NETWORK BASICS
Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.
dq
i (Ampere)
dt
t
Charge transferred between time to and t q idt
to
Sign Convention: A negative current of –5A flowing in one direction is same as a
current of +5A in opposite direction.
Voltage: Voltage or potential difference is the energy required to move a unit
charge through an element, measured in volts.
Power: It is time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
Law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit.
Algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.
i.e. P = 0
Circuit Elements:
Resistor: Linear and bilateral (conduct from both direction)
In time domain V(t) = I(t)R
In s domain V(s) = RI(s)
ρl
R= ohm
A
l = length of conductor, = resistivity, A = area of cross section
Extension of wire to n times results in increase in resistance: R ' n2R
R
Compression of wire results in decrease in resistance: R'
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor
which is unilateral.
t
Cdv(t) 1
Time Domain: i(t) = v(t) i(t)dt
dt C
1
In s-domain: I(s) = sCV(s) V(s) =
I(s)
sC
Capacitor doesn’t allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal
capacitor is zero.
1
Impedance Zc =-jXc & Xc = ; Xc Capacitive reactance ; = 2f
ωC
Inductor: Linear and Bilateral element
t
di (t ) 1
Time Domain: v(t ) L i (t ) v(t )dt
dt L
Impedance Z L jX L & XL L
1
In s-domain V(s) = sL I(s) I(s) =
V(s)
sL
Inductor doesn’t allowed sudden change of current, until impulse of voltage is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.
Transformer: 4 terminal or 2-port devices.
I1 I2
+ +
Input Output
N1 N2 V2 port
port V1
– –
N1 N 2 : Step down transformer N 2 N1 : Step up transformer
V1 N1 I1 N 2
V2 N 2 I 2 N1
N1
Where K Turns ratio.
N2
Transformer doesn’t work as amplifier because current decreases in same amount
power remain constant.
Gyrator:
I1 I2
Ro
V1 V2
R o Coefficient of Gyrator
V1 R o I 2 V2 R o I1
If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.
Voltage Source:
In practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so voltage across the
element varies with respect to current.
Ideal voltmeter, RV (Internal resistance)
Current Source:
In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with
respect to the voltage across element.
Ideal Ammeter, Ra 0 (Internal resistance)
Dependent and Independent Source:
Independent Source: Voltage or current source whose values doesn’t depend on
any other parameters. E.g. Generator etc.
Dependent Source: Voltage or current source whose values depend upon other
parameters like current, voltage.
The handling of independent and dependent voltage source is identical except.
(i) In Thevenin and Norton Theorem (ii) Superposition Theorem
Where, (i) All independent voltage sources are short circuited.
(ii) All independent current sources are open circuited.
(iii) All dependent voltage and current sources are left as they are.
A network in which all network elements are physically separable is known as
lumped network.
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc, are not
physically separate for analysis purpose, is called distributed network. E.g.
Transmission line.
If an element is capable of delivering energy independently, then it is called
active element.
Example: Voltage source, Current source
If it is not capable of delivering energy, then it is passive element.
Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
If voltage and current across an element are related to each other through a
constant coefficient then the element is called as linear element otherwise it is
called as non-linear.
When elements characteristics are independent of direction of current then
element is called bi-directional element otherwise it is called as unidirectional.
Ex: R, L & C.
Diode is a unidirectional element.
Voltage and current sources are also unidirectional elements.
Every linear element should obey the bi-directional property but vice versa as is
not necessary.
Internal resistance of voltage source is in series with the source. Internal
resistance of ideal voltage source is zero.
Internal resistance of current source is in parellel with the source. Internal
resistance of ideal current source is infinite.
