Design of Steel Structures

Course Code: CE
CEN3211
811

Presented by-
Nadira IslamUniversity
Nila of Creative Technology, Chittagong
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering
Northern University of Business & Technology Khulna
Various types of connections used for connecting the structural members:

1. Riveted connections
2. Bolted connections
3. Pin connections
4. Welded connections

These connections are named after the type of fastening (viz., rivets, bolts and nuts, pins
and welds) used for connecting the structural members.
 Rivet:
A piece of round steel forged in place to connect two or more than two steel members
together is known as a rivet.

The rivets for structural purposes are manufactured from mild steel with yield strength
ranges from 220 N/mm2 to 250 N/mm2 and high tensile rivet
bars.

A rivet consists of a head and a body. The body of rivet is

termed as shank. The head of rivet is formed by heating the rivet
rod and upsetting one end of the rod by running it into the rivet
machine. The rivets are manufactured in different lengths to suit
different purposes. The size of rivets is expressed by the
diameter of the shank.
The most rivet used in structural steel work are heated uniformly throughout its length,
without burning or excessive scaling, and shall be sufficient length to provide a head of
standard dimension when these rivets are driven, these rivets shall be completely fill the
holes. These rivets are known as hot driven rivets.
For driving the rivets, they are heated till they become red hot and are then placed in the
hole. Keeping the rivets pressed from one side, a number of blows are applied and a head
at the other end is formed.

The hot driven rivets are divided in the following three types, according to the method of
rivet-driving:
1. Power driven rivets
2. Hand driven rivets
3. Field rivets

The rivets of the first category are more satisfactorily driven than the rivets of the
other two categories and rivets of second category are more satisfactorily driven than
rivets of the third category because of the difference in workmanship.

The hot driven rivets of 16mm, 18mm, 20mm and 22mm diameter are used for the
structural steel works.
Some rivets are driven at atmospheric temperature. These rivets are known as cold driven
rivets. The cold driven rivets need large pressure to form the head and complete the
driving. The small size rivets ranging from 12 mm to 22 mm in diameter may be cold
driven rivets. The strength of rivet increases in the cold driving. The heating of rivet is not
necessary. The use of cold driven rivets is limited because of equipment necessary and
inconvenience caused in the field.

The diameter of rivet to suit the thickness of plate may be determined from the following
formulae:
1. Unwins’s formula 𝑑 = 6.04𝑡 0.5
2. The French formula, 𝑑 = 1.5𝑡 + 4
3. The German formula, 𝑑 = (50𝑡 − 2)0.5

Where d = nominal diameter of rivet in mm

and t = thickness of plate in mm
 Rivet Heads:
The various types of rivet heads employed for
different works are shown in Fig. The proportions
of various shapes of rivet heads have been
expressed in terms of diameter ‘D’ of the shank of
rivet. The snap head is also termed as round
head and button head. The snap heads are used
for rivets connecting structural members.

Sometimes it becomes necessary to flatten the

rivet heads so as to provide sufficient clearance. A
rivet head which has the form of a truncated cone
is called a countersunk head. When a smooth flat
surface is required, it is necessary to have rivets
countersunk and chipped. The countersunk heads
are used to provide a flush surface.
 Fig 1: Snap headed rivet

Fig 2: Pan headed rivet

Fig 4: Round counter sunk rivet

Fig 3: Flat counter sunk rivet
 Rivet Holes:
The rivet holes are made in the plates or structural members by one of the following two
methods:
1. Punching
2. Drilling

When the holes are made by punching, the holes are not perfect, but taper. A punch
damages the material around the hole. The operation known as reaming is done in the hole
made by punching.

When the hole are made by drilling, the holes are perfect and provide good alignment for
driving the rivets.

The diameter of a rivet hole is made larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet by
1.5 mm of rivets less than or equal to 25 mm diameter (≤ 25𝑚𝑚) and by 2 mm for
diameter exceeding 25 mm (> 25𝑚𝑚).
 Definitions of Terms Used in Riveting
Nominal diameter of rivet (d): The nominal diameter of a rivet means the diameter
of the cold shank before driving.

Gross diameter of rivet (D): The diameter of the hole is slightly greater than the
diameter of the rivet shank. As the rivet is heated and driven, the rivet fills the hole fully.
The gross or effective diameter of a rivet means the diameter of the hole or closed rivet.
Strengths of rivet are based on gross diameter.
Pitch of rivet (p): The pitch of rivet is the distance between two consecutive rivets
measured parallel to the direction of the force in the structural member, lying on the same
rivet line. It is the center to center distance between the individual fasteners. The pitch of
the rivet is kept constant over as large a length as it is possible. The pitch of the rivet is not
changed from rivet to rivet. It is better to keep a large number off pitches with an odd pitch
cast to each end than to keep all the pitches the same with each pitch containing an odd
figure. It facilitates the marking and checking the job. It saves time also.

𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏 : To avoid tension or tearing failure of rivets, the minimum pitch should not be less
than 2.5 times the gross diameter of rivets.

𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 : To avoid buckling failure, the following points should be remembered.

 For compressive member, 12 tmin or 200 mm whichever is lesser in the direction of
stress.
 For tension member, 16 tmin or 200 mm whichever is lesser in the direction of stress.
 For both, 32 tmin or 300 mm whichever is lesser perpendicular to the stress.
 (100 mm + 4t) or 200 mm whichever is less.
Gauge distance of rivets (g): The gauge distance is the transverse distance between
two consecutive rivets of adjacent chains (parallel adjacent lines of fasteners) and is
measured at right angles to the direction of the force in the structural member.

Gross area of rivet: The gross area of rivet is the cross sectional area of a rivet
calculated from the gross diameter of the rivet.

Rivet line: The rivet line is also known as scrieve line or back line or gauge line. The
rivet line is the imaginary line along which rivets are placed. The rolled steel section (e.g.,
I-sections, channel sections, tee-sections) have been assigned standard positions of the
rivet lines. These standard positions of the rivet lines are conformed to whenever possible.
The standard positions of the rivet lines depend upon the flange widths in the case if I-
sections, channel sections and tee-sections. The standard positions of the rivet lines for the
angle sections depend upon the length of legs.
For the equal angle sections, the rivet lines are at equal distances from the heel. For the
unequal angle sections, the rivet lines are also at unequal distances. The standard
positions of rivet lines for the various sections may be noted from ISI Handbook No.1 for
the respective sections. The departure from standard position of the rivet lines may be
done if necessary. The dimensions of rivet lines should be shown irrespective of whether
the standard position have been followed or not.

Staggered pitch: The staggered pitch is also known as alternate pitch or reeled pitch.
The staggered pitch is defined as the distance measured along one rivet line from the
center of a rivet on it to the center of the adjoining rivet on the adjacent parallel rivet line.
One or both the legs of an angle section may have double rivet lines. The staggered pitch
occurs between the double rivet lines.

Edge distance: The distance between the center of the rivet hole and the nearest edge
of the plate is known as edge distance. A minimum edge distance of approximately 1.5
times the gross diameter of the rivet measured from the center of the rivet hole is provided
in the rivet joint.
 Table- Edge Distance of Holes
Edge distance of Hole
Gross diameter of rivet Distance to rolled machine
(mm) Distance to sheared or
flame cut or planed edge
Hand flame cut edge (mm)
(mm)
13.5 and below 19 17
15.5 25 22
17.5 29 25
19.5 32 29
21.5 32 29
23.5 38 32
25.5 44 38
29.0 51 44
32.0 57 51
35.0 57 51
Tacking rivets: When the maximum distance between centers of two adjacent rivets
connecting the members subjected to either compression or tension exceeds the maximum
pitch, then, the tacking rivets not subjected to calculated stresses shall be used.

It is a type of rivets used to maintain the maximum pitch within the limit is called tacking
rivets. These rivets are not used for calculating the strength of the rivet. Tacking rivets are
also called stitch rivets.

The tacking rivets shall have a pitch in line not exceeding 32times the thickness of the
outside plate or 300mm whichever is less. Wherever the plates are exposed to the weather,
the pitch inline shall not exceed 16 times the thickness of the outside plate or 200mm,
whichever is less. In both case, the lines of rivets shall not be apart at a distance greater than
these pitches.
 Riveted Joint
The riveted joints are of two types:
1. Lap joint
2. Butt joint

Lap Joint: In lap joint the members are connected together

by overlapping. When one member is placed above the other
and the two are connected by means of rivets the joint is
known as lap joint.

In case, the lap joint, lines of forces are eccentric; this cause
bending stress, and has the tendency to deform.
These joints are further classified according to the number of rivets used and the
arrangement of rivets adopted.

Lap Joint

Single Riveted Lap Double Riveted Lap

Joint Joint

Chain riveted lap Zig-zag riveted lap

joint joint
Single Riveted Lap Joint: A lap joint in which only one row of rivet is used is known
as single riveted lap joint.

Double Riveted Lap Joint: A lap joint in which two row of rivet are used is known
as double riveted lap joint.
Butt Joint: When plates are placed end to end and flushed with each other and are
joined by means of cover plates, the joint is known as butt joint.

In butt joint two plates are connected end to end and cover plates is provided either on one
side of the main plates.

Butt Joint

Single Cover Butt Double Cover Butt

Joint Joint
Cover Plate Main Plate
Single Cover Butt Joint: If cover plate is placed on one side of the main plate it is
known as single cover butt joint.

In this type of joint, bending stress may develop which may cause deformation of joint.

Double Cover Butt Joint: If the cover plates are placed on both side of main plate it
is known as double cover butt joint.

There is no possibility of the development of bending stress and deformation (distortion) of

joint in this type of joint.
Butt joints are also further classified according to the number of rivets used and the
arrangement of rivets adopted.

Butt Joint

Double Cover Single Double Cover Chain Double Cover Zig-Zag

Riveted Butt Joint Riveted Butt Joint Riveted Butt Joint
 Transmission of Load in Riveted Joint
There are two modes of transmission of load in riveted joints.

 When the load is transmitted by bearing between plates and shanks of rivets, the
rivets are subjected to shear.

 When the shear of rivets is only across one cross-section of the rivet, it is known as
single shear.
 When the shear of rivet is across two cross-sections of the rivet, it is known as double
shear.

 When the load is transmitted by shearing

between heads of rivets and plates, the
rivets are subjected to tension.
Failure of a Riveted Joint
Failure of a riveted joint may take place in any of the following ways

1. Shear failure of rivets

2. Shear failure of plates
3. Bearing failure of rivets
4. Bearing failure of plates
5. Tearing failure of plates
6. Splitting/cracking failure of plates at the edges
 Shear failure of rivets:

The plates riveted together and subjected to tensile loads may result in the shear of the
rivets. The rivets are sheared across their cross-sectional areas.

Single shear occurring in a lap joint has been shown in Fig(a) and double shear
occurring in butt joint has been shown in Fig(b).
 Shear failure of plates:

A plate may fail in shear along two lines as shown in Figure. This may occur when
minimum proper edge distance is not provided.
 Bearing failure of rivets:

Bearing failure of a rivet occurs when the rivet is crushed by the plate. When plates are
stronger than rivets in bearing than bear is a possibility that rivet may get crushed around
the half circumference.
 Bearing failure of plates:

Bearing failure of a plate may occur because of insufficient edge distance in the riveted
joint. Crushing of plate against the bearing of rivet take place in such failure.
 Tearing failure of plates:

When plates riveted together are carrying tensile load, tearing failure of plate may occur.
When strength of the plate is less than that of rivets, tearing failure occurs at the net
sectional area of plate. The tearing failure occurs at the net sectional area of plate.
 Splitting/cracking failure of plates at the edges:

This failure occurs because of insufficient edge distance in the riveted joint. Splitting
(cracking) of plate as shown in figure takes place in such failure.

Note: Shearing, bearing and splitting failure of plates may be avoided by providing
adequate proper edge distance. To safeguard a riveted joint against other modes of
failure, the joint should be designed properly.
 Strength of Riveted Joint
The strength of a riveted joint is determined by computing the following strengths:

1. Strength of a riveted joint against shearing - Ps

2. Strength of a riveted joint against bearing - Pb
3. Strength of plate in tearing - Pt

The strength of a riveted joint is the least strength of the above three strengths.
 Strength of a riveted joint against shearing of the rivets:

The strength of a riveted joint against the shearing of rivets is equal to the product of
strength of one rivet in shear and the number of rivets on each side of the joint. It is
given by-

Ps = strength of a rivet in shearing x number of rivets on each side of joint

When the rivets are subjected to single shear, then the strength of one rivet in single
shear
𝜋
= ( × 𝑑2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4
 Therefore, the strength of a riveted joint against shearing of rivets

𝜋
= 𝑁 × ( × 𝑑 2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4

Where,
N=Number of rivets on each side of the joint;
d=Gross diameter of the rivet;
𝜏𝑣𝑓 =Maximum permissible shear stress in the rivet

When the rivets are subjected to double shear, then the strength of one rivet in double
shear
𝜋
= (2 × × 𝑑2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4
Therefore, the strength of a riveted joint against double shearing of rivets,

𝜋
= 𝑁 × (2 × × 𝑑2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4

When the strength of riveted joint against the shearing of the rivets is determined per
gauge width of the plate, then the number of rivets ‘n’ per gauge is taken in to
consideration. Therefore,
𝜋
For single shear of rivets, 𝑃𝑠1 = 𝑛 × ( × 𝑑2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4
𝜋
For double shear of rivets, 𝑃𝑠2 = 𝑛 × (2 × × 𝑑2 × 𝜏𝑣𝑓 )
4
 Strength of a riveted joint against bearing of the rivets:

The strength of a riveted joint against the bearing of the rivets is equal to the product of
strength of one rivet in bearing and the number of rivets on each side of the joint. It is
given by,

Pb=Strength of a rivet in bearing x Number of rivets on each side of the joint

In case of lap joint, the strength of one rivet in bearing = (𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝜎𝑝𝑏 )

Where,
d= Gross diameter of the rivet;
t=thickness of the thinnest plate;
𝜎𝑝𝑏 = maximum permissible stress in the bearing for the rivet
In case of butt joint, the total thickness of both cover plates or thickness of main plate
whichever is less is considered for determining the strength of a rivet in the bearing.

The bearing pressure acting on the rivet is radial as shown in figure.

The strength of a riveted joint against the bearing of rivets, 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑁 × (𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝜎𝑝𝑏 )

When the strength of riveted joint against the bearing of rivets per gauge width of the
plate is taken into consideration, then, the number of rivets ‘n’ is also adopted per gauge.
Therefore,
𝑃𝑏1 = 𝑛 × (𝑑 × 𝑡 × 𝜎𝑝𝑏 )
 Strength of a riveted joint against tearing of the plates:

The strength of plate in tearing depends upon the resisting section of the plate. The
strength of plate in tearing is given by-
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝜎𝑡𝑓
Where,
𝜎𝑡𝑓 is the maximum permissible stress in the tearing of plate.

When the strength of plate in tearing per gauge width of the plate is found, then, it is
given by-
𝑃𝑡1 = (𝑔 − 𝑑) × 𝑡 × 𝜎𝑡𝑓
Where, g = Width of plate equal to the gauge of the rivets.
 Efficiency or Percentage of Strength of Riveted
Joint
The efficiency of a joint is defined as the ratio of least strength of a riveted joint to the
strength of solid plate. It is known as percentage strength of riveted joint as it is expressed
in percentage.

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

Efficiency of riveted joint, n = ( ) × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑃𝑏 , 𝑃𝑡
=( ) × 100
𝑃
Where, P is the strength of solid plate = b x t x 𝜎𝑡𝑓
 Rivet Value
The strength of a rivet in shearing and in bearing is computed and the lesser is called the
rivet value (R).

 Advantages of Rivet
 Ease of riveting processes.
 Rivet connection is permanent in nature.
 Cheaper fabrication cost.
 Low maintenance cost.
 Rivet connection is possible without electricity in any area.
 Dissimilar metal can also be jointed even non metallic joint are possible with rivet
joint.
 Disadvantages of Rivet
 Necessity of pre-heating the rivet prior to driving.
 High level of noise.
 Skilled work necessary for inspection of connection.
 Labor cost is high.