AGSSL 6: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

PURPOSE: THIS MODULE EQUIPS LEARNERS WITH KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ON BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ANIMAL PRODUCTION

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE:

ON COMPLETION OF THIS MODULE, LEARNERS ARE ABLE TO:

AGSSL 6.1 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

AGSSL 6.2 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF REARING ONE NAMED FARM ANIMAL

LEARNING OUTCOME AGSSL 6.1 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
6.1.1 DESCRIBE THE CLASSES OF ANIMAL FEEDS.

6.1.1 CLASSES: ROUGHAGES, CONCENTRATES, SUPPLEMENTS

Classes of Animal Feeds

Animal feeds can be classified into three main categories: Roughages, Concentrates, and
Supplements. These classes of feeds provide different types of nutrients that animals require for
growth, reproduction, maintenance, and production.

1. Roughages (Bulk Feeds)

Roughages are feeds that are high in fiber and provide the necessary bulk to aid in digestion.
They are typically low in energy but are essential for ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) as they
require fiber for proper rumen function. Roughages are typically plant-based and include:

Types of Roughages:

1. Dry Roughages

These roughages have low moisture content (less than 15%) and are mainly used for feeding
livestock during dry seasons. Examples include:

 Hay – Dried grasses and legumes like alfalfa, timothy, and clover.
 Straw – Stalks left after harvesting cereal crops like wheat, barley, and rice.
 Chaff – Husks and other dry remains of harvested grains.
 Stover – Dried stalks and leaves of maize, sorghum, or millet left in the field after
harvesting.

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 2. Succulent Roughages

These roughages contain high moisture content (above 70%) and are often fresh or fermented.
Examples include:

 Pasture grasses – Fresh grass from fields, such as Napier grass, Kikuyu grass, and
Rhodes grass.
 Silage – Fermented green fodder stored in silos to preserve nutrients.
 Leguminous fodder – Plants like lucerne, clover, and desmodium that provide protein-
rich roughage.
 Root crops and tubers – Fodder beets, carrots, and turnips used as animal feed.

Nutritional Characteristics:

 High in fiber (cellulose), which is necessary for maintaining rumen health in ruminants.
 Lower in digestible energy and protein compared to concentrates.
 Rich in vitamins and minerals, especially when fresh.

Importance:

 Essential for the proper functioning of the digestive system, particularly for ruminants
that need fiber to stimulate rumination.
 Helps in maintaining a healthy gastrointestinal tract and preventing digestive disorders
like bloat or constipation.

2. Concentrates (Energy Feeds)

Concentrates are feeds that are low in fiber but high in energy, protein, and other nutrients. They
are typically used to supplement the diet when high energy or protein levels are needed,
especially for growing, pregnant, or lactating animals.

Types of Concentrate Feeds

Concentrate feeds are low-fiber, high-energy, and nutrient-dense feeds that supplement
roughages in the diet of livestock. They are primarily classified into two categories:

1. Energy Concentrates

These feeds are rich in carbohydrates and fats, providing the primary source of energy for
livestock. Examples include:

 Cereal grains – Maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, oats.

 Roots and tubers – Cassava, sweet potatoes.
 Molasses – A byproduct of sugar processing that provides quick energy.

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  Fats and oils – Used in small quantities to increase energy density in feeds.

2. Protein Concentrates

These feeds contain high levels of protein and are essential for growth, milk production, and
reproduction. They can be of plant or animal origin.

(a) Plant-Based Protein Concentrates

 Oilseed meals – Soya bean meal, cottonseed meal, sunflower meal, groundnut cake.
 Leguminous grains – Beans, peas, cowpeas, and lucerne.

(b) Animal-Based Protein Concentrates

 Fish meal – Made from dried and ground fish or fish processing residues.
 Meat and bone meal – Derived from slaughterhouse byproducts.
 Blood meal – Processed dried blood from animals, rich in protein.
 Milk byproducts – Whey and skim milk powder.

Nutritional Characteristics:

 High in digestible energy, especially from carbohydrates (starches and sugars).

 Lower in fiber, which makes them more easily digestible.
 Typically higher in protein (e.g., soybean meal) or fat (e.g., oilseeds) compared to
roughages.

Importance of Concentrate Feeds

 Provide essential nutrients needed for growth, reproduction, and production.

 Improve weight gain in meat animals and enhance milk production in dairy animals.
 Balance nutrient deficiencies in roughages, ensuring a complete diet.

3. Supplements (Additional Nutrient Sources)

Supplement feeds are added to an animal’s diet to enhance nutrition, improve health, and boost
productivity. They provide essential nutrients that may be lacking in roughages and concentrates.
Supplement feeds are classified into three main categories:

Types of Supplements

1. Mineral Supplements

These provide essential minerals required for bone development, metabolic functions, and
overall health. Examples include:

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  Macrominerals (required in large amounts): Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Magnesium
(Mg), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na).
 Microminerals (required in small amounts): Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Manganese (Mn), Selenium (Se).
 Common mineral supplements:
o Limestone (rich in calcium).
o Dicalcium phosphate (provides calcium and phosphorus).
o Salt licks (sodium and trace minerals).
o Bone meal (calcium and phosphorus source).

2. Vitamin Supplements

These provide essential vitamins necessary for growth, immunity, and reproduction. They are
commonly added to livestock feeds in synthetic or natural forms. Examples include:

 Vitamin A – Essential for vision, growth, and immune function.

 Vitamin D – Helps in calcium absorption and bone development.
 Vitamin E – Acts as an antioxidant and supports reproductive health.
 Vitamin B complex – Aids in energy metabolism and nervous system function.
 Sources of vitamin supplements:
o Green leafy forages (Vitamin A).
o Fish oils and sun-dried feeds (Vitamin D).
o Commercial vitamin premixes.

3. Feed Additives

These are non-nutritive substances added to feed to enhance performance, improve digestion,
and prevent diseases. Examples include:

 Probiotics and Prebiotics – Promote gut health by increasing beneficial bacteria.

 Enzymes – Aid in breaking down feed components for better digestion.
 Antibiotics – Help prevent bacterial infections and improve feed efficiency.
 Growth Promoters – Improve weight gain and feed conversion ratio.
 Antioxidants – Prevent spoilage of feed and improve shelf life.

Nutritional Characteristics:

 Provide specific nutrients (vitamins, minerals, or amino acids) that may be lacking in
roughages or concentrates.
 Typically highly concentrated in specific nutrients like minerals, vitamins, or amino
acids.

Importance of Supplement Feeds

 Improve overall health, growth, and production efficiency.

 Correct nutritional deficiencies in roughages and concentrates.

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  Enhance immunity and disease resistance.
 Increase fertility and reproduction rates.

Conclusion

Each class of animal feed—roughages, concentrates, and supplements—plays a crucial role in

ensuring the optimal health and productivity of animals. Roughages provide necessary fiber for
digestion and rumen function, concentrates offer high energy and protein to meet growth and
production needs, and supplements provide essential nutrients to balance and enhance the diet.
Understanding the correct balance and inclusion of these feed types is key to maximizing the
efficiency and well-being of livestock.

6.1.2 DESCRIBE NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEEDS FOR A NAMED ANIMAL

6.1.2 Nutritional composition: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals

Nutritional Composition of Animal Feeds for Dairy Cattle

Dairy cattle require a balanced diet to support milk production, growth, reproduction, and
maintenance. Below is the description of the nutritional composition of feeds designed for dairy
cattle:

1. Proteins

 Function:
o Essential for milk production, tissue repair, growth, and reproduction.
 Sources:
o High-protein feeds: Soybean meal, cottonseed meal, fish meal, alfalfa, clover.
o Crude protein requirement: 14–18% of total dry matter (DM) intake, depending
on lactation stage.

2. Fats

 Function:
o Provide a concentrated source of energy (more energy per gram than
carbohydrates).
o Improve body condition and milk fat content.
 Sources:
o Vegetable oils (e.g., soybean or canola oil), animal fats, and oilseeds (e.g.,
sunflower or cottonseed).
o Fat content: 4–6% of the total diet.

3. Carbohydrates

 Function:

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 o Primary source of energy for maintenance, growth, and milk production.
o Provide energy for rumen microbes to synthesize proteins.
 Sources:
o Fiber: Hay, silage, grass, and crop residues (promote rumen health).
o Non-fiber carbohydrates: Grains (maize, barley, sorghum), molasses.
o Carbohydrate content: 50–70% of the total diet.

4. Vitamins

 Function:
o Essential for metabolic functions, immunity, reproduction, and overall health.
 Key Vitamins:
o Vitamin A: For vision, reproduction, and immune function (found in green
forages).
o Vitamin D: For calcium and phosphorus metabolism (from sun-cured hay and
sunlight).
o Vitamin E: For immune function and antioxidant protection (found in alfalfa and
grains).
 Sources:
o Green forages, hay, vitamin supplements.

5. Minerals

 Function:
o Crucial for bone strength, milk production, enzyme functions, and metabolic
processes.
 Key Minerals:
o Calcium: For milk production and bone health (found in limestone, dicalcium
phosphate).
o Phosphorus: For energy metabolism and bone health (found in grains, bone
meal).
o Magnesium: Prevents grass tetany in lactating cows (from supplements).

Trace Minerals: Zinc, copper, selenium, and iodine (added as mineral premixes).

 Sources:
o Mineral blocks, salt licks, and fortified concentrates.

Example of a Balanced Dairy Cattle Feed

 Roughages: 50–60% of the total diet (e.g., alfalfa hay, maize silage).
 Concentrates: 30–40% of the total diet (e.g., maize, soybean meal, sunflower cake).
 Supplements: 5–10% (e.g., mineral blocks, vitamin premixes).

This composition ensures the cattle meet their energy, protein, vitamin, and mineral
requirements for optimum milk production and health.
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6.1.3 IDENTIFY SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR PREPARATION OF ANIMAL FEEDS.

6.1.3 Sources of nutrients: cereals, legumes, supplement mixtures

Sources of Nutrients Required for Preparation of Animal Feeds

Animal feeds are prepared by combining various sources of nutrients to meet the dietary needs of
livestock. Below is a breakdown of the primary sources of nutrients:

1. Cereals (Energy Sources)

 Purpose: Provide carbohydrates for energy to sustain growth, maintenance, and

production (e.g., milk, meat, or eggs).
 Examples:
o Maize (Corn): High in starch, a primary energy source in many feed
formulations.
o Sorghum: Good energy alternative, drought-tolerant.
o Wheat and Barley: Provide starch and some protein.
o Oats: Rich in fiber, suitable for young or lactating animals.
 Usage: Added to feed mixtures for energy supplementation.

2. Legumes (Protein Sources)

 Purpose: Supply proteins essential for growth, tissue repair, milk production, and
reproduction.
 Examples:
o Soybean Meal: High-quality protein (contains essential amino acids).
o Groundnut Cake: Residue from groundnut oil extraction, rich in protein.
o Sunflower Cake: By-product of sunflower oil extraction, moderate protein
content.
o Lupins and Peas: Alternative protein sources.
o Alfalfa and Clover: Forage legumes that supply both protein and minerals.
 Usage: Incorporated into feed rations for protein enrichment.

3. Supplement Mixtures (Vitamins and Minerals)

 Purpose: Provide essential vitamins and minerals required for various metabolic
functions, immunity, and bone development.
 Examples:
o Minerals:
 Calcium: From limestone, dicalcium phosphate, or bone meal.
 Phosphorus: Found in rock phosphate or dicalcium phosphate.
 Salt: Provides sodium and chlorine.
 Trace Minerals: Added as premixes (e.g., zinc, copper, selenium).
o Vitamins:
 Vitamin A: From green forages or synthetic supplements.

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  Vitamin D: From sun-cured forages or synthetic forms.
 Vitamin E: Found in grains and added as supplements.
 Usage: Included as premixes or blocks to balance deficiencies.

4. Additional Sources of Nutrients

 Fats and Oils:

o From vegetable oils (e.g., soybean oil, canola oil) or animal fats (e.g., tallow).
o Enhance energy density of the feed.
 By-products:
o Brewer’s grains, molasses, bran, and husks (energy and fiber).
o Cottonseed cake and copra meal (protein and fats).
 Forages:
o Napier grass, maize silage, or hay provide roughage and additional fiber.

Balanced Feed Preparation

To formulate animal feed:

1. Base Energy: Use cereals (e.g., maize, sorghum, barley).

2. Protein Supplementation: Add legumes (e.g., soybean meal, groundnut cake).
3. Mineral and Vitamin Enhancement: Include supplements like dicalcium phosphate,
salt, and premixes.
4. Optional Additives: Incorporate fats or oils to boost energy and improve palatability.

Combining these ingredients ensures the feed meets the nutritional requirements of the target
animal.

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6.1.4 DISCUSS THE REQUIREMENTS NECESSARY FOR FORMULATING FEEDS OF IDENTIFIED ANIMALS

6.1.4 Identified animals: ruminant, non-ruminant, and poultry (age, type, weight)

Requirements for Formulating Feeds for Ruminants, Non-Ruminants, and

Poultry

Formulating balanced feeds for different livestock species requires an understanding of their age,
type (purpose), and weight to meet their specific nutritional needs. The formulation should
consider protein, energy, fiber, vitamins, and minerals based on the animal’s growth stage and
production purpose.

1. Feed Formulation Requirements for Ruminants

1. Ruminants (e.g., Cattle, Sheep, Goats)

Ruminants are herbivores with a specialized digestive system (rumen) that allows them to
digest fibrous feeds through microbial fermentation (Ruminants: Cattle, Sheep, Goats)

Factors to Consider:

 Age: Young animals (calves, lambs, kids) need higher protein for growth.
 Type: Dairy cows require higher energy and calcium for milk production, while beef
cattle need more energy for weight gain.
 Weight: Heavier animals require more feed but should maintain a balanced diet to
prevent over-conditioning.

Feed Components:

Category Protein Energy Fiber Examples of Feed Sources

(%) (%)
Young ruminants 18–20% High 5–10%
Milk replacers, soybean meal,
(starter feed) alfalfa
Growing ruminants 14–16% Medium 10–15% Pasture, silage, maize meal,
(heifers, steers) oilseed cakes
Dairy cows (high milk 16–18% High 15–20% Maize silage, hay, concentrates,
yield) mineral mix
Beef cattle (finishing 12–14% High 10–15% Corn, barley, wheat bran,
stage) protein supplements

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2. Feed Formulation Requirements for Non-Ruminants
(Non-Ruminants: Pigs, Rabbits, Horses)

Non-ruminants are monogastric animals that rely on enzymatic digestion and require highly
digestible feeds.

Factors to Consider:

 Age: Young animals require more protein for muscle and bone development.
 Type: Breeding animals need higher energy and minerals, while fattening animals need
more energy for weight gain.
 Weight: Feed must be adjusted as weight increases to maintain growth and prevent
obesity.

Feed Components:

Category Protein Energy Fiber Examples of Feed Sources

(%) (%)
Piglets (starter feed) 18–22% High 3–5% Milk replacer, soybean meal,
maize meal
Grower pigs (weaning to 14–18% High 5–8% Maize, wheat bran, soya
market weight) meal
Breeding sows and boars 12–16% Mediu 8–12% Cassava, fish meal, mineral
m premixes
Rabbits (growing & 14–18% Mediu 15–20% Lucerne, alfalfa, barley,
breeding) m carrots
Horses (work or racehorses) 12–14% High 10–15% Oats, hay, beet pulp,
flaxseed

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3. Feed Formulation Requirements for Poultry
(Poultry: Broilers, Layers, Breeders)

Non-ruminants are monogastric animals that rely on enzymatic digestion and require highly
digestible feeds.

Factors to Consider:

 Age: Chicks require high protein for rapid growth, while mature birds need balanced
maintenance diets.
 Type: Broilers (meat birds) need energy-dense feeds, while layers (egg producers) need
more calcium and protein.
 Weight: Feed amounts are adjusted as birds grow to optimize feed efficiency

Feed Components:

Category Protein Energy Calcium Examples of Feed Sources

(%) (%)
Chicks (starter feed, 0-4 20–24% High 1.0% Soybean meal, maize, fish
weeks) meal
Broiler grower (4-6 18–22% High 0.9% Maize, wheat, oilseeds
weeks)
Broiler finisher (6+ 16–20% High 0.8% Corn, soybean meal, fats
weeks)
Layer pullets (growing, 8- 14–16% Medium 1.5–2.0% Wheat, barley, calcium
18 weeks) supplements
Laying hens (egg 16–18% Medium 3.5–4.0% Maize, soybean, limestone,
production) oyster shell
Breeding stock (roosters 17–19% Medium 2.5–3.5% Sorghum, sunflower cake,
& hens) minerals

Key Considerations in Feed Formulation:

1. Protein Content: Higher for younger and high-production animals.

2. Energy Levels: Must be balanced to prevent obesity or poor growth.
3. Fiber Content: Essential for digestion in ruminants and rabbits but limited in poultry and
pigs.
4. Vitamins and Minerals: Must be included for immunity, bone strength, and
reproduction.

Feed formulation is a critical process that ensures animals receive adequate nutrition based
on their physiological and production needs. Below is a discussion of the requirements
necessary for formulating feeds for ruminants, non-ruminants, and poultry, considering age,
type, and weight:

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6.1.5 DESCRIBE THE PREPARATION OF FEEDS ACCORDING TO LIVESTOCK REQUIREMENTS.

Preparation of Feeds According to Livestock Requirements

(Ruminants, Non-Ruminants, and Poultry)

The preparation of animal feeds must be tailored to the nutritional needs of different livestock
species based on age, production stage, and purpose (meat, milk, eggs, or breeding). Below is a
guide on how to prepare balanced feeds for ruminants, non-ruminants, and poultry.

1. Preparation of Feeds for Ruminants

(Ruminants: Cattle, Sheep, Goats)

Feed Composition for Ruminants:

 Energy sources: Maize meal, sorghum, wheat bran, molasses.

 Protein sources: Sunflower cake, soya meal, fish meal, cottonseed cake.
 Fiber sources: Hay, silage, fresh pasture, rice bran.
 Minerals & vitamins: Salt, bone meal, mineral premixes, vitamin supplements.

Feed Formulation for Different Stages of Ruminants:

Category Feed Ingredients & Proportions (%)

Calf Starter (0-3 50% maize meal, 20% wheat bran, 15% soybean meal, 10%
months) alfalfa, 5% mineral mix.
Growing Heifers & 40% maize, 30% hay/silage, 15% soya meal, 10% sunflower
Steers cake, 5% mineral mix.
Dairy Cow (Milking 35% maize, 25% hay/silage, 20% protein supplements, 10%
Stage) molasses, 10% minerals.
Beef Cattle (Finishing 50% maize, 25% wheat bran, 10% protein meal, 10% molasses,
Feed) 5% minerals.

Preparation Process:

1. Grinding & Mixing: Grind maize, wheat bran, and protein meals to make a fine mixture.
2. Adding Fiber & Energy Sources: Mix in hay, silage, or molasses to improve
palatability.
3. Incorporating Minerals & Vitamins: Add bone meal, salt, and mineral premixes to
balance the diet.
4. Storage & Feeding: Store in a dry place and provide feed according to weight and
production stage.

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2. Preparation of Feeds for Non-Ruminants
(Non-Ruminants: Pigs, Rabbits, Horses)

Feed Composition for Non-Ruminants:

 Energy sources: Maize, barley, wheat bran, cassava.

 Protein sources: Fish meal, groundnut cake, soybean meal, dried milk.
 Fiber sources: Lucerne, alfalfa, vegetable waste.
 Minerals & vitamins: Salt, limestone, bone meal, vitamin premixes.

Feed Formulation for Different Stages of Non-Ruminants:

Category Feed Ingredients & Proportions (%)

60% maize, 20% fish meal, 10% milk powder, 5% soybean meal,
Piglets (0-2 months)
5% minerals.
Growing Pigs (2-5 50% maize, 20% wheat bran, 15% soybean meal, 10% fish meal, 5%
months) minerals.
Fattening Pigs (5+ 55% maize, 25% wheat bran, 10% protein meal, 5% fats/oils, 5%
months) minerals.
40% maize, 30% wheat bran, 15% soybean meal, 10% fish meal, 5%
Breeding Sows & Boars
minerals.

Preparation Process:

1. Grinding Ingredients: Maize, wheat, and soybeans should be ground into a fine meal.
2. Mixing the Components: Add protein meals, fiber sources, and minerals in the right
proportions.
3. Adding Vitamins & Minerals: Ensure proper mixing of vitamin premixes and mineral
salts.
4. Storage & Feeding: Keep feed dry and adjust feeding quantities based on weight and
production.

3. Preparation of Feeds for Poultry

(Poultry: Broilers, Layers, Breeding Stock)

Feed Composition for Poultry:

 Energy sources: Maize, wheat, sorghum, rice bran.

 Protein sources: Fish meal, soybean meal, sunflower cake.
 Minerals & vitamins: Oyster shell (for calcium), bone meal, salt, vitamin supplements.

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Feed Formulation for Different Poultry Stages:

Category Feed Ingredients & Proportions (%)

Chick Starter (0-4 50% maize, 20% fish meal, 15% soybean meal, 10% wheat bran, 5%
weeks) vitamins & minerals.
Broiler Grower (4-6 55% maize, 20% wheat bran, 15% protein meals, 5% fat, 5%
weeks) minerals.
Broiler Finisher (6+
60% maize, 15% wheat bran, 10% fish meal, 10% fat, 5% minerals.
weeks)
Layer Mash (Laying 50% maize, 20% wheat bran, 15% protein meal, 10% calcium (oyster
Hens) shell), 5% minerals.

Preparation Process:

1. Grinding & Mixing: Maize, wheat, and protein sources should be finely ground for
uniform feed.
2. Adding Minerals & Calcium: For layers, ensure enough calcium (oyster shell or
limestone) is included.
3. Incorporating Vitamins: Mix in vitamin supplements to boost immunity and egg
production.
4. Storage & Feeding: Store in a cool, dry place and feed according to age and weight.

Key Considerations in Feed Preparation:

1. Balance the Nutrients: Ensure the right mix of energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
2. Adjust for Growth Stages: Young animals need more protein; mature animals need
more energy.
3. Use Quality Ingredients: Avoid moldy or spoiled feed to prevent diseases.
4. Proper Mixing & Storage: Ensure even distribution of nutrients and store in dry
conditions.
5. Supplement if Necessary: Provide mineral licks or vitamin injections where feed lacks.

Conclusion

Proper feed preparation improves livestock growth, productivity, and health. Whether for
ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats), non-ruminants (pigs, rabbits, horses), or poultry (broilers,
layers, breeders), feed formulation should match age, type, and weight for optimal
performance.

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6.1.6 INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDS ON PERFORMANCE OF ANIMALS.

Investigating the Effects of Different Feeds on Animal Performance

The type and quality of feed play a critical role in determining the performance of livestock.
Factors such as growth rate, milk production, egg production, reproductive success, and overall
health are directly influenced by feed composition and formulation. Below is an exploration of
how different feeds affect animal performance:

1. Effects of Energy Feeds on Performance

Energy feeds, primarily from cereals (e.g., maize, wheat, sorghum), provide the carbohydrates
and fats needed for metabolic activities and production.

Positive Effects:

 Growth Rate: Adequate energy improves weight gain in broilers, pigs, and ruminants.
 Milk Production: Dairy animals produce more milk with energy-dense feeds.
 Work Efficiency: Draft animals (e.g., oxen) perform better when fed energy-rich diets.

Negative Effects:

 Excess Energy: Leads to obesity, decreased fertility, and metabolic disorders like ketosis
in dairy cows.
 Insufficient Energy: Causes poor growth, reduced productivity, and weight loss.

2. Effects of Protein Feeds on Performance

Protein-rich feeds (e.g., soybean meal, fish meal, groundnut cake) provide essential amino acids
for tissue repair, muscle development, and reproduction.

Positive Effects:

 Growth and Development: Young animals grow faster when fed high-protein diets.
 Milk and Egg Production: Protein is vital for producing milk proteins and albumin in
eggs.
 Reproductive Performance: Adequate protein improves conception rates and reduces
calving intervals.

Negative Effects:

 Excess Protein: Increases feed costs and may lead to nitrogen waste, affecting the
environment.
 Deficiency: Results in stunted growth, poor egg quality, and reduced lactation.

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3. Effects of Fiber Feeds on Performance

Fiber is essential for ruminants, aiding digestion and promoting rumen health. Common sources
include hay, silage, and grasses.

Positive Effects:

 Rumen Functionality: Fiber maintains proper rumen fermentation and prevents acidosis.
 Milk Fat Content: Adequate fiber increases milk fat percentage in dairy cows.
 Satiety: Fiber satisfies hunger in ruminants, reducing stress and aggression.

Negative Effects:

 Low Digestibility: Excessive fiber reduces energy intake, slowing growth.

 Inadequate Fiber: Leads to digestive issues like acidosis and displaced abomasum.

4. Effects of Mineral and Vitamin Supplements on Performance

Minerals and vitamins are critical for metabolic processes, bone development, immunity, and
overall health.

Positive Effects:

 Bone Strength: Calcium and phosphorus promote strong bones and teeth.
 Reproductive Success: Selenium and vitamin E improve fertility and prevent
reproductive disorders.
 Immune Function: Vitamins A, D, and E enhance immunity, reducing disease
susceptibility.

Negative Effects:

 Deficiencies: Lead to diseases such as rickets (calcium deficiency) and anemia (iron
deficiency).
 Toxicity: Over-supplementation of certain minerals (e.g., selenium) can be harmful.

5. Effects of Feed Processing on Performance

Processing methods like grinding, pelleting, and fermentation improve feed palatability,
digestibility, and nutrient availability.

Positive Effects:

 Digestibility: Grinding grains enhances nutrient absorption in monogastric animals.

 Reduced Wastage: Pelleting prevents feed wastage and improves feed intake.
 Silage: Fermented feeds improve the palatability and energy value of roughages.

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Negative Effects:

 Over-Processing: Reduces fiber content and alters nutrient balance.

 Spoilage: Poorly fermented silage or moldy pellets harm animal health.

6. Effects of Specific Feed Types on Animal Categories

Ruminants:

 High-fiber diets promote rumen health and milk fat production.

 Energy-dense feeds support lactation and weight gain but must be balanced to prevent
acidosis.

Non-Ruminants (Pigs):

 Protein and energy-rich feeds are crucial for muscle development and fattening.
 Imbalanced diets lead to poor feed conversion ratios and lower growth rates.

Poultry:

 Starter feeds high in protein support chick growth.

 Layers require calcium-rich feeds for eggshell formation.
 Broilers thrive on energy-dense feeds for rapid weight gain.

Conclusion

The performance of animals is highly dependent on the quality, composition, and balance of
their diets. Feeding practices should match the specific nutritional needs of the livestock, their
production stage, and environmental conditions. Regular monitoring and adjustments to feeding
programs are necessary to maximize productivity, minimize waste, and ensure animal health.

6.1.7 DISCUSS IMPORTANCE OF FEED ADDITIVES IN ANIMAL DIETS

Importance of Feed Additives in Animal Diets

Feed additives are non-nutritive substances added to animal feed to improve its quality,
enhance animal performance, and support health. These additives are essential in modern
animal production systems, especially where productivity and efficiency are prioritized. Below
is a detailed discussion on the importance of feed additives in animal diets:

1. Promote Growth and Productivity

 Growth Promoters:
o Additives like antibiotics (in sub-therapeutic doses) and hormonal growth
promoters stimulate faster growth in animals.
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 o Improved feed efficiency allows animals to gain more weight with less feed.
 Performance Enhancers:
o Amino acid additives, such as lysine and methionine, enhance muscle
development and improve carcass quality in meat-producing animals.

2. Improve Feed Efficiency and Digestibility

 Enzymes:
o Enzymes like phytase, cellulase, and protease enhance nutrient breakdown and
absorption.
o Phytase increases the availability of phosphorus from plant-based feeds.
 Probiotics and Prebiotics:
o Probiotics (e.g., Lactobacillus species) improve gut microflora, enhancing
digestion and nutrient utilization.
o Prebiotics (e.g., oligosaccharides) feed beneficial gut bacteria, improving overall
digestive health.

3. Prevent Nutritional Deficiencies

 Vitamin and Mineral Premixes:

o Essential vitamins (A, D, E, K, B-complex) and minerals (calcium, phosphorus,
zinc, selenium) are added to prevent deficiencies.
o They support bone development, reproduction, and immune system function.
 Trace Elements:
o Small amounts of trace elements like copper and iodine are added to maintain
metabolic processes and prevent deficiency-related disorders.

4. Enhance Animal Health and Immunity

 Antibiotics:
o Added to feed in controlled doses to prevent bacterial infections, reducing
mortality and morbidity.
 Antioxidants:
o Protect feed from spoilage and reduce oxidative stress in animals, improving their
overall health.
 Immune Modulators:
o Substances like beta-glucans boost immunity, helping animals fight diseases.

5. Improve Reproductive Performance

 Feed additives like selenium and vitamin E enhance fertility and reproductive success.
 Additives can improve egg quality in poultry and enhance milk yield in dairy animals.

6. Maintain Feed Quality and Safety

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  Preservatives:
o Added to prevent spoilage from mold, bacteria, and oxidation, ensuring feed
remains safe and nutritious.
 Mycotoxin Binders:
o Protect animals from toxins produced by molds (e.g., aflatoxins), preventing
health issues and production losses.
 Flavors and Sweeteners:
o Improve palatability, encouraging animals to eat more and reducing feed wastage.

7. Control Diseases and Parasites

 Coccidiostats:
o Prevent and control coccidiosis in poultry and other livestock.
 Dewormers:
o Some additives are formulated to combat internal parasites, improving health and
productivity.

8. Enhance Product Quality

 Meat Quality:
o Feed additives like vitamin E improve meat shelf life and reduce oxidative
spoilage.
 Eggshell Quality:
o Calcium and phosphorus additives enhance eggshell strength in poultry.
 Milk Yield and Quality:
o Additives like buffers (e.g., sodium bicarbonate) stabilize rumen pH, improving
milk yield and quality in dairy cows.

9. Address Environmental Concerns

 Reduction of Waste:
o Additives like enzymes improve nutrient utilization, reducing undigested waste in
manure.
 Lower Methane Emissions:
o Some feed additives reduce methane production in ruminants, contributing to
environmental sustainability.

Conclusion

Feed additives are indispensable in modern animal diets. They enhance growth, feed efficiency,
health, and productivity, while also improving product quality and environmental sustainability.
Proper use of feed additives, guided by scientific research and regulations, ensures optimal
results and supports sustainable livestock production.

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 6.1.8 CLASSIFY LIVESTOCK DISEASES ACCORDING TO THEIR CAUSATIVE AGENTS

6.1.8 Diseases: bacterial, fungal, viral, deficiency, protozoan, rickettsial

Livestock diseases are classified based on the microorganisms or factors causing them. These
include bacterial, fungal, viral, deficiency, protozoan, and rickettsial diseases. Below is a detailed
classification:

Classification of animals’ diseases basing on causative agent and host animals affected.

Cause Disease Causative agent Host animal (s)

Viral diseases Foot and mouth Virus Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Rabies Cattle, goats, dogs, cats
New castle Poultry e.g. chickens
Swine fever Pigs
Protozoan diseases Trypanosomiasis Coccidiosis Protozoa Cattle
Poultry e.g. chickens
Ricketsial diseases Heart water Ricketsia Cattle, sheep, goats
Bacterial diseases Tuberculosis bacteria Poultry, cattle, sheep, goats
Mastitis Cattle especially dairy animals
Botulism Cattle, sheep, goats
Contagious abortion (CA) Cattle, sheep, goats, donkey
Anthrax Cattle, mammals
Contagious Bovine Pleuro- pneumonia (CBPP) Cattle
Deficiency diseases Aphosphorosis Lack of phosphorus Cattle, donkey
Rickets lack of calcium lack Cattle, poultry Piglets
Piglet anaemia of iron
Fungal diseases Ringworm fungi Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs , horses
Aspergillosis
Mycotoxicosis

6.1.9 DESCRIBE ONE DISEASE FROM BACTERIAL(Mastitis), FUNGAL(Ringworm ), VIRAL(Foot-and-

Mouth Disease (FMD) , DEFICIENCY (Rickets), PROTOZOAN (Coccidiosis ),
RICKETTSIAL(Heartwater)

6.1.9 Disease: causative agents, signs and symptoms, treatment, prevention, and control

Here is a detailed description of one disease from each of the six categories: bacterial
(Mastitis), fungal (Ringworm), viral (Foot-and-Mouth Disease), deficiency (Rickets),
protozoan (Coccidiosis), and rickettsial (Heartwater).

1. Bacterial Disease: Mastitis

Causative Agent: Bacteria

Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherichia coli

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Signs and Symptoms:

 Swelling, heat, and redness of the udder.

 Decreased milk yield and milk that may appear clotted or discolored (yellow, bloody, or
watery).
 Pain and discomfort in the udder.
 Fever, depression, and reduced appetite in severe cases.

Treatment:

 Intramammary antibiotic infusion (e.g., penicillin, cephalosporins).

 Systemic antibiotics in severe systemic cases.
 Anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce swelling and pain.

Prevention and Control:

 Regular milking hygiene (cleaning udders before milking).

 Culling infected animals or separating them from the herd.
 Use of antibiotics only under veterinary supervision.
 Regular udder health monitoring and proper nutrition.

2. Fungal Disease: Ringworm

Causative Agents
Ringworm in livestock is caused by various species of fungi, mainly:

 Trichophyton verrucosum (common in cattle and sheep)

 Trichophyton mentagrophytes (affects many animals, including pigs)
 Microsporum species (less common but can also cause infection)

2. Signs and Symptoms

The disease affects the skin, hair, and wool of livestock. Symptoms include:

 Circular, grayish-white, scaly lesions on the skin.

 Hair loss (alopecia) in affected areas.
 Thickened, crusty, or rough patches on the skin.
 Mild itching (but usually not severe).
 Lesions around the head, neck, and limbs (common sites of infection).
 In sheep, the wool may appear matted and brittle.
 In severe cases, secondary bacterial infections can occur.

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 Treatment
There is no instant cure, but treatment helps speed up recovery and prevent spread:

 Topical antifungal treatments (e.g., iodine solution, lime sulfur, chlorhexidine,

miconazole, enilconazole).
 Oral antifungal medications (for severe cases, prescribed by a vet).
 Application of antifungal sprays or ointments on lesions.
 Removing scabs and cleaning the area with disinfectants.

Prevention and Control

A. Prevention Measures

 Isolate infected animals to prevent the spread of infection.

 Regularly clean and disinfect barns, equipment, and feeding troughs.
 Ensure proper ventilation in housing areas to reduce moisture.
 Provide a balanced diet to boost immunity.
 Vaccination (available for cattle in some regions).

Control Measures

 Quarantine new animals before introducing them to the herd.

 Treat infected animals promptly to prevent spread.
 Burn or disinfect contaminated bedding and grooming tools.
 Encourage sun exposure (fungi thrive in dark, damp environments).

3. Viral Disease: Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)

Causative Agent: virus

Signs and Symptoms:

 Blisters or sores on the tongue, lips, mouth, teats, and hooves.

 Excessive drooling and difficulty swallowing.
 Lameness and reluctance to move.
 High Fever of up to 40-410C
 loss of appetite, and severe weight loss.

Treatment:

 No specific antiviral treatment.

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Prevention and Control:

 kill/slaughter infected animals then burn and

burry the carcass
 routine vaccination of animals every 6 months
 reported suspected cases to the authorities like the police, veterinary offices etc
 use of cordon fences to deter movement of animal and animal products from infected areas
 avoid mixing livestock with wild animals especially buffalos as they are natural carriers o
isolation of infected animals from the others

4. Deficiency Disease: Rickets

Causative Agent: Calcium, phosphorus, or vitamin D deficiency

Signs and Symptoms:

 Deformed or weak bones (bowed legs, swollen joints).

 Lameness and difficulty standing or walking.
 Reduced growth rate and delayed development.
 Soft skulls or ribcage in severe cases.

Treatment:

 Supplement the diet with calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D.

 Provide access to sunlight for natural vitamin D synthesis.
 Adjust feed to ensure balanced nutrition.

Prevention and Control:

 Ensure balanced diets with adequate calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D.

 Provide proper exposure to sunlight and UV light.
 Regularly monitor animal nutrition and growth patterns.

5. Protozoan Disease: Coccidiosis

Causative Agent: Protozoa

Eimeria species

Signs and Symptoms:

 Diarrhea, which can be watery, bloody, or mucous-laden.

 Dehydration, weakness, and poor appetite.
 Weight loss and stunted growth in young animals.
 Occasionally, sudden death in severe cases.

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Treatment:

 Coccidiostats such as sulfonamides or amprolium.

 Supportive care (hydration, electrolytes, and nutritional support).
 In severe cases, antibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infections.

Prevention and Control:

 Provide clean, dry bedding to reduce contamination.

 Use anticoccidial medications in feed or water.
 Isolate and treat infected animals immediately.
 Rotate pastures and control rodent populations to reduce oocyst contamination.

6. Rickettsial Disease: Heartwater

Causative Agent: Ricketsia

Ehrlichia ruminantium (transmitted by ticks, especially Amblyomma species)

Signs and Symptoms:

 Sudden high fever (up to 42°C).

 Rapid breathing and coughing.
 Swollen lymph nodes and neurological signs (e.g., incoordination, convulsions).
 In some cases, sudden death due to acute illness.

Treatment:

 Tetracycline antibiotics (e.g., oxytetracycline) are effective when administered early.

 Supportive care, such as fluids and anti-inflammatory medications.

Prevention and Control:

 Regular tick control using acaricides.

 Vaccination in endemic areas (where available).
 Regular monitoring for early signs and isolation of affected animals.
 Control of tick populations through environmental management (e.g., removing brush).

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6.1.10 CLASSIFY LIVESTOCK PARASITE

6.1.11 DISCUSS ONE INTERNAL PARASITE AND ONE EXTERNAL PARASITE.

6.1.11 Internal: roundworms, tapeworms, liver fluke, wireworms (Description, Lifecycle, damage
caused, prevention and control measures)

6.1.11 External: ticks, lice, mites, fleas, tampans, ringworm, tsetse fly

PARASITE OF LIVESTOCK

- parasites are organisms which depend on other living organism for shelter and food

Types of parasites in animals

i) internal/ endo-parasites - round worms, liver fluke, tape worms

ii) external/ ecto-parasites - ticks, mites, tsetse fly, fleas, lice

INTERNAL /ENDO-PARASITES

LIVER FLUKE

- a flat bodied worm that lives in the liver of a host animal

- these are common in swampy graze lands or pastures

Host animals

- all grazing animals e.g. goats, sheep, cattle

Life cycle of a liver fluke

- adult liver fluke lives and lays eggs in the liver of a primary host (cow)
- eggs are passed down the bile duct to the intestines and passed out in faeces
- when it becomes wet the eggs hatch and the swim about for up to two weeks
- the larvae bores through the skin of certain snail species and feeds on snails as secondary host
- the larvae then leaves the snails and swims on grass stems and plants
- they then form cysts (resting stage)

25
 - when the infested grass is fed upon by animals the cysts will hatch in the intestines - the
cyst burrow through the intestinal walls to reach the liver

Damage caused by liver fluke

- haemorrhages of the liver and anaemia

- swollen abdomen and pain in acute cases
- loss of appetite and acute weight loss due to blood sucking
- animal becomes dull and depressed
- death in a few days may follow
- diarrhoea with blood stains/blood
- death in severe cases especially young animals

Prevention and control of the liver fluke

- drain all wet and swampy areas

- keep grazing animals from grazing in the swampy areas
- spray the snail infested areas with copper-sulphate
- drench the animals with anthelmintics

EXTERNAL/ ECTO-PARASITES

TICKS
- blue tick (Boophilus microplus)
- bont tick (Amblyoma hebraem)
- red-legged tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi)
Damage of caused by ticks on cattle

- cause irritation on the skin of the animal

- suck blood causing animals the animal to be weak
- transmit diseases like heart water, east coast fever, red water
- cause wounds which might be an entrance for pathogens
- reduces the hide value of cattle

Life cycle of a one host tick

OR

26
 - tick sucks blood from the host animal until it is engorged (full of blood)
- it drops from the animal and lays eggs on the grass
- eggs hatch into six legged (larvae) nymphs which waits on grass for the next host
- on the host nymphs moult several times before maturing
- once they mature they have eight legs
- the adult ticks mate and continue sucking blood from host
- when full of blood the female drops to the ground and the cycle starts all over again

Prevention and control of ticks

- dip/spray animals with acaricides e.g. arsenic-trioxide to kill ticks

- controlled burning of pastures to control tick population
- cultivation of the pastures to reduce tick population by burying them - use of natural
enemies(predators) known to feed on ticks

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6.1.12 IDENTIFY [Link] FOR CONTROLLING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PARASITES

6.1.12 Equipment: dip tank, sprayer, syringe, needles, dosing/deworming gun, spray race

1. Dip Tank

 Use: For external parasite control. Animals are fully immersed in a chemical solution to
kill ticks, mites, and other ectoparasites.
 Commonly Used For: Cattle, sheep, and goats.

2. Sprayer

 Use: To spray animals with insecticides or acaricides for controlling external parasites
such as lice, ticks, and flies.
 Commonly Used For: Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry.

28
3. Syringe and Needles

 Use: For injecting medication to control internal parasites (anthelmintics) or for treating
specific diseases caused by parasites.
 Commonly Used For: All livestock and pets.

4. Dosing/Deworming Gun

 Use: Administering oral dewormers (anthelmintics) to control internal parasites like

roundworms and tapeworms.
 Commonly Used For: Cattle, sheep, and goats.

29
5. Spray Race

 Use: Animals walk through a race where they are sprayed with chemical solutions to
control external parasites.
 Commonly Used For: Large herds of cattle and sheep.

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6.1.13 USE APPROPRIATE TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, AND MATERIALS WHEN CONTROLLING
DISEASES, INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PARASITES WITH DUE CONSIDERATION OF SAFETY HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENT

When controlling diseases, internal and external parasites, it’s important to use appropriate tools,
equipment, machinery, and materials while considering safety, health, and environmental
impacts. Here's a general guide:

1. Tools and Equipment

 Protective Gear: Always use personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves,
face masks, goggles, and protective clothing to reduce exposure to harmful chemicals and
pathogens.
 Sprayers: Use sprayers (manual or motorized) for applying pesticides or fungicides.
Ensure sprayers are calibrated correctly to avoid overuse or underuse.
 Drenching Guns: For internal parasite control, especially in livestock, drenching guns
help in accurate dosing.
 Thermometers and Scales: Used for accurate monitoring of animal health, especially
when diagnosing or treating diseases.
 Syringes and Needles: For precise medication administration or vaccines.

2. Machinery

 Misting Machines: Used for pest control in larger fields or greenhouses. The mist helps
to distribute pesticides more evenly across the area.
 Fumigation Equipment: For controlling pests in stored grains or livestock housing.
Always use with caution to ensure safe exposure limits.
 Tractors and Spreaders: Used for large-scale application of pesticides, fertilizers, and
treatments.

3. Materials

 Pesticides and Fungicides: Always choose the right type based on the pest or pathogen
being treated. Organic and synthetic options are available.
o Safety: Ensure proper storage, handling, and disposal. Always use chemicals
according to label instructions.
 Herbal Treatments: Some plant-based solutions can be effective, especially for treating
external parasites like mites or lice. Neem oil, garlic, and citronella can be used as natural
repellents.
 Anthelmintics: For treating internal parasites in livestock, these drugs should be
administered at the correct dosage and only when necessary to avoid resistance.
 Antibiotics and Vaccines: Ensure proper administration and storage to avoid
contamination or ineffective treatment.

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4. Safety, Health, and Environmental Considerations

 Personal Safety: Always follow the safety guidelines for handling chemicals or
machinery. Check for side effects or allergic reactions, and keep a first aid kit nearby.
 Environmental Safety: Avoid pesticide drift, and apply treatments at times when wind
and rainfall will not spread them to unintended areas. Proper disposal of containers and
unused chemicals is vital.
 Health and Hygiene: Maintain cleanliness around the animals or crops, as pests and
diseases often spread through unsanitary conditions. Wash hands thoroughly after
handling treatments or sick animals.
 Regulations Compliance: Ensure that all practices follow local agricultural and
environmental regulations to minimize harm to wildlife, beneficial organisms, and
ecosystems.

AGSSL 6.2 DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF REARING ONE NAMED

FARM ANIMAL
6.2.1 DESCRIBE THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE APPROPRIATE FOR REARING ONE NAMED FARM
ANIMAL

Poultry house FOR REARING BROILERS

Desirable features of a poultry house

- Rough concrete floor – to avoid slipping of chickens which might cause injuries
- Concrete floor – for ease of cleaning
- Well ventilated – allows regulation of temperature and humidity inside the house, removes bad
smell from the house
- Adequate space - to avoid overcrowding which may lead to egg eating and cannibalism
- Adequate light – light encourages egg laying in layers and acts as a natural disinfectant
- Secure- have lockable doors for thieves and predator proof
- Should have a foot bath – helps with control of diseases from outside the house into the house -
Smooth walls - to avoid build-up of parasites and pathogens

Construction of a poultry house

Walls
-The lower/offcut walls should be 1m on the length of the house
- A wire mash should put over the lower/offcut walls up to the roof i.e. up to 1.4m for ventilation
- Width/breadth walls should be solid/continuous up to the roof
- Should plastered and smooth to prevent hiding of pathogens and parasites
Floor :Made of concrete with a rough surface

Roofing :A flat/ gabble roofing with a good overhang of 80cm

(prevents entry of water into the house during rain)

32
 - Corrugated iron sheets/aluminium sheets/thatch/ tile can
be used for roofing

Door :Should be a secure/tight fitting lockable door

Dimensions

- Width/breadth should not exceed 10m

- The length be any convenient length

Orientation

- House should be in an east-west orientation to prevent direct entry of sunlight into the house

Footbath

- At the entrance to control diseases

Adequate space

- Should have ample space for the birds (10 birds per m2 in deep litter )

Maintenance of a poultry house

- Repair/ replace roof if there a leakages

- Seal cracks on the wall to avoid breeding areas for pests, pathogens entry of vermin
- Fire hazard precaution – clear fire breaks around at least 3m the house
- Clean and disinfect the house before arrival of the next batch of birds to avoid diseases spread
- Erect blinds to prevent strong wind and rain bearing winds from gushing through the house
- Litter should be put on the floor about 20cm for cushioning, moisture absorption and warm

6.2.2 DEMONSTRATE CARE OF THE ANIMAL TO ENSURE OPTIMAL PRODUCTION

6.2.2 Care; Livestock - housing, feeding water quality management, hygiene, parasites and disease
management, castration, deworming, hoof- trimming, vaccination, form of identification (branding,
ear tagging, micro-chip), docking, shearing

Demonstrating Care of Goats to Ensure Optimal Production

Goats are hardy animals, but to achieve optimal production (whether for milk, meat, fiber, or
skins), proper management practices are essential. Below is a detailed guide on how to care for
goats in various aspects of their husbandry to promote health, productivity, and welfare.

33
1. Housing

Goats require a safe, dry, and clean living space that protects them from extreme weather (cold
or heat) and keeps them away from predators. The housing should also provide ample space for
movement and rest.

 Space Requirements: Ensure each goat has enough space to move freely, approximately
1.5–2 square meters per goat in the barn. Overcrowding can lead to stress, aggression,
and disease.
 Shelter Design: Goats prefer sheltered areas with good ventilation. A well-ventilated
barn with access to outdoor grazing areas is ideal. Open-sided sheds or barns are
common, with a roof to provide shade and protection from rain.
 Bedding: Use dry straw, wood shavings, or sawdust as bedding in barns. Bedding
should be changed regularly to avoid the buildup of manure and maintain cleanliness.
 Flooring: The floor should be non-slip and made of durable materials like concrete or
wood. Elevated floors or slatted systems are ideal for easy cleaning and drainage.

2. Feeding

Proper feeding is crucial for the health and productivity of goats, whether for milk, meat, or
fiber production.

 Forage: Goats are browsers, preferring to eat bushes, shrubs, and trees, but they will
also graze on grass. Provide high-quality forage such as alfalfa or clover hay, and
ensure they have access to fresh, clean grazing land.
 Grain and Concentrates: If forage quality is insufficient, provide grain, pellets, or
concentrates to meet their nutritional needs, especially during milking or pregnancy.
These should be high in protein and energy.
 Minerals and Salt: Goats require a mineral block or loose minerals to meet their
nutritional needs, particularly for calcium, phosphorus, and salt.
 Feeding Frequency: Goats should be fed twice a day, with access to fresh hay and
water at all times.

3. Water Quality Management

Like all livestock, goats require access to clean and fresh water for hydration and optimal
production.

 Water Requirements: Goats require 4 to 7 liters of water per day, depending on their
size, production stage, and environmental conditions.

34
  Water Quality: Ensure that water is clean and free from contaminants such as bacteria,
algae, and toxins. Regularly clean the water troughs or water bowls to maintain
hygiene.
 Water Temperature: Goats will drink more when water is cool in the summer and
warm in the winter. Avoid water that is too cold or too hot, as this can discourage them
from drinking.

4. Hygiene

Maintaining a clean environment is essential for preventing disease and promoting good health.

 Barn Cleaning: Regularly remove manure and bedding from the barn to prevent the
buildup of harmful bacteria and parasites.
 Personal Hygiene: Goats should be regularly checked and cleaned, especially around the
udders (for milking goats) and feet (to prevent hoof problems). Hoof trimming should
be done regularly, about every 6–8 weeks, to maintain healthy feet.
 Health Inspections: Perform regular checks for signs of illness, such as discharge from
the eyes or nose, coughing, or diarrhea.

5. Parasite and Disease Management

Goats are susceptible to both internal (intestinal worms) and external parasites (ticks, lice).
Implementing a parasite control program is vital for ensuring their health.

 Deworming: Deworm goats regularly, typically every 3-6 months, or based on fecal
tests. Common dewormers include ivermectin and albendazole. Pay attention to signs of
parasitic infections, like weight loss, diarrhea, or poor coat condition.
 External Parasites: Use pour-on treatments, sprays, or dips for external parasites like
ticks, lice, and mites. Regular grooming can also help reduce the burden of external
parasites.
 Vaccinations: Vaccinate goats against common diseases such as clostridial diseases,
foot rot, and CAE (Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis). Vaccination schedules should be
based on veterinary advice.

6. Castration

For meat production, male goats (bucks) are usually castrated to improve meat quality and
reduce aggressive behavior.

 Castration Methods: Common methods of castration include banding (using rubber

rings), surgical castration, or burdizzo (crushing the spermatic cord). The most
common method is banding, which is performed at an early age, typically 1–2 months.

35
  Post-Castration Care: Provide pain relief and anti-inflammatory medication as
needed. Ensure that the wound is kept clean and that the animal has access to food and
water.

7. Hoof Trimming

Goats need regular hoof trimming to prevent overgrowth and infections, especially if they are
kept on concrete floors or other hard surfaces.

 Frequency: Trim hooves every 6–8 weeks, or more often depending on the goat’s living
conditions.
 Trimming Procedure: Use a hoof trimmer or hoof knife to remove excess growth and
shape the hoof. Be careful not to trim too much, as this can cause bleeding or infection.
 Health Check: Check for signs of infection or injury, such as swelling, lameness, or
odor.

8. Vaccination

Vaccination is critical for preventing infectious diseases and maintaining the health of the herd.

 Vaccination Schedule: Ensure that goats are vaccinated against diseases like tetanus,
foot rot, clostridial diseases, and CAE. The vaccination schedule should be based on the
region’s disease prevalence and veterinary recommendations.
 Booster Shots: Goats may need annual booster shots for certain vaccines to maintain
immunity.

9. Forms of Identification

Proper identification is important for record-keeping, breeding, and disease management.

 Ear Tagging: The most common form of identification, ear tags are numbered tags that
are inserted into the ear. These help identify individual animals.
 Branding: Hot or freeze branding may be used for identifying ownership, especially in
extensive systems.
 Microchipping: For more secure identification, microchips can be implanted under the
skin to store identification data.

10. Shearing and Fiber Care

For fiber-producing goats (such as Angora and Cashmere goats), shearing is necessary to
harvest the wool.

 Shearing: Shearing is usually done once a year, typically in spring when the weather
starts to warm. Goats are sheared carefully using shearing clippers or scissors.

36
  Fiber Quality: After shearing, clean the fiber and store it in a cool, dry place to avoid
contamination.
 Wool Care: Goats like Angora require special care to maintain fiber quality. Regular
grooming and proper feeding can help maintain the health of the fleece.

Conclusion

Goat care is multi-faceted and requires a comprehensive approach to ensure the animals are
healthy and productive. This includes providing adequate housing, feeding, water, and health
management practices like parasite control, deworming, vaccinations, and hoof trimming.
Additionally, identification methods help with herd management, while shearing is necessary
for fiber production. By maintaining good practices, you can ensure your goats are healthy,
productive, and well cared for.

Demonstrating Care of BEESto Ensure Optimal Production

Bees - hygiene, bee health, disease & parasites management, apiary management, colony
management, swam management, wintering, re-queening a honeybee colony, constructing and
repairing beehives, feeding, water quality management, colony placement, free from disturbances,
colony transportation

1. Hygiene

Maintaining cleanliness is crucial for preventing the spread of diseases and parasites in a
beehive.

 Hive Cleaning: Periodically clean and sterilize beekeeping equipment (such as frames,
smokers, and tools) to avoid cross-contamination between colonies. Use water and soap
or food-grade disinfectants.
 Honey Supers: Make sure honey supers are clean before placing them on hives, to avoid
contaminating honey with wax debris or dead bees.
 Bee Entrance: Keep the entrance clear of debris, including dead bees, which can attract
pests and reduce airflow.

2. Bee Health: Disease and Parasite Management

Healthy bees are vital for high-quality honey production and overall colony strength. Disease
and parasite control is a central part of bee management.

 Common Bee Diseases:

o American Foulbrood (AFB): A bacterial disease affecting larvae. This disease
can spread rapidly, so infected colonies should be destroyed to avoid
contamination of nearby hives.
o European Foulbrood (EFB): Another bacterial infection, but less aggressive
than AFB, though it still requires prompt action. It can be treated with antibiotics
or by re-queening the colony.

37
 o Nosema: A fungal infection affecting adult bees. Treatment may involve
antifungal medication and improving hive conditions (e.g., reducing humidity).
o Varroa Mites: These external parasites attack bees by feeding on their blood,
weakening them and spreading diseases. Chemical treatments or biological
control methods like Varroa-sensitive hygiene are commonly used.
 Preventive Measures:
o Regularly inspect colonies for signs of diseases and pests.
o Use mite treatments and fungicides as necessary, but be cautious with chemical
usage to avoid contamination of hive products.
o Maintain strong colonies with proper nutrition and stress management.

3. Apiary Management

Proper management of the apiary (the area where the hives are located) is critical for supporting
healthy and productive colonies.

 Hive Arrangement: Position hives in a sunny spot with good airflow. Ensure there is
access to nectar sources and water nearby. If possible, place hives away from heavy
winds and disturbances.
 Apiary Hygiene: Regularly clean the apiary, particularly around hive entrances, to
prevent pests or diseases from spreading.

4. Colony Management

Effective colony management requires regular monitoring and maintenance of hive conditions.

 Regular Inspections: Perform regular checks (at least every 7–14 days) to assess the
colony’s health, queen quality, and food stores. Look for signs of swarming or disease.
 Food Storage: Ensure the colony has enough honey and pollen stores. In case of
scarcity, supplemental feeding with sugar syrup or pollen patties is recommended.
 Queen Health: A healthy queen is central to a productive colony. Check for brood
patterns and egg-laying activity. If the queen is not performing well, consider re-
queening the colony.

5. Swarm Management

Swarming is a natural process where the colony divides to form a new colony, often leading to a
loss of bees and reduced honey production. However, managing swarming can be beneficial for
expansion.

 Preventing Swarming: Monitor colonies closely for signs of swarming, such as queen
cells. To prevent swarming, make splits (move part of the colony to a new hive) and
provide space for the queen to lay.
 Swarm Control: If a swarm is forming, split the colony to manage the bees and prevent
the queen from leaving. You can also increase hive space or remove queen cells.

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  Catching Swarms: If a swarm does occur, act quickly by catching it and moving it to a
new hive. Use a swarm trap or gently brush the bees into a box.

6. Wintering

Wintering bees requires ensuring they have enough food stores and are protected from extreme
cold and humidity.

 Winterizing the Hive:

o Ensure the hive is well-insulated. Add extra insulation (e.g., foam boards or straw
bales) around the hive to keep the bees warm.
o Make sure the bees have enough honey stores for the winter. Consider feeding
them with sugar syrup if their stores are low.
o Ensure that the hive entrance is adequately reduced to keep out drafts but still
allow enough ventilation.
 Check for Wintering Success: In early spring, inspect the hives for any signs of
starvation or dead colonies. If necessary, provide early feeding to stimulate colony
activity.

7. Re-queening a Honeybee Colony

Re-queening may be necessary if the current queen is no longer performing well, or to improve
genetic diversity.

 Signs You Need a New Queen: If there is a poor brood pattern, low egg-laying
activity, or queenlessness, it may be time to introduce a new queen.
 Introducing a Queen: When introducing a new queen, isolate her in a cage with sugar
candy. This allows the bees to adjust to her scent before releasing her into the colony.
 Post-Re-queening Care: Ensure that the bees accept the new queen and monitor the
colony for signs of aggression toward her.

8. Constructing and Repairing Beehives

Proper hive construction and maintenance are essential for colony success.

 Beehive Design: Most beekeepers use Langstroth hives, which consist of stacked boxes
for brood and honey storage, with frames to hold the honeycomb. Ensure that hives are
durable, weatherproof, and well-ventilated.
 Repairs: Regularly inspect hives for damage, such as cracks in the wood or broken
frames. Seal cracks with non-toxic wood glue and replace broken frames.
 Hive Painting: Use light-colored, non-toxic paint to protect the wooden surfaces from
the weather and ensure the hives are easy to locate in your apiary.

9. Feeding and Water Quality Management

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During periods of nectar dearth, feeding your bees is essential for survival and productivity.

 Supplemental Feeding: Feed bees with sugar syrup (1:1 ratio of water to sugar) during
winter or early spring if nectar sources are scarce. For protein supplementation, provide
pollen patties.
 Water Management: Bees require access to clean, fresh water. Ensure a nearby water
source (such as a shallow dish with rocks) to prevent drowning and contamination.

10. Colony Placement

The placement of hives is essential for maximizing bee health and productivity.

 Sunlight and Shelter: Place hives in a sunny area with some protection from wind and
rain. Bees prefer morning sunlight, as it helps them forage earlier in the day.
 Forage Availability: Position hives near abundant nectar and pollen sources. Ensure
that flowering plants are available throughout the foraging season.

11. Minimizing Disturbances

Honeybees are sensitive to disturbances and stress. To maintain their health and productivity:

 Minimize Noise: Avoid loud noises or vibrations near the hives, as they can disturb the
bees.
 Handling with Care: Handle the hives gently and calmly to avoid creating stress or
defensive behavior from the bees.
 Smoke Use: Use smoke sparingly to calm the bees during inspections, but avoid over-
smoking, as it can stress the colony.

12. Colony Transportation

Sometimes, beekeepers need to move hives, especially during pollination services or to ensure
access to better forage.

 Pre-Transportation Preparations: Ensure that bees have enough food and are not
disturbed during transportation. Secure the hives tightly and keep the entrance blocked to
prevent bees from flying out.
 Post-Transportation Care: After moving the hives, leave them undisturbed for at least
24–48 hours to allow the bees to adjust to their new environment.

Conclusion

Honeybee care is a multi-faceted process that involves attention to hygiene, health, colony
management, and environmental conditions. Ensuring the well-being of the bees through
proper disease management, feeding, swarm control, and wintering practices is essential for
maximizing honey production and the overall success of the hive. By monitoring the colony's
needs and reducing stress, beekeepers can enjoy a productive and thriving apiary.

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FISH - FEEDING, WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT, HYGIENE, PARASITES AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT, STOCKING
DENSITY, LIMING, TEMPERATURE CONTROL, AERATION, AND OXYGENATION,

1. Feeding

Proper feeding is crucial for the growth, health, and productivity of farmed fish.

 Type of Feed: Choose high-quality, species-specific feed that meets the nutritional
requirements of the fish. Fish feed typically contains a balance of protein, fats, vitamins,
and minerals.
 Feeding Schedule: Feed fish consistently, typically 2–4 times per day. Adjust feeding
frequency based on the species, age, and growth rate of the fish.
 Feed Quantity: Overfeeding or underfeeding can both be harmful. The amount of feed
should be based on fish size, stocking density, and water temperature. Generally, feed
about 2–5% of the total body weight of the fish each day.
 Monitoring Feed Waste: Avoid excess feed that sinks and decays at the bottom of the
tank, which can cause water pollution and increase disease risk. Use automatic feeders
or hand-feeding, but always ensure the fish consume the feed quickly.

2. Water Quality Management

Water quality is one of the most important aspects of fish farming, directly influencing fish
health and growth.

 Key Water Parameters:

o pH: Fish thrive in water with a neutral pH (around 6.5 to 7.5). Regular
monitoring and adjustments using liming or other pH buffers are essential.
o Temperature: Maintain optimal water temperature for the species being farmed.
For most fish species, temperatures between 20°C and 30°C are ideal.
Temperature fluctuations can stress the fish and make them more susceptible to
diseases.
o Oxygen Levels: Fish need dissolved oxygen in the water, typically around 5–8
mg/L for optimal growth. Aeration systems, such as air pumps or water pumps,
help maintain oxygen levels.
o Ammonia and Nitrites: Ammonia and nitrite levels should be monitored
closely, as they are toxic to fish. Ammonia should be kept below 0.02 mg/L, and
nitrites should be at 0 mg/L. Filtration systems and regular water changes help
reduce toxic buildup.
o Hardness: Water hardness (the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions)
should be maintained at moderate levels to ensure optimal health and metabolic
functions of the fish.

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3. Hygiene

Maintaining a clean and sanitary environment is essential for preventing disease and maintaining
water quality.

 Tank Cleaning: Regularly clean the bottom of the tanks or ponds to remove excess feed
and fish waste, which can contribute to poor water quality. Use nets or vacuum systems
to remove debris.
 Cleaning Equipment: All equipment, such as nets, pumps, and aerators, should be
disinfected regularly to prevent disease transmission.
 Water Filtration: Use biological filters to help break down organic waste and maintain
water clarity. Mechanical filters also help to remove particulate matter from the water.

4. Parasite and Disease Management

Fish are vulnerable to various parasites and diseases, so preventing and managing these issues is
key to maintaining fish health.

 Common Fish Diseases:

o Ich (White Spot Disease): A parasitic infection causing white cysts on the fish’s
skin. Treatment includes salt baths or anti-parasitic chemicals.
o Viral and Bacterial Infections: Can cause internal and external lesions.
Treatment usually involves antibiotics or antiviral agents under veterinary
guidance.
o Fungal Infections: These can appear as patches on the skin or gills, often treated
with antifungal agents.
 Preventive Measures:
o Quarantine new fish before introducing them to the main tank or pond to avoid
the introduction of diseases.
o Maintain strong biosecurity measures, such as disinfecting equipment and
having dedicated tools for each tank or pond.
o Regularly monitor fish behavior, noting signs of illness like unusual swimming
patterns, loss of appetite, or skin discoloration.
 Parasite Control: External parasites like lice and leech infestations can be treated with
chemical dips or medicated baths. Internal parasites can be controlled with deworming
treatments or feeding fish anti-parasitic foods.

5. Stocking Density

Proper stocking density ensures optimal growth conditions and reduces competition for
resources.

 Species-Specific Density: Each fish species has a recommended stocking density.

Overcrowding can lead to poor water quality, stress, and an increased risk of disease.
Typically, the recommended density is about 1–5 fish per square meter for most species
in tanks or ponds.

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  Regular Monitoring: Keep track of the fish’s size and growth rates, adjusting stocking
density if needed as the fish grow.

6. Liming

Liming is often used in aquaculture to adjust water pH and improve overall water quality.

 Purpose: It helps to raise the pH of acidic water, providing a more suitable environment
for fish. This is especially important in ponds with high organic material or low pH
levels.
 Application: Lime is added in specific amounts based on water pH, and its effect should
be monitored regularly.

7. Temperature Control

Fish are cold-blooded, and their metabolism is affected by water temperature. Maintaining
optimal temperatures is vital for their growth.

 Temperature Regulation: Use heaters or coolers depending on the needs of the species
being farmed. Tropical fish typically require warmer water (about 25°C–30°C), while
cold-water fish like trout may require temperatures between 12°C–18°C.
 Avoid Temperature Fluctuations: Rapid temperature changes can cause stress and
increase the risk of disease. Use thermometers and temperature controllers to maintain
a stable range.

8. Aeration and Oxygenation

Proper aeration and oxygenation are essential for fish to breathe and thrive.

 Aeration Systems: Use air pumps, water pumps, or venturi systems to maintain
sufficient oxygen levels in the water. This is particularly important in dense stocking
systems or during warm weather when oxygen levels can drop.
 Oxygen Levels: Maintain oxygen at 5–8 mg/L for most fish species, and monitor
regularly using oxygen meters.

Conclusion

Managing a fish farm requires careful attention to feeding, water quality, hygiene, and disease
control. By maintaining optimal stocking density, controlling temperature, and ensuring
aeration, you can ensure a healthy environment for your fish to thrive. Regular monitoring,
coupled with proactive management practices, will lead to better growth rates, reduced
mortality, and a more successful aquaculture operation.

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6.2.3 PREPARE THE ANIMAL PRODUCT AND BY-PRODUCT FOR MARKETING.

Preparing Milk and Skin for Marketing

In the agricultural and livestock industry, milk and skins are valuable animal products that
require proper preparation and marketing to ensure high quality, hygiene, and customer
satisfaction.

6.2.3 Marketing: cleaning, sorting, grading, processing, packaging, storage, pricing, advertising,
selling and delivery.

1. Cleaning

Cleaning is an essential first step to ensure that both milk and skins are safe for human
consumption and further processing.

 Milk Cleaning:
o Before milking, the udder and teats of the animal should be cleaned and sanitized
to prevent contamination. This can be done with warm water and mild
disinfectants.
o The milking equipment (buckets, machines, and pipes) should be properly
sterilized after each use to maintain hygiene and prevent bacterial growth.
o After milking, the milk should be immediately cooled to 4°C to prevent the
growth of harmful bacteria.
 Skin Cleaning:
o Raw skins need to be thoroughly cleaned by removing any remaining blood,
hair, and tissues. This is done by scraping and soaking the skin in a lime solution
or a water bath.
o For processed leather products, clean skins are soaked in water or bathing
solutions to remove impurities before tanning.

2. Sorting

Sorting is the process of categorizing milk and skins based on certain characteristics such as
quality, type, and condition.

 Milk Sorting:
o Milk Fat Content: Milk is often sorted based on fat content, which is typically
measured as whole milk, skim milk, or low-fat milk.
o Raw Milk: After milking, it should be sorted to ensure it is free from
contamination. This includes testing for somatic cell count (SCC) to check for
infections or mastitis.
o Batches: Milk can also be sorted into different batches based on freshness or
production date.
o

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  Skin Sorting:
o Quality: Skins are sorted by texture, thickness, and condition. Premium skins,
which are free from cuts, scarring, or defects, are typically reserved for leather
products.
o Size and Type: Larger, more uniform skins are used for high-quality leather,
while smaller or less uniform skins may be used for lower-grade leather or other
by-products.

3. Grading

Grading involves evaluating milk and skins based on quality and characteristics that influence
market price and demand.

 Milk Grading:
o Grading of Milk: Milk is generally graded based on fat content, purity, and
overall quality. Common milk grades include Grade A (highest quality) and
Grade B (suitable for non-consumption purposes or further processing).
o Grading for Processing: Milk intended for cheese, butter, or yogurt production
may have different standards, such as higher fat content or higher bacterial
content.
 Skin Grading:
o Skins are graded based on appearance, flexibility, and lack of defects. The best-
quality hides are those without scars, tears, or blemishes and are used for
premium leather products.
o Leather Grading: Leather produced from these hides is often graded into full-
grain, top-grain, or genuine leather depending on its quality.

4. Processing

Processing is the transformation of raw milk and skins into marketable products.

 Milk Processing:
o Pasteurization: Raw milk is pasteurized to kill harmful bacteria, usually at 63°C
for 30 minutes or 72°C for 15 seconds. This helps improve shelf life and safety.
o Homogenization: Milk may undergo homogenization to break down fat
globules, ensuring a uniform consistency in the product.
o Cheese, Butter, and Yogurt Production: For further processing into dairy
products, milk is often turned into cheese, butter, yogurt, or powdered milk.
 Skin Processing:
o Tanning: Skins intended for leather production are tanned to preserve and soften
them, typically using chemical methods (e.g., chrome tanning) or natural methods
(e.g., vegetable tanning).
o Other By-products: If the skin is not intended for leather, it may be processed
into gelatin, pet food, or other by-products.

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5. Packaging

Packaging is essential for maintaining the quality of the product during transport and storage.

 Milk Packaging:
o Bottles: Fresh milk is typically sold in glass bottles, plastic jugs, or tetra packs
for easier transport and storage.
o Dairy Products: Processed milk products such as cheese, butter, or yogurt are
packaged in vacuum-sealed packs, plastic tubs, or foil wraps.
o Shelf Life: Milk packaging should include clear labeling with expiration dates
and storage instructions (e.g., refrigerate after opening).
 Skin Packaging:
o Leather: Once tanned, leather products are rolled or stacked and wrapped in
protective plastic to prevent damage.
o Gelatin: If the skin is processed into gelatin, it is typically packaged in airtight
plastic containers to preserve freshness.

6. Storage

Proper storage is crucial to preserving the freshness and quality of milk and skins until they are
sold.

 Milk Storage:
o Store milk in refrigerated conditions at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C.
o Processed milk products like cheese or butter should be stored at appropriate
temperatures (cheese typically at 4–8°C, butter at 2–4°C).
 Skin Storage:
o Tanned leather should be stored in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight,
as exposure can cause fading and cracking.
o Gelatin made from skin should be stored in airtight containers to prevent
moisture absorption.

7. Pricing

Pricing depends on factors like quality, market demand, and the cost of production.

 Milk Pricing:
o Price milk based on its grade (e.g., Grade A, pasteurized, or organic).
o Processed milk products (e.g., cheese or butter) may be priced higher due to
added value from production processes.
 Skin Pricing:
o Leather: Leather pricing depends on quality, type of tanning, and market
demand.
o Gelatin: Pricing for by-products such as gelatin depends on the demand for non-
food applications or uses in pet food.

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8. Advertising

Effective advertising helps promote milk and skin products to attract customers.

 Milk Advertising:
o Use social media platforms like Instagram or Facebook to show the benefits of
fresh, local, and high-quality milk products.
o Advertise processed dairy products in grocery stores or through specialty food
markets.
 Leather Advertising:
o Leather products can be promoted via online platforms (e.g., Etsy, Amazon) or
local fashion stores.
o Showcase leather quality, durability, and craftsmanship, emphasizing premium
products like bags, belts, or jackets.

9. Selling

Selling is the process of delivering milk and skin products to consumers.

 Milk Selling:
o Sell fresh milk directly to local markets, supermarkets, or through home
delivery services.
o Processed products can be sold to grocery stores, delis, or restaurants for use in
meals or as ingredients.
 Leather Selling:
o Leather goods are sold directly to retailers, fashion brands, or individual
consumers at craft fairs, market stalls, or online stores.

10. Delivery

Efficient delivery ensures that products reach customers in optimal condition.

 Milk Delivery:
o Use refrigerated trucks or coolers to maintain the cold chain from production
facilities to retailers or homes.
 Leather Delivery:
o For leather products, ensure safe packaging to prevent scratches or damage during
transport. Courier services or direct delivery to customers are common methods.

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Conclusion

Preparing milk and its by-products (such as leather) for marketing involves a comprehensive
process, from cleaning and sorting to pricing and delivery. By following these steps, you
ensure that the products are of high quality, hygienic, and ready for consumer use. Effective
storage, advertising, and selling strategies are key to reaching customers and maximizing
profits.

6.2.4 KEEP APPROPRIATE RECORDS FOR REARING THE NAMED FARM ANIMAL.

6.2.4 Appropriate records: production records including diary, inventory, and financial records

1. Production Records

Production records help track the performance and productivity of the goats, including their
breeding, milk production, and growth. These records are useful for monitoring trends and
improving farm management practices.

 Breeding Records:
o Mating Dates: Record the mating dates for each doe to predict kidding dates.
o Buck Usage: Keep track of which bucks are used for breeding, along with their
genetics, breeding history, and offspring outcomes.
o Kidding: Record the kidding date, the number of kids born (single, twins,
triplets), and the gender of the kids.
o Health and Mortality: Keep records of any health issues or deaths (including
cause), particularly if there is a trend that needs addressing.
 Milk Production Records:
o Daily Milk Yield: Track the daily milk production for each doe to monitor
productivity. This helps in identifying high or low producers and can guide
feeding and breeding decisions.
o Milking Schedule: Record milking times and quantities to ensure consistent
monitoring and management of milk production.
o Quality of Milk: Document milk quality (e.g., somatic cell count, fat content)
and any occurrences of mastitis or other infections.
 Growth and Performance:
o Weighing Records: Regularly weigh the goats to track their growth and adjust
feeding strategies accordingly.
o Feeding and Nutritional Records: Track the type and quantity of feed provided
to each animal and correlate this with weight gain or other performance measures.

2. Inventory Records

Inventory records are crucial for managing the resources required for goat farming, including
feed, medications, equipment, and breeding stock.
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  Feed Inventory:
o Keep a record of the type of feed (e.g., hay, grain, supplements) and the quantity
purchased, consumed, and remaining.
o Track feed delivery dates and costs to optimize purchasing and ensure you have
adequate supply.
 Health and Veterinary Supplies:
o Maintain a log of medications, vaccines, and parasites control treatments used
on goats, including the dosage, date of administration, and cost.
o Keep track of hoof care and other health treatments, including deworming and
vaccination schedules.
 Equipment and Infrastructure:
o Record maintenance and repairs of farming equipment such as milking
machines, feeding equipment, and barn facilities.
o Document infrastructure improvements or additions, such as the construction of
new fencing, housing, or water systems.

3. Financial Records

Financial records are critical for monitoring the profitability of the goat farm, ensuring effective
resource management, and making informed decisions about future investments.

 Income and Revenue:

o Track all sources of income, such as milk sales, kids sales, meat sales, and any
additional products (e.g., goat cheese, skins, manure).
o Document sales by date, amount, and price for each product sold.
 Expenses:
o Keep records of all expenses, including feed costs, veterinary expenses, labor
(if applicable), equipment purchases, and utilities (e.g., water and electricity).
o Track the cost of breeding, including buck rental fees or any costs associated
with artificial insemination.
 Profit and Loss Statement:
o Regularly update a profit and loss statement to monitor the farm’s overall
financial health. This includes income, expenses, and profit margin over a certain
period (monthly, quarterly, yearly).
 Budgeting and Forecasting:
o Prepare an annual budget based on expected income and expenses. This helps in
planning for breeding cycles, feed purchases, and potential farm expansions.
o Track actual spending versus budgeted expenses to make adjustments and stay
within financial targets.

4. Additional Records

 Labor and Employee Records (if applicable):

o If there are workers or helpers, keep records of working hours, wages, and any
labor-related expenses.

49
  Tax Records:
o Maintain accurate records for tax purposes, including sales tax, income tax, and
any other business-related taxes.
 Regulatory Compliance:
o Keep records for compliance with any government regulations regarding animal
welfare, milk production standards, and environmental practices.

6.2.5 USE OF APPROPRIATE TOOLS IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY WHEN REARING

LIVESTOCK WITH DUE CONSIDERATION TO SAFETY, HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT, AND QUALITY
MEASURES.

1. Tools and Implements in Livestock Rearing

Tools and implements are essential for the day-to-day operations in livestock farming, such as
feeding, watering, cleaning, health management, and breeding.

Common Tools and Implements

 Feeding and Watering:

o Feeders: Proper feed troughs or automatic feeding systems ensure that animals
receive a balanced diet without wastage.
o Water Troughs: Automated or manual water troughs that provide a clean and
consistent water supply, essential for maintaining animal health.
 Health and Grooming:
o Hoof Trimmers: Regular hoof trimming tools are necessary for maintaining
healthy hooves and preventing lameness.
o Grooming Brushes: Brushing helps maintain the cleanliness of livestock and can
promote better circulation.
o Vaccination Equipment: Syringes, needles, and vaccination guns are used for
administering vaccines and other medications. Ensure they are sterilized between
uses to prevent cross-contamination.
 Breeding:
o Artificial Insemination Tools: Insemination guns, syringes, and semen straws
for breeding cows, goats, or other livestock.
 Castration and Dehorning:
o Castrators: Tools for castrating male livestock. These should be selected based
on animal species, size, and age.
o Dehorning Equipment: Tools such as dehorning shears or caustic paste for
safe removal of horns.

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Safety and Health Considerations for Tools

 Proper Training: Ensure that workers or farmhands are trained in the correct use of
tools to prevent injury and minimize stress on animals.
 Sanitation: Tools should be cleaned and sterilized regularly to prevent the spread of
disease. For example, vaccination needles and syringes should be disinfected before use.
 Appropriate Tool Size: Choose tools of the right size to match the size and age of the
livestock to minimize injury or harm.

2. Machinery in Livestock Farming

Machinery helps in performing tasks that are too labor-intensive or time-consuming for manual
labor. It plays a vital role in improving productivity and efficiency.

Common Machinery Used in Livestock Farming

 Tractors: Used for tilling fields, moving hay bales, or pulling machinery like feed
wagons.
 Feed Mixers: Automated feed mixers ensure that livestock receive the correct
proportions of feed ingredients.
 Manure Spreaders: Used for spreading manure over fields, enriching the soil and
recycling nutrients.
 Milking Machines: These are used to automate the milking process, improving
efficiency and ensuring consistent quality.

Safety and Health Considerations for Machinery

 Regular Maintenance: Machinery should undergo regular inspection and maintenance

to avoid breakdowns and ensure proper functioning.
 Operator Safety: Workers should wear protective gear, such as gloves, goggles, and
hearing protection, when operating heavy machinery.
 Environmentally Friendly Options: Use of machinery should be optimized to reduce
fuel consumption and emissions. Consider electric-powered equipment or machinery
with lower environmental impact.

3. Environmental Considerations in Using Tools and Machinery

The impact of tools and machinery on the environment is a significant consideration for
sustainable farming practices.

 Waste Management:

51
 o Implement waste disposal systems for animal waste, used equipment, and excess
feed to prevent contamination of surrounding environments.
o Use composting or manure digesters to manage animal waste in an eco-friendly
manner and produce useful products like compost or biogas.
o
 Water Usage:
o Use efficient water systems that minimize waste and provide clean drinking
water for livestock. Consider rainwater harvesting systems to supplement water
needs.
 Energy Consumption:
o Minimize energy consumption by using energy-efficient machinery or solar-
powered devices when feasible.
o Regular maintenance of machinery helps to avoid energy inefficiency due to wear
and tear.

4. Quality Measures in Livestock Rearing:Ensuring the quality of livestock products

(e.g., meat, milk, wool) is essential for the profitability of a farm. The proper use of tools,
implements, and machinery can contribute to high-quality production.

Quality Control in Animal Products

 Milk Production:
o Use sanitized milking machines to prevent contamination and ensure the quality
of milk.
o Cold storage should be used immediately after milking to preserve milk quality
and freshness.
 Meat Production:
o Use cleaning and sanitizing tools to process meat to prevent bacterial
contamination and ensure food safety.
o Employ proper handling of carcasses during slaughter to maintain meat quality
and avoid bruising or contamination.
 Wool and Leather Production:
o Shearing tools should be used correctly to avoid injury and ensure the wool’s
quality.
o When preparing skins for leather, ensure that the processing and tanning steps
are done to produce a high-quality end product.

5. Health and Safety Protocols for Farm Workers

Working with livestock and machinery can present various risks to farm workers. Adopting
proper health and safety protocols is critical.

 Training: Provide comprehensive training for farm workers on safely using tools,
machinery, and equipment.
 Protective Gear: Ensure workers wear the necessary personal protective equipment
(PPE), such as:

52
 o Gloves and aprons for handling animals and feed.
o Steel-toed boots to protect from heavy objects and hooves.
o Ear protection when operating noisy machinery like tractors or feed mixers.
 First Aid Kits: Keep first aid kits readily available on-site in case of injuries.

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54
Here are the images of the equipment used for controlling internal and external parasites in
livestock:

1. Dip Tank for external parasite control.

2. Sprayer for applying pesticide to livestock.
3. Dosing Gun for administering dewormers to treat internal parasites.

Let me know if you need further deta

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6.1.13 USE APPROPRIATE TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, AND MATERIALS WHEN CONTROLLING
DISEASES, INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PARASITES WITH DUE CONSIDERATION OF SAFE

57