Unit 3: AC Analysis of BJT circuits and small-signal amplifier
Q1. Explain theAC load lineconcept intransistor amplifier circuitsand illustrate
it with a neat sketch.
Ans.
AC Load Line in Transistor Amplifier Circuits
TheAC load linerepresents the dynamic (AC) behavior of a transistor amplifier. It
shows all possible combinations of collector current (I_C) and collector-emitter voltage
(V_CE) for a given AC signal across the load resistor,R_AC.
● When a small AC signal is superimposed on the DC bias point (Q-point), the
output voltage and current vary.
● These variations are confined to a straight line called theAC load line, which
depends on theAC load resistance.
The AC load line equation is:
V_CC = V_CE + I_C × R_AC
Where:
● V_CC= supply voltage
● I_C= collector current
● R_AC= total AC load resistance
A diagonal line cutting across the Q-point — that’s theAC load line
It shows how I_C and V_CE change due to the AC signal around the Q-point.
Importance:
● Helps analyzeoutput signal variations.
● Ensuresmaximum undistorted output swing.
● Aids in proper amplifierdesign and biasing.
Q2. Discuss an analysis of thecommon-emitter (CE) amplifier circuit, including its
operating principles, small-signal equivalent model, voltage gain characteristics, and
the input and output impedance parameters.
Ans.
1. Operating Principle:
● Thecommon-emitter amplifieris the most widely used transistor amplifier
configuration.
● In CE configuration,the emitter is commonto both input and output.
● A smallinput voltageapplied at the basecontrolsthe base current, which in
turncontrols the larger collector current, resultingin amplified output.
● The output isinverted(180° phase shift) with respect to the input.
2. Circuit Description:
The basic CE amplifier consists of:
● Biasing resistors(R₁, R₂)
● Coupling capacitors(C_in, C_out)
● Emitter resistor(R_E) for thermal stability
● Collector resistor(R_C)
● Load resistor(R_L)
3. Small-Signal Equivalent Model:
Using thehybrid-pi model:
● Input side: Resistancer_πbetween base and emitter
● Controlled current source:β × i_bfrom collectorto emitter
● Output resistance:r_o(often neglected in low-frequency analysis)
4. Voltage Gain Characteristics:
● Moderate to high voltage gain(typically 20–200).
● Phase inversion: Output is180° out of phasewithinput.
● Gain depends on gm and RC; highercollector resistanceorcollector current
increases gain.
● Bypassing emitter resistorincreases gain;leavingit unbypassedintroduces
negative feedback and reduces gain.
● Voltage gain remainsconstant in mid-frequency rangebut drops atlow and
high frequenciesdue to coupling and parasitic capacitors.
5. Input Impedance (Zin):
● Zin ismoderate.
● Approximate expression:
Zin ≈ rπ in parallel with RB
● "In parallel" meansthe total input resistance iscalculated using the formula:
Zin = (rπ × RB) / (rπ + RB)
6. Output Impedance (Zout):
● Zout ishighdue to the collector resistor.
● Approximate value:
Zout ≈ RC
Q3. How can we draw anAC and DC equivalent circuit?
Ans.
The above circuit is the mixture of both the ac and dc equivalent circuit.
1. DC Biasing Network (for Q-point):
● R1 and R2: Form a voltage divider to bias the base(DC bias).
● RC and RE: Used to set collector and emitter currents(part of DC operation).
● VCC: DC power supply.
2. AC Signal Path (for gain and amplification):
● Cin: Couples AC signal to base (blocks DC from thesignal source).
● CC: Couples output AC signal to the load (blocks DCfrom reaching RL).
● CE: Bypass capacitor that shorts RE for AC (increasesgain).
● To draw theDC equivalent circuit, you:
- Reduce all AC sources to zero.
- Open all the capacitors. That is,
○ RemoveCin, CC, CE.
○ Removethe signal source.
○ Keep VCC, R1, R2, RC, RE, and the transistor in DC mode.
● To draw theAC equivalent circuit, you:
- Reduce all DC sources to zero.
- Short all the capacitors. That is,
○ ShortCin, CC, CE.
○ Short VCC to ground.
○ Keep the signal source and resistors.
○ Replace the BJT with itssmall-signal model(rπ, gm·vπ, etc.).
Q4. Discuss the concept of thehybrid model for the linear circuit.
Ans.
Thehybrid modelis asmall-signal equivalent modelof atransistor in the active
region, usingfour parameters(called h-parameters)to describe the behavior of
two-port linear networks.
It is especially useful inlow-frequency analysisof transistor amplifiers.
Why "Hybrid"?
Because the model uses amixof:
● Impedance (resistance): e.g., input resistance
● Admittance (conductance)
● Dimensionless gain terms
Hence, the term "hybrid".
General Form of h-Model (for CE configuration):
Let:
● Input =base-emitter (v1 , i1)
● Output =collector-emitter (v2 , i2)
The hybrid model is defined by:
1. Input voltage equation:
v₁ = h₁₁ · i₁ + h₁₂ · v₂
2. Output current equation:
i₂ = h₂₁ · i₁ + h₂₂ · v₂
h-Parameters for CE configuration:
Parameter Symbol Meaning Unit
Input resistance h11 Small-signal input ohms (Ω)
resistance
Reverse voltage h12 Feedback ratio (very unitless
gain small)
Forward current h21 Current gain (≈ β) unitless
gain
Output h22 Output admittance siemens (S)
conductance
Hybrid Model Circuit Diagram:
Applications:
● Used inAC small-signal analysisofCE, CB, and CCamplifiers
● Easy to analyze circuits using matrix methods
Q5. Deriveh parameters h11, h12, h21, and h22for the linear circuit.
Ans.
h-Parameters Derivation for a Linear Circuit
Let:
● v₁= input voltage (across input terminals)
● i₁= input current (into input terminal)
● v₂= output voltage (across output terminals)
● i₂= output current (into output terminal)
The generalh-parameter modelis given by:
1. v₁ = h₁₁ · i₁ + h₁₂ · v₂
2.
i₂ = h₂₁ · i₁ + h₂₂ · v₂
We derive each parameter by applyingspecific conditions:
1. h₁₁ —Input resistance
Definition:
The ratio of input voltage to input currentwhen output port is short-circuited
Condition: v₂ = 0
Derivation:
v₁ = h₁₁ · i₁ + h₁₂ · v₂
Put v₂ = 0 → v₁ = h₁₁ · i₁
⇒ h₁₁ = v₁ / i₁
(at v₂ = 0)
Unit: Ohms (Ω)
Meaning: Small-signal input resistance
2. h₁₂ —Reverse voltage gain
Definition:
The ratio of input voltage to output voltagewhen input port is open
Condition: i₁ = 0
Derivation:
v₁ = h₁₁ · i₁ + h₁₂ · v₂
Put i₁ = 0 → v₁ = h₁₂ · v₂
⇒ h₁₂ = v₁ / v₂
(at i₁ = 0)
Unit: Dimensionless
Meaning: Feedback effect from output to input (usuallyvery small)
3. h₂₁ —Forward current gain
Definition:
The ratio of output current to input currentwhen output port is short-circuited.
Condition: v₂ = 0
Derivation:
i₂ = h₂₁ · i₁ + h₂₂ · v₂
Put v₂ = 0 → i₂ = h₂₁ · i₁
⇒ h₂₁ = i₂ / i₁
(at v₂ = 0)
Unit: Dimensionless
Meaning: Current gain (≈ β in CE configuration)
4. h₂₂ —Output conductance
Definition:
The ratio of output current to output voltagewheninput port is open(i₁ = 0)
Condition: i₁ = 0
Derivation:
i₂ = h₂₁ · i₁ + h₂₂ · v₂
Put i₁ = 0 → i₂ = h₂₂ · v₂
⇒ h₂₂ = i₂ / v₂
(at i₁ = 0)
Unit: Siemens (S)
Meaning: Small-signal output admittance
Summarize Table:-
Parameter Formula Condition Unit Meaning
h₁₁ v₁ / i₁ v₂ = 0 Ohms Input resistance
h₁₂ v₁ / v₂ i₁ = 0 Unitless Reverse voltage
feedback ratio
h₂₁ i₂ / i₁ v₂ = 0 Unitless Forward current gain
h₂₂ i₂ / v₂ i₁ = 0 Siemens Output admittance
Q6. Whichparameters affect the performance of h parameters?
Ans.
Theh-parameters(h₁₁, h₁₂, h₂₁, h₂₂) of a transistoror linear circuit are influenced by
the following factors:
1. Transistor Configuration
● Whether the circuit is incommon-emitter (CE),common-base(CB), or
common-collector (CC)mode.
● Each configuration gives different values of h-parameters.
Example: In CE configuration,h₂₁ ≈ β(current gain), but it's different in CB or
CC.
2. Operating Point (Q-point)
● Thebiasing(DC collector current, base-emitter voltage,etc.) affects
small-signal behavior.
● Changing theQ-pointchanges theslope of the outputand input
characteristics, which alters h-parameters.
3. Temperature
● Semiconductor properties(like mobility and thresholdvoltage) vary with
temperature.
● This affects parameters likeh₁₁ (input resistance)andh₂₁ (current gain).
4. Frequency of Operation
● h-parameters arevalid at low frequencies(midbandregion).
● Athigh frequencies, capacitive and inductive effectsbecome significant, and
h-parameter model becomes inaccurate.
5. Device Type and Manufacturing
● Different transistor models or fabrication technologies (e.g., silicon vs.
germanium) have different internal properties.
● This affects theirinput resistance, current gain,and output conductance.
In-Short:
h-parameters are affected by:
● Transistor configuration
● Operating point
● Temperature
● Frequency
● Device design/manufacture
For accurate circuit analysis, h-parameters should be usedunder specified conditions
andwithin their valid range.
Q7. Draw a Hybrid Equivalent Circuit for aCommon Emitter Transistor.
Ans.
Description:
● Small-signal model representing the transistor as a two-port network using
h-parameters.
● Used to analyze AC behavior in the linear region.
At Input (Base-Emitter):
● A resistorh₁₁ (h_ie)models the input resistance.
● A voltage sourceh₁₂ · v₂ (h_re · v_ce)models reversefeedback from output
to input.
At Output (Collector-Emitter):
● A current sourceh₂₁ · i₁ (h_fe · i_b)models thecurrent gain controlled by
the input current.
● A resistor1/h₂₂ (1/h_oe)models the output resistance.
Why It Is Used:
● Simplifies analysis for low-frequency small-signal AC conditions.
● Helps calculate voltage gain, input impedance, and output impedance using linear
equations.
Q8. Draw a Hybrid Equivalent Circuit for aCommon Base Transistorand discuss
in brief.
Ans.
Description:
● Small-signal two-port model focusing on emitter input and collector output.
● Suitable for high-frequency and low-input impedance applications.
At Input (Emitter-Base):
● A resistorh₁₁ (h_ib)models low input resistance.
● A voltage sourceh₁₂ · v₂ (h_rb · v_cb)models reversefeedback.
At Output (Collector-Base):
● A current sourceh₂₁ · i₁ (h_fb · i_e)models current gain (≈ α).
● A resistor1/h₂₂ (1/h_ob)models output resistance.
Why It Is Used:
● Simplifies high-frequency transistor behavior analysis.
● Useful for circuits requiring no phase inversion and wide bandwidth.
Q9. Discuss the hybrid Equivalent Circuit for aCommon Collector Transistorwith
a neat sketch.
Ans.
Description:
● Small-signal model with base input and emitter output (emitter follower).
● Provides high input impedance and low output impedance.
At Input (Base-Collector):
● A resistorh₁₁ (h_ic)models high input resistance.
● A voltage sourceh₁₂ · v₂ (h_rc · v_ec)models reverse feedback.
At Output (Emitter-Collector):
● A current sourceh₂₁ · i₁ (h_fc · i_b)models current gain (~β+1).
● A resistor1/h₂₂ (1/h_oc)models output resistance.
Why It Is Used:
● Ideal as a voltage buffer with unity voltage gain.
● Simplifies calculation of input/output impedance and current gain.
