how many bats they need, and then settle down to
write a letter ordering the supplies. Swami at first agrees to write the letter but becomes
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overwhelmed by the task, at which point Rajam takes over, writing a letter from both M.C.C.
and Victory Union Eleven. They complete the letter and agree to mail it.

The postman arrives with a card for Rajam, which turns out to be from Sankar, who says
that he is also playing cricket now. The three friends are excited to hear from Sankar and
immediately write letters in return, only to realize that they do not have an address to mail them
to.

Soon thereafter, Rajam receives a reply from the sporting goods company addressed to
the captain of the M.C.C. The friends are delighted to have their team recognized by the
company and the postal service. The letter from the company asks for a 25% payment, which
confuses them and leaves them unsure how to respond. Eventually, they conclude that the
letter was sent to them by mistake, even though Swami points out that it is addressed to the
captain of their team. They write back to the company returning the letter and asking that their
cricket supplies be sent quickly.

Swami, Rajam, and Mani continue to believe that the cricket supplies will arrive soon,
and that perhaps the company is even making them especially for their team. In the meantime,
they make bats from a wooden box and get used tennis balls from Rajam’s father’s club and
begin practicing without their complete supplies. The Pea joins their team, along with a few
boys that Rajam chooses from his class.

The team assembles for its first practice. The Pea arrives late without the stumps he
promised to bring, but says that he will bring them to the next practice. Rajam and the others
are at first upset not to have the supplies they need to play a full game of cricket, but they
manage to continue when someone suggests using the wall as a temporary wicket. As practice
starts, Swami bowls very well and is immediately given the nickname Tate, after a famous
bowler.

CHAPTER 14 – GRANNY SHOWS HER IGNORANCE

Swami discovers that the workload and pressure of his new school are much greater
than those he experienced at the Mission School. Swami is also obligated to attend mandatory
drill practices and scout classes after school, and the punishments for missing a class are
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harsh. Swami’s days are now full of rigor and work, and he is a more attentive student than he
had been previously. After his after-school obligations, he runs home to drop off his supplies
and then arrives at the cricket field by evening. Though he tries his best to get there quickly,
Swami is often disappointed to find that the practice is concluding by the time he arrives and
Rajam is annoyed at him for arriving late.

One day, Swami’s grandmother calls to him during the brief time that he is at home
between school and cricket practice. He feels sorry for how often she is ignored and goes to
see what she wants. She asks him to go and get her a lemon to soothe her stomach pain and
offers to let him keep three paise for himself, but when she gives him a time limit, he gets
annoyed and runs out to practice.

Later that evening, Swami arrives home feeling guilty for abandoning his grandmother
earlier. He goes to see her, worrying that she might die because of his neglect, but she tells
him that his mother gave her a lemon and she is feeling better. Swami is joyful and relieved to
find her doing well, and in his excitement he tells her about being nicknamed Tate. However, he
is dismayed to find that she does not know who Tate is and, furthermore, she does not know
what cricket is. He lectures her on the basics of cricket and explains how well Rajam leads his
team. Swami’s father enters, carrying Swami’s baby brother, and remarks that soon it will be
the baby teaching everyone about the world.

Rajam warns Swami that he cannot keep being late to cricket practice. Swami tells Rajam
that the Board School schedule keeps him from arriving on time, so Rajam suggests asking
the Board School Headmaster to let him leave early until after their match. Swami tells Rajam
that he is afraid of the headmaster, so Rajam announces that he will speak to the headmaster
himself at Swami’s school the next day. Swami begs Rajam not to go to the school, but Rajam
insists on doing so.

To avoid seeing Rajam at his school, Swami pretends to be sick the next morning. His
father thinks that he is well enough to go to school, but his Granny and mother support him and
convince his father to let him stay home, even though he does not have a fever. Halfway
through the day, Swami becomes anxious and tells his mother that he feels better and wants to
go to school, thinking that Mani will already have gone. On the way there, he runs into Rajam
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and Mani, who tell him that they went to his school but left when they found he wasn’t there.
Mani is carrying a club, which makes Swami afraid of what his friends might try to do to the
Board School Headmaster.

Rajam leads Swami back to school and tells Mani to wait outside while they speak to the
Board School Headmaster. Rajam and Swami enter the headmaster’s office and find him
sleeping. They wait for ten minutes and then make noise to wake him up. The headmaster
asks what they’re doing there and Rajam explains that Swami, the best bowler on the team,
needs to leave school early to get to cricket practice on time. The headmaster listens and then
orders them to leave the office without granting Swami permission to leave school early. Mani
gets tired of waiting outside and enters the office with his club, but the headmaster is not
intimidated. Rajam tells the headmaster that Rajam’s father is the Police Superintendent, but
even that fails to convince the headmaster. Rajam leads his friends out of the office in disgust.

CHAPTER 15 – BEFORE THE MATCH

The M.C.C. has scheduled a cricket match against a team called Young Men’s Union.
The match is friendly in name, but in fact the M.C.C. sends a complicated list of demands and
threats along with their invitation, including asking the other team to bring their own supplies
and telling them that they will have to pay for anything damaged in the course of the match.
The match is scheduled for a Sunday two weeks in the future.

As the team’s captain, Rajam throws himself into ensuring that his team beats the Y.M.U.
Rajam believes that they are capable of doing so but he is very worried about Swami, who
continues to arrive late to practice. With only a week to go until the cricket match, Swami
realizes that he has to find a way to get extra practice and goes to tell his after-school drill
master that he is not feeling well. The master asks what is wrong and Swami tells him that he
is delirious and has been unable to sleep. Though he angrily accuses him of lying, the drill
master lets Swami leave early and Rajam is very pleased to see Swami at practice on time.

The next morning, Swami sneaks out of his house and goes to visit a physician named
Dr. Kesavan before school. He explains that he needs to get a certificate that will allow him to
leave school early to practice for the cricket match. The doctor appears concerned, but laughs
at Swami when Swami says that he has delirium and that it is “some kind of stomachache.”
The doctor examines Swami and says that because he is well, he cannot get a certificate.
However, the doctor offers to talk to the Board School Headmaster for him and ask that Swami
be allowed to leave school in time for practice.
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Swami leaves school early and attends practice on time for the next several days, making
Rajam and the rest of the team very happy. On Friday, however the Board School Headmaster
comes to Swami’s class and confronts him in front of the class about missing drill practice all
week. Swami protests that Dr. Kesavan had said he would “die if [he] attended drill” and that
the doctor should have talked to the headmaster. The headmaster dismisses Swami’s defense
and Swami realizes that the doctor betrayed him. The headmaster prepares to cane Swami,
but without thinking Swami grabs the cane, throws it out the window, and runs away from
school.

Swami sits under a tree to think through his situation. He realizes that there are no more
schools in Malgudi, and that his behavior might mean that even schools in other cities wouldn’t
accept him. He thinks that he might have to get a job, and although he would enjoy having
money, he knows that his father won’t let him live at home without going to school. Swami
decides that he cannot face his father, and chooses to leave the city on his own.

Swami continues onward to his old school, the Mission School. He feels full of nostalgia
and misses everything about it, from his friends to his teachers to the Mission School
Headmaster, whom he now finds dignified. He feels as if he is an outcast and has no choice but
to leave Malgudi. He wishes to talk to Rajam and Mani before going, so Swami goes behind
the school and waits for a young boy to come outside to blow his nose. He calls the boy over
and offers him an almond peppermint in exchange for going and getting Rajam from his class.
The boy agrees and returns with Rajam. Swami gives the boy a three-paise coin rather than
the promised peppermint, which disappoints the boy, but he goes back to his class nonetheless.

Swami then explains his situation to Rajam, who criticizes him for always getting in trouble.
Rajam tells Swami that he has seen their cricket opponents practicing and that Swami must
not miss the match. On the spot, Swami decides not to tell Rajam that he is running away but
instead plans to leave for two days without telling anyone and return for the match. Then, he
will leave Malgudi for good after the match. Rajam goes back to class, reminding Swami to
come early to practice.

CHAPTER 16 - SWAMI DISAPPEARS

Swami’s father walks through town, ashamed of himself as he moves toward the
Sarayuriver. He is planning to look for Swami’s body in the water and feels ridiculous doing so,
but he also feels unable to return home without finding news of his missing son. Swami’s
mother and grandmother are at home, “dazed and demented” with worry about Swami.
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Swami’s father thinks back to earlier in the evening, when he had not yet been worried
about Swami and had only gone looking for him to “please his wife and mother.” He checked
Swami’s school, as well as Rajam’s house, and was unable to find Mani’s house. He returned
home after an hour without news, which made Swami’s mother and grandmother even more
nervous. Eventually, their worry began to rub off on him and he became convinced that something
had happened to Swami. Granny seemed to blame him for Swami’s disappearance, but he
thought back over his actions during the day and couldn’t think of anything that would have
driven Swami away. He went out again, leaving his wife crying at home.

Swami’s father considers checking the hospital, but thinks that he is not brave enough to
see Swami injured if he is indeed inside. Instead he goes toward the river, praying and wondering
what he will do if he does find Swami’s body in the water. However, he sees nothing but
shadows on the water and proceeds to the railway station. He walks along the rails for about a
mile and finds nothing, stopping once to see whether a wet patch is blood. When he finds that
it is water, he thanks God.

CHAPTER 17 – THE DAY OF THE MATCH

Swami walks alone on a road branching off the familiar trunk road of Malgudi. He walks
for a mile and finds the road quiet, deserted, and unfamiliar. He wishes to be back on the trunk
road, and realizes that he has been walking for hours. Swami misses home, imagining all of
the food the cook makes and thinking of eating with his mother. As the sun begins to set,
Swami rests and then decides to go home. He thinks that his troubles at school don’t matter
after all and he is surprised that he ever thought he needed to run away. Swami regrets not
telling his father what happened and is especially sorry to miss cricket practice leading up to
the match.

Swami walks toward home, thinking of the excuses he will give his parents. After some
time, he feels that he should have reached the trunk road but still seems to be far away on an
unfamiliar road. Night falls and Swami becomes nervous, realizing that he might still be far
from home. He begins to walk faster and is unnerved by the “uncanny ghostly quality” of birds
fluttering in the quiet trees. As Swami continues, he wishes to run but is afraid of making noise.
He feels that his senses become more keen, hearing small noises that he cannot identify or
understand. Eventually, Swami even hears his name whispered through the night and thinks
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that he sees a monster crouching in the shadows, though it turns out to be a group
of trees.

Swami looks forward to reaching the trunk road soon and feels “a momentary ecstasy”
when he comes into a clearing that looks like the trunk road and he is able to see the stars
overhead. He decides to go forward without resting but quickly realizes that the road he is on
lacks some of the signs of the trunk road and is probably a different location. Beginning to walk
anyway, he soon finds himself lost in tall grass and has to turn back the way he came.

Pausing, Swami is forced to accept that he is far from home late at night, and that he
does not know how to get back. He becomes “faint with fear” and is barely able to continue
walking, and he feels the dark world around him closing in with “a sense of inhumanity.” Swami
falls to the ground and cries aloud, praying for someone to rescue him. With his imagination
running wild, Swami thinks he sees a succession of deadly creatures—elephants, tigers, cobras,
even demons—attacking him. Soon, he falls into a fantasy that he is playing cricket in the
coming match, playing well and watching his team win, with the odd addition that the Board
School Headmaster is playing for the opposing team. He collapses with exhaustion, imagining
that he is still on the cricket field.

Ranga, a man who drives a cart, is out on an early morning journey when his bull stops
unexpectedly. Ranga is surprised to find Swami sleeping in the road in front of his cart and at
first thinks he is dead, but soon realizes that Swami is a living boy from the town. Unable to
imagine how Swami got there, Ranga decides to take Swami to the office of the nearby District
Forest Officer, who will know what to do with him.

Swami regains consciousness and does not understand where he is. At first he thinks he
is at home, but then begins to remember his recent ordeal and looks around him in confusion,
unable to see clearly. He sees and hears a man talking to him and wonders why his father is
there with him. The man says that his father will arrive soon, which makes Swami even more
confused; he wonders whether the man is his father and, whether or not he is, what he is doing
there.

The man turns out to be Mr. Nair, the District Forest Officer. He recalls helping to revive
Swami and notes that Swami was not at first able to explain who he is, where he is from, or
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what happened to him. Now, he finds Swami outside, practicing cricket bowling with a tree and
some rocks. Swami thanks Mr. Nair for helping him and says how eager he is to get back in
time for his match. He asks what day it is and Mr. Nair tells him it is Sunday. Swami is horrified
at this news because the match is on Sunday, but Nair quickly amends what he said and tells
Swami that it is Saturday. He promises to get Swami home by evening if he can explain who he
is.

CHAPTER 18 – THE RETURN

On Sunday afternoon, the cricket match between M.C.C. and Y.M.U. is underway. The
M.C.C. is losing and Rajam is furious, in particular regretting that his team does not have a
good bowler. Rajam’s father interrupts the game to give him a letter about Swami, from which
Rajam learns that Swami is safe. Rajam’s father plans to leave and give the letter to Swami’s
father and asks Rajam if he would like to come. Rajam declines, saying that he doesn’t care
about Swami and wants to stay at the match. Rajam begins to tell Mani that Swami is safe, but
then remembers that he has resolved not to care about Swami and stops talking before giving
Mani the news.

Back at home, Swami is content at the attention and concern that his family and other
visitors feel for him. In addition to his delighted mother and grandmother, Swami is surrounded
by friends of his family, all of whom are glad to see him home safely. In the midst of the
celebration, Swami remembers Mr. Nair and feels guilty for not saying goodbye to him, after he
rescued him and treated him well. He is also touched at the memory of how kind Rajam’s
father and his own father were, and he remembers with happiness how everyone laughed
when he told the story of his conflict at school.

Mani arrives to visit Swami and the two friends go into the backyard to talk. Mani has
heard the story of Swami’s disappearance from Rajam and calls him a fool for running away
from the Board School Headmaster, but he also expresses concern for Swami and asks where
he was when he went missing. Swami tells Mani the whole story of his terrifying night, being
picked up by Ranga, and then being rescued by Mr. Nair and forgetting to say goodbye. Mani
recommends that Swami write him a letter of thanks and Swami agrees, saying how grateful
he is that Mr. Nair returned him in time for the cricket match.
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Mani explains, to Swami’s dismay, that the cricket match has already happened earlier
that day, Sunday. He tells the story of the team’s defeat and the ways in which it was Swami’s
fault for being absent. Swami is devastated and changes his mind about writing to Mr. Nair,
who told him that it was only Saturday. Mani also tells Swami that Rajam is furious with Swami
and will never speak to him again. Swami begs Mani to help him reconcile with Rajam, but
Mani says there is nothing he can do. Swami plans to see Rajam the following morning, and
also informs Mani that he will be returning to the Board School the following week.

CHAPTER 19 – PARTING PRESENT

Ten days later, Swami gets up early in order to get to the train station, from which Rajam
is about to leave. Rajam’s father is being transferred to a new city, which Swami learned the
previous evening from Mani. Swami feels desolate knowing that Rajam will soon be gone,
unable to imagine life without him. In particular, Swami is ashamed because he has not found
the courage to go and see Rajam since missing the cricket match. When Swami heard the
news from Mani, he asked Mani to come to his house early the next morning to go to the
station with him, but Mani said he could not because he would be sleeping at Rajam’s house.
Knowing that he is missing their final night together fills Swami with despair and jealousy.

After Mani leaves to go to Rajam’s house, Swami looks through his possessions for
something to give Rajam as a going away present. He considers giving Rajam back the green
clockwork engine Rajam gave him the previous year, but worries that Rajam might take it as a
sign that Swami no longer wishes to be friends. Eventually, Swami settles on giving Rajam a
book of fairy tales given to him by his father years before. Swami recalls that he has never
been able to read the whole thing because of all the “unknown, unpronounceable English
words in it” and thinks that Rajam will be able to read it. He inscribes it to his “dearest friend.”

Swami arrives at the station in the dark early morning, holding the book of fairy tales. He
sees Rajam and Mani get out of a car, along with Rajam’s family. He sees how tidy and refined
Rajam looks and loses his courage, hiding in the shadows rather than going to speak to him.
Rajam remains surrounded by his family and a group of policemen, and Swami is unable to
find a gap in which to speak to Rajam. The train arrives and Rajam’s mother gets in as the
policemen say goodbye to Rajam and Rajam’s father. Swami finds Mani and asks if Rajam will
speak to him, and Mani says that he will.
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Rajam gets onto the train and Swami asks for Mani’s help giving him the book. Mani runs
to the window and calls to Rajam that Swami is there to say goodbye, but Rajam replies only by
saying goodbye to Mani. Mani points out Swami again, and Swami calls out to Rajam in despair.
After looking at Swami for a moment, Rajam says something but his words are drowned out by
the noise of the train. The train begins to move.

Swami hands the book of fairy tales to Mani in panic, and Mani runs alongside the train to
give it to Rajam. Rajam takes the book and waves goodbye as the train departs. Swami waves
back, watching as the train vanishes from sight. Swami tells Mani that he is glad he got to say
goodbye and Mani tells Swami that Rajam will write to him. Swami is surprised but Mani claims
that he gave Rajam Swami’s address. Swami accuses Mani of lying and asks him what the
address is; Mani is unable to say. Still, he insists that he did give the address to Rajam. Swami
looks at Mani and is ultimately unable to tell whether or not he is joking or sincere.

5.5 Review Questions

1. Comment on the use of irony and humour in ‘’Swami and Friends”

2. Comment critically on the title of the story.

3. Describe the happiness and troubles of childhood as portrayed in the novel of swami and
friends.

4. Sketch the character of Swaminathan.

5. Enumerate the theme of innocence of youth in the novel “Swami and Friends”

5.6 WEB SOURCES

 https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-fiction-definition-types.html

 https://sites.google.com/site/yourownnovelstudy/the-learning-objectives

 http://www.supersummary.com/swami-and-friends/themes/

 http://knowledgemerger.com/swami-and-friends-character-sketch/

 http://sittingbee.com/swami-and-friends-r-k-narayan/
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BA English

First Year - First Semester

CORE PAPER II

INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

SECTION A (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

Answer any ten questions out of twelve questions
All questions carry equal marks

1. When was the British East India Company formed?

2. Write a note on Raja Rao.

3. Who was Chitra Banerjee?

4. What are the dangers posed by nuclear weapons?

5. Write a note on use of nature imagery by Nissin Elekiel.

6. Write a brief note on Arun Kolatkar.

7. How does Vikram Seth descibe the beauty of the Evening Wheat.

8. Where did Swami and his friends live?

9. What are fileflies?

10. Write a note on Manohar Shetty.

11. How many crabs are there is the poem “The Crab”.

12. What is the main theme is the poem summer woode?

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SECTION B (5 x 5 = 25 marks)
Answer any Five questions out of Sevenquestions
All questions carry equal marks

13. Write a brief essay on the expansion of the East India Company.

14. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “In India”.

15. Write a brief essay on women novelists in India.

16. How does Sarojini Naidu portray the relationship of man with nature in her poems?

17. Give a summary of the poem Tiger and the Dear by Autobindo.

18. How does the essay Argumentatic Indian explore Indian history, customs and identify?

19. Bring out th eaptness of the title Dance like a man.

SECTION C (3 x 10 = 30 marks)
Answer any Three questions out of Five questions
All questions carry equal marks

20. Elaborate on the nativisation of English.

21. Write in detail about Macaulay’s Minute.

22. What is the necessity of the world community according to Dr. S.Radhakrishnan?

23. Discuss genders issue as portrayed in Dance like a man.

24. Comment on the use of irony and hermour in Swami and Friends.