Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 1

Course Title: Foreign Policy of Major Powers

Course Code: PS-4205

Total Questions: 5 (Attempt any 4)

1. Q.2 How is national interest the main driving force behind the formulation of
national and foreign policy? Discuss.
2. Q.3 How have Chinese foreign policy strategies impacted the socio-political
discourses of its neighbouring states? Discuss.
3. Q.4 What were the reasons that compelled the United States to adopt an Eastward
movement?
4. Q.5 Why was the African continent so inclined toward the Soviet Union in the 20th
century?
5. Q.6 Discuss in detail the foreign policy strategies of the Big Three (United States,
Russia, China) toward the Middle East with special reference to the Palestinian-
Israeli conflict.

Q.2 How is national interest the main driving force behind the
formulation of national and foreign policy? Discuss.
Answer:
National interest is the cornerstone of both national and foreign policy formulation, acting as the
primary motivator for a state’s domestic and international actions. Here’s a detailed discussion:

1. Definition and Role of National Interest

National interest refers to the long-term goals and priorities of a state, encompassing security,
economic prosperity, territorial integrity, ideological values, and global influence. It is derived
from public demands and shaped by political leadership, institutions, and societal values. As per
the material, national interests emerge from public interests and serve as the "main subject
behind the formulation of national policy."
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 2

2. Link to National Policy

National policy addresses domestic governance (e.g., economy, education, healthcare) and is
designed to achieve national interests. For instance:

• Economic Growth: Policies promoting industrialization or infrastructure

development align with the national interest of prosperity.
• Security: Defense budgets or anti-terrorism laws reflect the interest in safeguarding
citizens.
• Social Welfare: Healthcare reforms aim to improve public well-being, a key national
interest.

The "human element" (e.g., population quality, leadership) and "material elements"
(geography, resources) shape how these policies are tailored to national priorities.

3. Link to Foreign Policy

Foreign policy translates national interests into external strategies, as states interact with the
global community. Key elements include:

• Geostrategic Compulsions: Geography and resources (e.g., oil in the Middle East)
dictate alliances or conflicts.
• Military Power: A strong military (a "less permanent material element") deters
threats and projects influence, as seen in U.S. bases under the Carter Doctrine.
• Economic Interests: Trade agreements or sanctions (e.g., the 1979 oil embargo)
protect economic stability.
• Ideology: Democratic states promote human rights, while authoritarian regimes
prioritize sovereignty.

For example, the U.S. "containment" policy during the Cold War aimed to counter Soviet
influence, reflecting its national interest in global hegemony.

4. Process of Policy Formulation

The "process of foreign policy making" varies by political system:

• Democratic Systems (e.g., U.S., UK): Public opinion, NGOs, and legislatures
(Congress/Parliament) shape national interests.
• Authoritarian Systems (e.g., China): The ruling party (CPC) centrally defines
interests, as seen in state-controlled media and SOEs.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 3

The "system-level analysis" highlights how international realities (e.g., power balances) and
domestic actors (civil-military bureaucracy, media) influence policy choices.

5. Challenges and Adaptations

• Complexity: Balancing domestic needs (e.g., population welfare) with global

pressures (e.g., alliances).
• Dynamic Environments: Technological advancements (e.g., nuclear weapons) and
crises (e.g., COVID-19) force states to reassess interests.
• Evaluation: Success is hard to measure; policies like the Clark Amendment
(Angola) or Byrd Amendment (Rhodesia) faced criticism for misaligning with long-
term interests.

6. Examples from the Material

• U.S. Structure: The President (executive) negotiates treaties reflecting security

interests, while Congress (legislative) approves budgets for military alliances like
NATO.
• China’s Centralized Model: The CPC directs foreign policy through state-owned
enterprises (SOEs) and think-tanks to advance economic dominance.
• UK’s Parliamentary System: The Prime Minister balances public opinion (House of
Commons) with strategic alliances (EU/NATO).

Conclusion

National interest is the guiding force behind policy formulation, ensuring coherence between a
state’s internal governance and external engagements. While material factors (resources,
military) and human elements (leadership, ideology) define priorities, the dynamic interplay of
domestic and global factors necessitates continuous adaptation. Ultimately, effective policies
align with core national interests to ensure security, prosperity, and global relevance.

You're right—as a 10-mark answer, the structure should be clearer, well-segmented, and visually
organized for quick comprehension. Here's an improved, exam-ready version with relevant
headings, bolded keywords, and a clear flow of ideas:
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 4

Q.3: How have Chinese foreign policy strategies impacted the socio-
political discourses of its neighbouring states?

1. Introduction: Strategic Shift in Chinese Foreign Policy

Since the end of the Cold War, China has pursued a dual foreign policy strategy—assertive in
maritime East Asia and accommodating in continental Asia. These strategies have reshaped
the socio-political narratives of its neighbours, influencing debates on sovereignty, governance,
economic dependence, and regional security.

2. Maritime Assertiveness and Nationalist Backlash

China’s actions in maritime East Asia—including the 1995–96 Taiwan Strait missile crisis,
the seizure of Mischief Reef, and increasing naval assertiveness in the South China Sea—
have triggered strong nationalist and security-focused discourses in countries like:

• Japan: Public discourse shifted toward supporting a stronger US-Japan alliance

and national rearmament.
• Taiwan: China’s intimidation strengthened domestic support for pro-
independence leaders like Lee Teng-hui.
• Philippines & Vietnam: Sovereignty disputes intensified calls for military
modernization and legal international arbitration.

3. Continental Strategy: Soft Borders and Influence Expansion

In continental Asia, China adopted a policy of “soft borders”—settling border disputes while
demanding unrestricted cross-border trade and movement.

• This benefited China economically and weakened border control capacity of

states like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Burma.
• Resulted in local backlash due to demographic shifts and Chinese goods flooding
markets, reshaping political debates around sovereignty, economic security, and
population control.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 5

4. Elite Cooption and Political Realignment

China strategically coopted local elites, including:

• Governors in Laos, who reported more to Yunnan officials than to their national
government.
• Businessmen, media owners, and local politicians in Nepal, Russia’s Far East,
and Southeast Asia who were granted economic incentives in return for promoting
pro-China narratives.
This altered local governance models and created parallel authority structures,
impacting discourse on state control and foreign influence.

5. Non-Interference Principle and Authoritarian Legitimacy

China’s emphasis on sovereignty and non-intervention bolstered authoritarian regimes by

providing an alternative to Western liberal models.

• Myanmar’s junta, after global isolation in 1988, found legitimacy and support in
China’s backing.
• China's model of economic growth without democratization became attractive to
ruling elites in Laos, Cambodia, and Central Asia, shifting discourse away from
human rights to developmental authoritarianism.

6. Migration and Strategic Demography

China encouraged unofficial emigration into neighbouring states:

• In Burma, grants were given to resettle families displaced by the Three Gorges
Dam.
• This created large ethnic Chinese populations that enhanced China’s social and
economic influence in these regions.
Such demographic shifts sparked nationalist debates and concerns about cultural
sovereignty.

7. Tactical Moderation and Regional Reassurance

Post-1997 and post-9/11, China adopted a conciliatory tone, engaging in regional diplomacy
(e.g., ASEAN Free Trade Zone, SCO).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 6

• This shift reduced short-term anxieties but reinforced long-term narratives of

Chinese strategic patience and hidden ambitions, rooted in doctrines like “hide
capabilities, bide time.”

8. Conclusion

China’s foreign policy strategies have reshaped political discourses in neighbouring states.
While economic ties and diplomatic engagement offered cooperation opportunities, they also
provoked fears of dominance, challenged liberal norms, and reframed internal political
debates on identity, sovereignty, and foreign influence. China's neighbours now increasingly
view Beijing through a lens of strategic caution, blending engagement with hedging policies.

Q.4 What were the reasons that compelled the United States to
adopt an Eastward movement?

1. Historical Background: 19th Century Foundations

The U.S. Eastward movement began in the late 19th century, primarily driven by economic
expansion, strategic military interests, and imperial competition.

• Annexation of Hawaii (1898): Provided a vital naval base (Pearl Harbor) and
refueling station for U.S. ships en route to Asia.
• Spanish-American War (1898): Led to U.S. acquisition of the Philippines, granting
it a strategic foothold in East Asia.
• Open Door Policy (1899): Promoted by Secretary of State John Hay, it aimed to
ensure equal trading rights in China, while preserving Chinese territorial integrity
against European colonialism.

These moves reflected America’s desire to participate in the Asian markets, access natural
resources, and establish itself as a Pacific power alongside Britain, France, and Japan.

2. Strategic and Military Considerations

The Eastward movement was not merely economic—it had clear military motivations.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 7

• Mahanian Naval Doctrine: U.S. strategic thinkers like Alfred Thayer Mahan
emphasized the need for a strong navy and overseas bases, influencing America's
turn to the Pacific.
• Philippines as a Forward Base: Allowed the U.S. to project power into China and
Southeast Asia and counter regional threats.
• The U.S. sought to balance Japanese expansionism, especially after the Russo-
Japanese War (1904–05), which marked Japan's rise as a Pacific power.

3. Cold War Context: Containment in Asia

During the Cold War, the U.S. continued its Eastward orientation to contain communism in
Asia.

• Formation of alliances like ANZUS (1951) and SEATO (1954) to counter the spread
of Soviet and Chinese influence.
• Establishment of military bases in Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines.
• Korean War (1950–53) and Vietnam War (1955–75) were pivotal in shaping U.S.
long-term military and political engagement in East Asia.

4. Contemporary Shift: Pivot to Asia (2011)

Under President Barack Obama, the U.S. announced a formal “Pivot to Asia” or
“Rebalancing Strategy”, marking a renewed Eastward strategic emphasis.

• Goal: Counter China’s rising influence in the Indo-Pacific.

• Components:
o Strengthening alliances with Japan, South Korea, Australia
o Expanding naval presence in the South China Sea
o Promoting TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership) as an economic counterbalance
to China’s Belt and Road Initiative
o Increasing cooperation with ASEAN, India, and Pacific island states

The shift was a response to China's militarization of the South China Sea, assertiveness in
Taiwan, and economic outreach through BRI.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 8

5. Economic and Strategic Interests in the Indo-Pacific

• The Indo-Pacific region accounts for 60% of global GDP and nearly half of global
trade—making it vital to U.S. interests.
• The U.S. seeks to ensure freedom of navigation, particularly through key
chokepoints like the Malacca Strait and South China Sea, through which over $5
trillion of trade passes annually.

6. Technological and Ideological Dimensions

• China’s rise in AI, 5G, cyber capabilities, and semiconductor dominance

prompted the U.S. to reorient defense and economic strategies eastward.
• The Eastward pivot also aims to promote democratic governance and human
rights as alternatives to China's authoritarian development model.

Conclusion

The U.S. Eastward movement is a historically rooted strategy driven by economic access,
strategic positioning, and ideological rivalry. From the annexation of Pacific islands to Cold
War containment and the modern Indo-Pacific strategy, it reflects Washington’s enduring
commitment to influence the balance of power in Asia. The Pivot to Asia (2011) marked a clear
response to China’s emergence, reaffirming the region as central to 21st-century American
foreign policy.

Q.6: Discuss in detail the foreign policy strategies of the Big Two (United
States and China) toward the Middle East with special reference to the
Palestinian-Israeli conflict, and toward South Asia (main focus).
(10 Marks – Structured Exam Answer)

1. Introduction

The United States and China, as the most influential global powers, have distinct foreign policy
approaches toward the Middle East and South Asia, shaped by strategic interests, ideological
outlooks, and global leadership ambitions. While the Middle East represents a longstanding
arena of U.S. dominance and emerging Chinese engagement, South Asia is increasingly at the
center of geopolitical rivalry, especially with China’s rise and U.S.-India alignment.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 9

2. United States’ Foreign Policy

A. Toward the Middle East (Palestinian-Israeli Conflict)

• Pro-Israel Stance: The U.S. is Israel’s strongest ally, providing $3.8 billion annually
in military aid.
• Two-State Solution Advocacy: Despite support for Israel, the U.S. nominally
supports a negotiated solution with a Palestinian state, though recent actions (e.g.,
Jerusalem embassy move in 2018) suggest bias.
• Strategic Priorities:
o Counterterrorism (e.g., ISIS, Al-Qaeda)
o Containing Iran
o Securing energy supplies
• Impact: Seen by Arab and Muslim countries as biased and interventionist,
undermining U.S. credibility as a neutral mediator.

B. Toward South Asia (Main Focus)

• Strategic Tilt Toward India:

o U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Deal (2005) deepened defense and energy ties.
o Supports India as a counterbalance to China in the Indo-Pacific.
o Promotes QUAD alliance (U.S., India, Japan, Australia).
• Afghanistan Policy:
o War on Terror (2001–2021) with Pakistan as a logistical ally.
o Withdrawal in 2021 created regional instability; relations with Pakistan
strained.
• Pakistan Relations:
o Once a frontline ally during Cold War and War on Terror.
o Now reduced to tactical engagement, mainly for counterterrorism.
• Objectives:
o Regional stability
o Prevent nuclear escalation between India and Pakistan
o Combat terrorism
o Limit Chinese influence (especially via CPEC)

3. China’s Foreign Policy

A. Toward the Middle East (Palestinian-Israeli Conflict)

• Neutral and Balanced Approach:

o Supports a two-state solution and calls for peace negotiations.
o Maintains ties with Israel (tech and trade) and Palestine (political support).
• Energy Diplomacy:
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 10

o Secures oil from Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE.

o Signed 25-year cooperation deal with Iran (2021).
• Strategic Goals:
o Expand Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) through the Middle East.
o Avoid direct military entanglement.
o Build soft-power influence through non-interventionist diplomacy.

B. Toward South Asia (Main Focus)

• All-Weather Partnership with Pakistan:

o CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor): Flagship BRI project worth over
$60 billion.
o Military cooperation, economic aid, and diplomatic support (especially on
Kashmir and FATF).
• Cautious Engagement with India:
o Deep trade ties but strategic rivalry over border disputes (e.g., Doklam
2017, Galwan 2020).
o Opposes India’s role in QUAD and Indo-Pacific alliances.
• Regional Objectives:
o Secure western frontier (Xinjiang) from instability.
o Expand influence through infrastructure, trade, and diplomacy.
o Prevent encirclement by U.S.-led coalitions.
o Promote multipolarity and non-interventionism.

4. Conclusion

The U.S. foreign policy in both the Middle East and South Asia is rooted in military alliances,
containment strategies, and ideological export, while China’s strategy is based on economic
integration, neutrality, and long-term strategic patience. In South Asia, China’s economic
clout (especially via Pakistan) and the U.S.-India strategic partnership represent a new Cold
War-style division, influencing the region’s security architecture and political alignments.
The Middle East remains an area of U.S. hard power and China’s emerging soft presence,
whereas South Asia is now central to the U.S.–China rivalry.

Goal 1

"Conceptualizing Foreign Policy"

Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 11

1. Introduction to Foreign Policy

• Definition: Subset of national policy dealing with external affairs to protect national
interests.
• Complexity:
o Influenced by domestic, regional, and global environments.
o Interdependence in modern world (economic, cultural, military factors).
• Challenges:
o Difficulty in tracing policy-making centers.
o Evaluating success/failure of decisions.

2. Relationship Between F.P., National Policy (N.P.), & National Interests

1. Hierarchy:
o Public demands → National Interests → National Policy → Foreign Policy.
2. Example:
o U.S. "Pivot to Asia" driven by national interest (countering China) vs. public
isolationist demands.

3. Elements of Foreign Policy

A. Relatively Permanent Material Elements

1. Geography:
o Strategic advantages (e.g., UK’s separation from Europe deterred invasions
by Hitler/Napoleon).
o Modern tech (airplanes, nukes) reduces geographical constraints.
2. Natural Resources:
o Oil’s role in Middle East conflicts (1979 oil embargo).
o Diversification of energy sources (e.g., Germany’s WWII food reserve
strategy).

B. Less Permanent Material Elements

1. Industrial Establishment:
o Industrial Revolution → power index (employment, taxes, global influence).
o Balance of payment advantages for industrialized states.
2. Military Establishment:
o Diplomacy backed by military strength (historical gunboats → modern
air/naval power).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 12

o Challenges:
▪ Confusing national power vs. military power.
▪ Hidden aspects (e.g., cyber capabilities).

C. Human Element

1. Quantitative (Population):
o Historical view: Population as a liability (WWI/WWII losses).
o Modern view: HRD (Human Resource Development) as an asset (post-COVID
demand for skilled labor).
2. Qualitative:
o Leadership, ideology, information access.
o Examples:
▪ Ideological confrontations (Cold War: U.S. vs. USSR).
▪ Information explosion (social media shaping public opinion).

4. Foreign Policy-Making Process

• System Influence:
o Democratic vs. Non-Democratic:
▪ U.S. (checks and balances) vs. China (centralized CPC control).
o Key Actors:
▪ State agencies (civil-military bureaucracy).
▪ NGOs, media, public opinion.
• Steps:
1. Situation analysis.
2. Evaluation of options.
3. Action for interest maximization.

5. System-Level Analysis

1. Individual-Level: Decision-makers’ psychology (e.g., leaders’ risk tolerance).

2. State-Level: Political structure’s impact (e.g., U.S. Congress ratifying treaties).
3. System-Level: International realities (e.g., Cold War bipolarity shaping alliances).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 13

6. Case Studies: Government Structures

Country Key Features FP Implications

Separation of powers (Legislative, Executive, Slow treaty ratification; bipartisan

U.S.
Judiciary). influence on FP.

Parliamentary system with non-political FP driven by Prime

UK
monarchy. Minister/Cabinet.

Centralized CPC control (State Council, Unified FP strategies (e.g., Belt and
China
Central Military Commission). Road Initiative).

7. Key Concepts for Final Exam

Essay Questions

• Q.2 (National Interest): Link to hierarchy (public → national interest → policy). Use
U.S. Cold War containment as an example.
• Q.6 (BIG 3 in Middle East):
o U.S.: Pro-Israel stance, Saudi alliances.
o Russia: Support for Assad (Syria), energy deals.
o China: Neutrality, Iran-Saudi mediation (2023).

Short Answers

• Wolf Warrior Diplomacy: Aggressive Chinese FP under Xi (e.g., South China Sea
disputes).
• Debt-Trap Diplomacy: China’s BRI loans in Africa (e.g., Kenya’s SGR project).

Exam Strategy: Focus on system-level analysis and comparative case studies (e.g., U.S. vs.
China FP structures).
Good Luck!

Goal 2
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 14

"Understanding USA’s Foreign Policy Framework"

1. Historical Context

• Articles of Confederation (1781–1789):

o Established a "Perpetual Union" among 13 original states.
o Weak central government; states retained sovereignty.
o Replaced by the U.S. Constitution (1787) to strengthen federal authority
while balancing state rights.

2. Key Statistical Facts (2022–2023)

• Population: 334.23 million.

• External Debt: $25.1 trillion (June 2023).
• Land Area: 9.834 million km².
• Reserve Assets: $706.91 billion (2022).

3. Objectives of U.S. Foreign Policy

1. Security: Protect territory, citizens, ideology, and interests (e.g., NATO alliances,
counterterrorism).
2. Prosperity: Ensure economic growth (e.g., free trade agreements like USMCA).
3. Global Development:
o Promote capitalism and democracy (e.g., USAID programs).
o Strengthen institutions supporting human rights.
4. Resource Access: Secure uninterrupted global markets (e.g., Middle East oil
diplomacy).
5. Balance of Power: Shape world order (e.g., Cold War containment, post-9/11
interventions).
6. Freedom & Democracy: Export democratic values (e.g., post-WWII Marshall Plan).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 15

4. Tools of U.S. Foreign Policy

Tool Description Example

Negotiations, treaties
Diplomacy Iran Nuclear Deal (2015).
(bilateral/multilateral).

$3.3 billion annual aid to

Foreign Aid Economic/military assistance to allies.
Israel.

Coercive
Military operations (direct/indirect). Iraq War (2003).
Measures

Economic penalties Sanctions on Russia post-

Sanctions
(unilateral/multilateral). 2014 Crimea annexation.

Limit adversarial influence (e.g.,

Containment Truman Doctrine (1947).
communism during Cold War).

Nuclear triad (land, sea, air

Deterrence Prevent aggression via military strength.
capabilities).

Shape global opinion (e.g., Voice of Cold War-era anti-Soviet

Propaganda
America). campaigns.

CIA operations in Afghanistan

Intelligence Espionage and cyber operations.
(2001–2021).

5. Agencies Involved in U.S. Foreign Policy

A. Public Opinion & Representation

• Public Opinion: Polling agencies gauge citizen sentiment (e.g., Pew Research
Center).
• Elected Representatives:
o President: Chief diplomat; negotiates treaties.
o Senate: Ratifies treaties (e.g., New START Treaty with Russia).

B. State Bureaucracy

1. National Security Council (NSC): Coordinates defense and foreign policy.

2. State Department: Manages diplomatic relations (e.g., embassies, consulates).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 16

3. Defense Department (DoD): Executes military strategies (e.g., Indo-Pacific

Command).
4. Intelligence Community:
o CIA: Covert operations and intelligence gathering.
o NSA: Cyber surveillance and cryptography.

C. Economic & Developmental Agencies

• Commerce Department: Promotes trade (e.g., tariffs on Chinese goods).

• USAID: Implements development projects (e.g., HIV/AIDS programs in Africa).
• Office of the U.S. Trade Representative: Negotiates trade deals (e.g., USMCA).

6. Case Studies for Exam Focus

• Containment in the Cold War:

o Marshall Plan (1948): Rebuilt Europe to counter Soviet influence.
o NATO Expansion: Deterred USSR aggression.
• Post-9/11 Foreign Policy:
o War on Terror: Afghanistan/Iraq invasions.
o Drones & Counterterrorism: CIA-led operations in Yemen/Somalia.

7. Key Exam Questions

1. Q.2 (National Interest): Link U.S. objectives to national interest (e.g., security →
NATO, prosperity → trade deals).
2. Q.4 (Eastward Movement): Driven by countering China’s rise (Pivot to Asia, 2011).
3. Q.6 (BIG 3 in Middle East):
o U.S.: Pro-Israel stance, Iran sanctions.
o Russia: Supports Syria’s Assad regime.
o China: Neutrality, energy investments.

Exam Strategy: Focus on tools-agency linkages (e.g., State Department’s role in diplomacy)
and historical case studies.
Good Luck!

Goal 3
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 17

"Historical Settings of U.S. Foreign Policy (18th–19th Century)"

1. U.S. Foreign Policy in the 18th Century

A. Articles of Confederation (1781–1789)

• Weak Central Government: States retained sovereignty; vulnerable to foreign

intimidation.
• Key Issue: Lack of unified foreign policy (e.g., states adopted independent policies).

B. U.S. Constitution (1787)

• Federal System: States ceded sovereignty to federal government; balance between

President and Congress.
o President: Day-to-day foreign policy, Commander-in-Chief.
o Congress: Power to declare war, control spending.
• Debate:
o Hamilton vs. Jefferson:
▪ Hamilton: Strong central government, industrial/military power.
▪ Jefferson: Decentralized agrarian society, limited federal authority.

2. 19th Century: Regional Policy & Expansion

A. Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• Key Points:
1. Non-interference in European affairs.
2. Recognition of existing European colonies in the Americas.
3. Western Hemisphere closed to new colonization.
4. U.S. would oppose European intervention in the Americas.
• Impact: Established U.S. hegemony in the Western Hemisphere.

B. Westward Expansion

1. Louisiana Purchase (1803):

o Acquired from France; doubled U.S. territory.
o Enabled westward settlement.
2. Adams-Onís Treaty (1819):
o Secured Florida from Spain; defined U.S.-Spain boundaries.
3. Texas Annexation (1845):
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 18

o Annexed after Texan independence from Mexico.

4. Mexican-American War (1846–1848):
o Resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; U.S. gained California, New
Mexico, Arizona.
5. Oregon Treaty (1846):
o Extended U.S.-Canada border along the 49th parallel.

C. Native American Policies

• Phases:
1. Coexistence (1789–1828).
2. Removal/Reservations (1829–1886) – Trail of Tears.
3. Assimilation (1887–1932) – Dawes Act.
4. Termination (1946–1960).
5. Self-Determination (1961–1985).

3. Pacific & Global Ambitions

A. Pacific Expansion

1. Alaska Purchase (1867):

o Bought from Russia for $7.2 million; strategic foothold in the Pacific.
2. Hawaii Annexation (1898):
o Overthrew monarchy; annexed for coaling stations and naval dominance.

B. Spanish-American War (1898)

• Outcomes:
o Philippines: Acquired from Spain; marked first overseas colony.
o Cuba: Indirect control via the Platt Amendment.
• Contradiction: U.S. promoted anti-colonialism but engaged in imperialism.

C. Open Door Policy (1899)

• Objective: Ensure equal trading rights in China; prevent European colonization.

• Secretary of State John Hay: Issued diplomatic notes to major powers.

4. Post-19th Century U.S. Emergence

• Territorial Growth: From Atlantic to Pacific ("sea to shining sea").

Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 19

• Economic Power: Industrial output surpassed Europe; focus on overseas markets.

• Demographic Shift: Urbanization and immigration fueled growth.

5. Key Concepts for Final Exam

Essay Questions

• Q.4 (Eastward Movement): Link to Pacific expansion (Hawaii, Philippines) and

economic interests (Open Door Policy).
• Q.6 (BIG 3 in Middle East): Historical roots of U.S. interventionism (e.g., Monroe
Doctrine → modern hegemony).

Short Answers

• Manifest Destiny: Ideology justifying territorial expansion.

• Gunboat Diplomacy: Used in Japan (1853) to force trade relations.

Exam Strategy: Focus on expansionist policies (e.g., Louisiana Purchase, Mexican-American

War) and their alignment with national interests (security, prosperity).
Good Luck!

"The United States and Africa After the Cold War" by F. Ugboaja
Ohaegbulam

Historical Context

1. Cold War Dynamics (1947–1991):

o U.S. policy in Africa was driven by the containment of communism, viewing
Africa as vulnerable to Soviet influence post-decolonization.
o Key strategies included military/economic aid to anti-communist regimes
(e.g., Zaire, Angola, Somalia) and collaboration with European colonial
powers (e.g., France, Portugal).
2. Post-Soviet Collapse (1991):
o The disintegration of the USSR removed the primary ideological threat,
necessitating a redefined U.S. policy in Africa.
o Shift from Cold War geopolitics to focus on regional stability, economic
development, and human rights.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 20

Determinants of U.S. Policy During the Cold War

1. National Security Interests:

o Defined by perceived Soviet threats. Policy often prioritized anti-communism
over African self-determination.
o Examples: Support for Jonas Savimbi (UNITA) in Angola, CIA involvement in
Nelson Mandela’s arrest (1962).
2. Eurocentrism:
o U.S. aligned with European colonial/neocolonial interests (e.g., NATO
support for Portugal’s African colonies).
o Subordinated African independence movements to Western alliance
cohesion.
3. Economic/Geostrategic Interests:
o Focus on securing trade routes (Suez Canal, Cape Route) and resources.
o Military bases established in Kenya, Somalia, and Morocco under the Carter
Doctrine (1980).
4. Humanitarian Concerns:
o Contradictory actions: Aid to famine-stricken regions (e.g., Sahel, Ethiopia)
but politicized aid (e.g., withholding food from Mozambique).
5. Domestic Pressure Groups & Congress:
o Limited influence from African-American groups until the 1980s anti-
apartheid movement.
o Congressional actions:
▪ Byrd Amendment (1970): Allowed trade with Rhodesia (repealed
1977).
▪ Clark Amendment (1975): Banned covert aid to Angolan factions
(repealed 1985).
▪ Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (1986): Sanctions against South
Africa.

Proposed New Directions for U.S. Policy (Post-Cold War)

1. Reduce Eurocentrism:
o Prioritize mutual U.S.-Africa interests over European colonial legacies.
2. Support African-Led Solutions:
o Empower African leaders to resolve conflicts (e.g., regional peacekeeping).
3. End Support for Authoritarian Regimes:
o Shift focus to civil society: NGOs, women’s groups, grassroots organizations.
4. Adopt Regional Approaches:
o Tailor policies to regional realities (e.g., Horn of Africa vs. Southern Africa).
5. Promote Global Economic Equity:
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 21

o Advocate for debt relief, fair commodity prices, and market access for
African goods.

Forces Favoring Policy Change

1. End of Soviet Threat:

o Reduced need for containment strategies; focus shifts to development.
2. Congressional Activism:
o Post-Vietnam War, Congress increasingly challenged executive decisions
(e.g., anti-apartheid sanctions).
3. Rise of African Democracy:
o Multiparty systems gain traction (e.g., Namibia’s independence in 1990,
South Africa’s transition).
4. Economic Pragmatism:
o U.S. recognition of Africa’s potential markets and resources.

Impediments to Policy Change

1. Neo-Isolationism:
o Post-Cold War fatigue; focus on domestic issues (e.g., budget deficits).
2. Persistent Eurocentrism:
o Continued alignment with European allies’ interests (e.g., trade dominance).
3. Negative Perceptions of Africa:
o Media highlighting instability, corruption, and poverty deter investment.
4. Competing Global Priorities:
o U.S. focus on Eastern Europe and the former Soviet bloc.
5. African Governance Challenges:
o Authoritarianism, civil wars, and economic mismanagement undermine
confidence.

Key Quotes

• On Cold War Policy:

"Containment fostered a strong American national consensus... It supplied

the foreign policy establishment a potent weapon to mobilize support."

• On Post-Cold War Priorities:

Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 22

"Outsiders cannot develop Africa for Africans... The US should encourage

Africans to devise their own strategies."

Conclusion

The article argues for a paradigm shift: U.S. policy must transition from Cold War-era
interventionism to partnership, emphasizing African agency, economic equity, and democratic
governance. Success hinges on overcoming domestic apathy and fostering mutual respect in
U.S.-Africa relations.

“New Approaches in China’s Foreign Policy: The Post-Cold War

Era”

Author: Qimao Chen (1993)

Focus: How China restructured its foreign policy in response to the global shifts after the Cold
War.

1. Strategic Reassessment Post-Cold War

With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the decline of global socialism, China lost its Cold
War strategic leverage. The bipolar world order was replaced by a multipolar but unstable
system. China could no longer rely on playing superpowers against each other and had to
redefine its global position based on economic and security considerations.

2. Perceived Threats and Weaknesses

China identified new vulnerabilities:

• Collapse of communist allies in Eastern Europe and the USSR weakened

ideological support.
• Internal threats rose from Taiwan, Xinjiang, and Tibet due to increased nationalist
movements.
• Lag in economic and technological development risked China's global relevance.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 23

• Deng Xiaoping warned that economic stagnation would destroy the state’s
legitimacy.

3. Economic Development as Core National Interest

China moved away from ideology and prioritized economic modernization and national
survival. The leadership believed that economic weakness posed a bigger threat than military
invasions. Economic lag was seen as a strategic threat; hence, foreign policy had to support
development and integration into the world economy.

4. Good-Neighbourly Diplomacy

China sought to stabilize regional relations, especially in Asia:

• Restored or improved relations with India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and South Korea.
• Resolved disputes with ASEAN members peacefully (e.g., over Spratly Islands).
• Called for joint development and mutual respect in contested regions.
This policy aimed to avoid conflicts and create a stable environment for
development.

5. Omnidirectional Engagement

China adopted a multi-vector foreign policy, strengthening ties with:

• Major powers: Russia (Yeltsin’s 1992 visit), the U.S., and the EU.
• Developing world: Africa, Latin America, and Asia-Pacific.
This flexible diplomacy moved beyond ideology to mutual benefit and strategic
balance, avoiding hegemonic alignments.

6. China in Multilateral Institutions

China enhanced participation in global organizations:

• Joined APEC, resumed efforts to join GATT/WTO.

• Signed arms control treaties (e.g., Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 24

• Took active roles in UN peacekeeping and regional dialogues (e.g., Cambodia).

This helped present China as a responsible and peaceful actor globally.

7. Defense Policy and Military Modernization

• Military spending increased post-1989 but remained modest.

• From 1981–1989, defense budget was just 8.2% of national expenditure.
• Most funds went to modernization, not expansion (e.g., SU-27 jets from Russia).
• China emphasized that its military posture was defensive, countering Western
fears.

8. Relations with the U.S. and Taiwan Tensions

• U.S. sale of F-16s to Taiwan in 1992 angered China, breaching earlier agreements.
• China protested but remained committed to economic ties and trade talks.
• Concerns over U.S. support for separatists, “Radio Free Asia,” and ideological
pressure remained.
Despite tensions, mutual economic interests helped sustain cooperation.

9. Economic Rise and Global Image

• In 1992, China’s economy grew 12%, with $14 billion in foreign investment.
• Reform continued under Deng’s leadership (Fourteenth Party Congress: “socialist
market economy”).
• Western analysts projected China could challenge U.S. economic dominance in
the long term.
This growth enhanced China’s global influence and diplomatic appeal.

10. Conclusion: Pragmatic and Defensive Policy Shift

China’s foreign policy after the Cold War became realist and pragmatic, prioritizing:

• Stability,
• Economic integration, and
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 25

• Avoidance of confrontation.
It rejected ideological interference, focused on development, and emphasized
respect for sovereignty, positioning itself as a peaceful yet rising global power.

Ross H. Munro’s article:

"China's Relations with Its Neighbours: Strategy and Tactics".

1. Strategic Context After the Cold War

With the collapse of the Soviet bloc, China emerged as the dominant power in continental
East Asia. Previously surrounded by hostile Soviet-aligned neighbors, China now faced no
serious land-based strategic threats, allowing it to shift its strategic focus toward regional
influence and dominance. This coincided with China's economic take-off in the 1990s and its
political recovery after the Tiananmen crisis. The new Chinese strategy recalled the tributary
state system, marking a shift from balance-of-power diplomacy to ambitious regional
assertion.

2. Dual Regional Strategy: Maritime Assertiveness vs. Continental Soft Power

In the early 1990s, China pursued aggressive tactics in maritime East Asia while practicing
conciliatory diplomacy with continental neighbors:

• Maritime Approach:
o Asserted sovereignty over South China Sea (e.g., seizure of Mischief Reef in
1995).
o Conducted intimidating military exercises near Taiwan (1995–96),
presenting them as invasion rehearsals.
o Pressured Japan for WWII apologies and stoked nationalism.
• Continental Approach:
o Settled border disputes on generous terms with countries like Kazakhstan
and Russia.
o Sought “soft borders”, enabling free movement of people and goods—a
strategy that benefited China's border economies.
o Emphasized friendship, trade, and stability, particularly with previously
hostile states.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 26

3. The “Soft Borders” Policy and Strategic Influence

China’s land-border diplomacy was designed not just for stability, but to extend its influence
across borders:

• Quid Pro Quo Strategy:

China offered generous border settlements in exchange for removal of movement/trade
restrictions.
o Examples:
▪ Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Burma were pushed to accept
Chinese terms.
▪ Local populations in Burma and Russia’s Far East were alarmed at
the influx of Chinese goods and migrants.
▪ By 1992, China’s border trade increased by 42% over 1991.
• Strategic Goal:
China sought to bind weak neighbors economically, spread influence through
population movement, and undermine Western-style sovereignty norms.

4. Unofficial Emigration and Demographic Strategy

Evidence suggests an unofficial Chinese policy of encouraging emigration to bordering states:

• Example – Burma:
o China provided grants to flood victims and displaced families (e.g., Three
Gorges Dam) to resettle in northern Burma.
o By 2000, western estimates claimed up to 2 million China-born residents in
Burma.
o This population served as both a political and economic lever.
• Border pass policies allowed visa-free movement of Chinese, mostly benefiting China
due to population and economic density along borders.

5. Co-opting Local Elites and Political Influence

China pursued a systematic cooption strategy to extend influence into neighboring states:

• Targeted media, business elites, and local leaders in areas like Kazakhstan, Nepal, and
Laos.
• Example – Laos:
o Governor of Phongsali Province reported more to Yunnan officials than to
Vientiane.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 27

• Burma became a virtual satellite after the 1988 military coup, accepting Chinese aid,
military support, and allowing intelligence outposts and port access.
• This strategy of cooption mirrors China's preference for authoritarian but weak
regimes as strategic partners.

6. Tactical Reversal After Taiwan Crisis (1995–96)

China’s maritime assertiveness suffered setbacks:

• The Taiwan missile crisis (1995–96) backfired:

o U.S. sent two aircraft carrier groups to deter China.
o Taiwan elected Lee Teng-hui, China’s political adversary, with a strong
mandate.
o Japan and Southeast Asia grew wary; the U.S. reaffirmed its strategic role
in Asia.
• George W. Bush (1999) called China a “strategic competitor”, signaling a hardening
U.S. stance.

7. Tactical Shift and Embrace of Multilateralism

China adapted its tactics post-1997, adopting a moderate, economic, and multilateral
approach:

• Supported Southeast Asia during 1997 financial crisis, improving image.

• Signed Friendship Treaty with Russia (2001).
• Helped form the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) with Russia and
Central Asian states—marking China’s first multilateral security alliance.
• Accepted a longer timeframe for achieving strategic goals, adopting a “bide time,
hide capabilities” doctrine.

8. Post-9/11 Recalibration

China initially tried to limit U.S. expansion post-9/11:

• Jiang Zemin attempted to form a UN coalition to restrain U.S. plans in Afghanistan—

was rebuffed by Blair, Chirac, and Putin.
• Russia endorsed U.S. bases in Central Asia, alarming China.
• China shifted to conciliatory regional diplomacy, fearing isolation and encirclement.
• Leaders emphasized non-confrontation and long-term goals.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 28

9. Doctrine of Secrecy and Strategic Patience

Chinese strategic culture values secrecy, deception, and long-term planning:

• CPC scholars advocated “hide capabilities and bide time”.

• China avoided terms like “grand strategy” publicly to obscure intentions.
• This aligns with the “peaceful rise” doctrine by Zheng Bijian, which projects
moderation while preserving long-term goals.
• Skepticism is warranted, as past actions (e.g., Mischief Reef seizure) show
opportunistic behavior when risks are low.

10. Conclusion: Regional Diplomacy with Strategic Intent

Despite adopting more constructive and moderate regional tactics, China continues to pursue
long-term regional dominance:

• Uses diplomacy, trade, and cooption to build influence.

• Engages in multilateralism when it suits its interests.
• Maintains an opportunistic posture, seizing low-risk openings.
• “Great Peripheral Diplomacy” aims to establish a strategic Asian foothold while
projecting future global power.

Understanding Chinese Foreign Policy

Compiled for Exam Preparation (Final Year – BS Political Science)

Instructor: Muhammad Naseer Ahmad Taib

1. Core Principles and Foundations of Chinese Foreign Policy

China’s foreign policy is fundamentally built on the doctrine of peaceful coexistence, derived
from the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel Agreement, 1954). These
principles not only define China’s official diplomacy but also guide its bilateral and multilateral
conduct.

Five Foundational Principles:

Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 29

1. Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity – Non-negotiable in

matters like Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang.
2. Mutual non-aggression – Commitment to resolving disputes without use of force.
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs – A key reason for strategic
partnerships with authoritarian states.
4. Equality and mutual benefit – Promoting economic partnerships that appear fair
and non-imperialist.
5. Peaceful coexistence – Avoidance of bloc politics, unlike the Cold War model.

Statement of Policy:
China claims to follow an independent foreign policy of peace, striving to protect sovereignty,
national security, and development interests. It promotes global peace, economic cooperation,
and aims to reform the international order toward a multipolar world.

Contemporary Doctrine:

• “Peaceful Rise” (coined by Zheng Bijian) – Emphasizes development over

dominance.
• “Community of Common Destiny” – Regional interdependence through initiatives
like BRI.
• Strategic line: “Hide your strength, bide your time” (Deng Xiaoping), still relevant
under Xi Jinping.

2. China and the World: Competing Perceptions

How the World Views China:

• Perceived as an emerging superpower threatening the liberal order.

• Western analysis often assumes expansionist or revisionist intentions (e.g., South
China Sea militarization, Taiwan threats).
• Human rights issues, tech rivalry, and aggressive diplomacy (e.g., Wolf Warrior
Diplomacy) contribute to skepticism.

How China Views Itself:

• Sees itself as a victim of historical humiliation (Opium Wars, colonialism).

• Regards its rise as restoration, not aggression.
• Emphasizes nationalism over ideology in foreign affairs.
• Seeks to reverse the legacy of unequal treaties by regaining “lost territories” (e.g.,
Taiwan, Hong Kong pre-1997, Macau).
• Views U.S. military presence in East Asia as containment rather than protection.

Interpretive Conflict:
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 30

• The West sees China’s economic rise as geopolitical competition.

• China sees Western norms as hegemonic and intrusive, hence promotes
multipolarity and civilizational sovereignty.

3. Post-Cold War Foreign Policy Strategy

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, China recalibrated its global strategy. The disappearance
of encirclement and internal economic take-off allowed Beijing to play a more active role
regionally and globally.

Strategic Shifts in the 1990s:

• Moved away from Cold War non-alignment to selective engagement.

• Sought to normalize relations with the U.S. while asserting autonomy.
• Avoided bloc politics, preferring bilateralism and regional groupings (e.g., SCO,
APEC).

Key Strategic Goals:

• Protect national sovereignty and regime stability.

• Secure markets and energy supplies abroad.
• Challenge Western narrative dominance.
• Establish China as a leader of the Global South.

Post-1989 Reorientation:

• Tiananmen backlash led to revival of ties with Africa and Asia.

• Shifted aid and diplomacy from ideological to pragmatic.
• Emphasized non-interference and development-based diplomacy.

Global Objectives:

• Recast global institutions (e.g., WTO, UN) to reflect multipolarity.

• Lead global governance reform, especially in finance and development.
• Promote economic corridors and digital connectivity through BRI.

4. Chinese Foreign Policy Toward Neighbouring States

Neighbouring states form the immediate geopolitical space where China projects its
influence—politically, economically, and culturally. These states are vital to China’s security
buffer, trade routes, and regional leadership aspirations.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 31

Strategic Importance of Neighbours:

• Stability along borders is crucial to domestic security (e.g., Xinjiang, Tibet).

• Neighbours act as gateways to global connectivity via land and sea.
• China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) runs through many of them.
• Regional integration supports China’s “Two Centenary Goals” and the “Chinese
Dream.”

Diplomatic Characteristics:

• Emphasis on friendship, sincerity, inclusiveness, and mutual benefit.

• Preference for Track-II diplomacy, cultural exchange, and economic incentives.
• Strategy of co-opting elites, promoting people-to-people contact, and expanding
influence through soft borders.

Mechanisms of Influence:

• Economic Corridors:
o China–Pakistan (CPEC), China–Indochina, China–Mongolia–Russia, etc.
• Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO): Regional security cooperation in
Central Asia.
• Visa-free arrangements and migration to promote demographic influence.
• Public Diplomacy: Media, Confucius Institutes, student exchanges.
• Infrastructure Diplomacy: Ports, roads, and rail development under BRI.

Underlying Objective:
To create a Sinocentric regional order where China is the economic and political hub, while
avoiding hard power confrontation and promoting interdependence under its terms.

5. Latin America in Chinese Foreign Policy

Strategic Significance: Latin America represents a region historically dominated by the U.S.
under the Monroe Doctrine. China’s growing presence challenges U.S. hegemony and reflects
Beijing’s aim to build South–South solidarity and global multipolarity.

Policy Objectives:

• Gain strategic space in the Western Hemisphere without military intervention.

• Secure raw materials and energy, especially oil, lithium, copper.
• Build political alliances with states marginalized by the West.
• Expand infrastructure and tech exports to new markets.
• Promote diplomatic recognition for the One-China Policy (opposing Taiwan’s
claims).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 32

Diplomatic Strategy:

• Engagement through soft power tools: cultural exchange, Confucius Institutes,

educational scholarships.
• Non-interference doctrine appeals to authoritarian regimes (e.g., Venezuela,
Cuba).
• Avoidance of conditionalities common in Western aid or IMF deals.
• Use of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to invest in Latin America’s energy and
transport sectors.

Key Partnerships:

• With leftist and anti-U.S. regimes like Venezuela, Cuba, Bolivia, Nicaragua.
• Increasing economic links with democracies like Brazil, Chile, Argentina.

6. Strategic Tools and Diplomatic Methods in Latin America

China uses multidimensional tools to embed itself in Latin America’s economic and political
frameworks:

Economic Diplomacy:

• Heavy FDI in mining, energy, and infrastructure projects (e.g., dams, roads, rail).
• Use of preferential loans via China Development Bank and Export-Import Bank of
China.
• Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): e.g., with Chile and Costa Rica.

Military Diplomacy:

• Limited arms sales and training exchanges, especially with Venezuela and Bolivia.
• China’s presence at military exhibitions and defense dialogues.
• No direct military bases, but assumed access to ports and infrastructure.

Institutional Engagement:

• Observer status at OAS (since 2004)—a symbol of institutional penetration.

• Active role in CELAC–China Forum (Community of Latin American and Caribbean
States).
• Bilateral dialogues, inter-party exchanges, and leadership visits.

Cultural Diplomacy:

• Establishment of Confucius Institutes in over 20 Latin American countries.

Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 33

• Expansion of Mandarin language programs and student exchanges.

• Media presence through China Global Television Network (CGTN) and pro-China
editorial content.

7. Case Studies: Chinese Foreign Policy in Practice

Venezuela

• Became China’s largest arms client in Latin America.

• China offered major loans-for-oil deals: by 2014, bilateral trade exceeded $10
billion.
• Projects include railways, oil refineries, telecom infrastructure.
• Engagement intensified after U.S. sanctions and arms embargo.

Cuba

• Long-standing ideological and strategic ally.

• Reports suggest China operates intelligence facilities in Cuba.
• Economic ties include $4.5 billion oil deal (2011) and annual trade of $2 billion (by
2012).
• China supports Cuba in international forums and pushes for multilateral debt
relief.

Costa Rica

• Diplomatic switch from Taiwan to Beijing in 2007.

• China offered a $100 million stadium, $400 million infrastructure loan, and $1.3
billion investment in oil refining.
• Signed FTA in 2011, one of China’s few in the Western Hemisphere.

Chile

• First Latin American country to sign an FTA with China (2005).

• Major copper exporter to China—about 25% of China’s copper imports come from
Chile.
• Conducted joint military drills and maintains strong people-to-people contacts.
• Bilateral trade reached $32.5 billion by 2012.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 34

8. China’s Ideological Posture and Strategic Deception

• Emphasizes economic development over ideology.

• Uses slogans like “peaceful rise” and “community of common destiny” to calm
external fears.
• Follows Deng’s doctrine: “hide capabilities, bide time.”
• Chinese Communist Party (CCP) avoids publicly declaring grand strategy; prefers
secrecy and ambiguity.
• Western optimism often misreads China’s intentions—CFP remains opportunistic
and long-term.

9. Multilateral and Regional Engagement

• More active in multilateral forums post-2000s.

• Joined or created: SCO, BRICS, RCEP, ASEAN+1, APEC, and CELAC–China Forum.
• Uses these platforms to:
o Counter U.S.-led institutions
o Promote multipolarity
o Expand economic diplomacy

10. Conclusion and Key Takeaways for Exams

• CFP is pragmatic, strategic, and long-term oriented.

• Combines economic tools, diplomacy, soft power, and elite cooption.
• Aims for regional dominance, global recognition, and domestic legitimacy.
• Presents itself as peaceful, but follows a strategic realist logic.
• Neighbours and regions like Africa, Latin America, and South Asia are tools for
influence projection and counterbalance to the U.S.

Putting China in Perspective

1. Historical Evolution of the PRC

• Formation: China became a socialist state in 1949 after a revolutionary struggle

(1927–1949).
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 35

• Post-Revolution State: By 1978, China was among the world’s poorest and most
isolated countries, with minimal global engagement and weak industrial capacity.
• Transformation: Since the 1980s, China has experienced a miraculous economic
transformation, now being:
o World’s second-largest economy
o Largest global trading nation
o A global actor in politics, military, and diplomacy

2. National Traumas: Maoist Era (1949–1976)

• Great Famine (1958–1961): Caused by flawed policies (Great Leap Forward);

deadliest in history.
• Cultural Revolution (1966–1976):
o Collapse of central authority
o Civil conflict and chaos
o Destruction of culture, persecution of intellectuals
• Impact: Economic, political, and social disaster under Mao Zedong, whose rule
remained unchallenged until his death in 1976.

3. Post-Mao Reforms and Continuity of CCP Rule

• Reform Era: Initiated by Deng Xiaoping, China's direction shifted to economic

liberalization without political reform.
• Key Features:
o Market-oriented policies
o Openness to foreign trade and investment
o Decentralization of economic authority
• CCP Dominance: Despite unrest (e.g., Tiananmen, ethnic uprisings), the Chinese
Communist Party has never been seriously challenged.

Democracy Index (2012, The Economist):

China ranked 142 out of 167 – low on civil liberties, political participation, and electoral
processes.

4. Geographic and Demographic Profile

• Regions:
o Northeast (Manchuria): Once industrial hub; now “rust belt”
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 36

o North China: From Beijing to the Yangtze River

o South China: Below the Yangtze; agriculturally productive
• Population Distribution:
o 90% of population lives on 30% of the land (eastern seaboard)
o Outer China: 2/3 of territory, sparsely populated, home to non-Han
minorities (Tibetans, Uyghurs, Mongols)

5. Administrative Structure of the PRC

• Unitary State: Ultimate authority lies with central government in Beijing

• Administrative Units:
o 22 Provinces
o 4 Direct-Control Municipalities: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing
o 5 Autonomous Regions: Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Ningxia, Tibet, Xinjiang –
limited cultural autonomy, no political autonomy
o 2 SARs (Special Administrative Regions):
▪ Hong Kong (1997, British colony)
▪ Macao (1999, Portuguese colony)
▪ Both have economic/political autonomy but fall under PRC
sovereignty

6. Taiwan: The Core Territorial Dispute

• Historical Context: Part of China since the 17th century; occupied by Japan (1895–
1945).
• Post-1949 Split: Nationalists (KMT) fled to Taiwan after CCP victory in civil war.
• Status:
o Operates as a separate political entity
o Beijing claims it as a breakaway province
o Tensions persist despite economic integration

Foreign Policy of China (1949–Present)

Phases of Chinese Foreign Policy
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 37

1. Revolutionary Expansionism (1949–1957)

Context: Establishment of the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong (1949) after civil
war.

• Ideological Foreign Policy: Exporting revolution; aligned with the Soviet bloc under
the slogan “lean to one side.”
• Support for Communist Movements: Assistance to Korea (Korean War 1950–53),
Vietnam, and insurgencies in Southeast Asia.
• Sino-Soviet Treaty (1950): Cemented alliance with USSR; heavy Soviet economic
and military support.
• Objective: Legitimize the Communist regime internationally and challenge
Western imperialism.
• UN Isolation: PRC not recognized; Taiwan (ROC) held China’s UN seat until 1971.

2. Strategic Isolationism and Self-Reliance (1958–1969)

Context: Fallout from Sino-Soviet split (1959–60) and failure of the Great Leap Forward.

• Break with USSR: Ideological and strategic rivalry; withdrawal of Soviet experts.
• Self-Reliance Doctrine (Zili Gengsheng) promoted by Mao.
• Hostility toward Both Superpowers: Viewed both U.S. and USSR as imperialist.
• Limited Diplomacy: Minimal foreign engagement; inward focus during Cultural
Revolution (1966–76).
• Border Conflicts: Sino-India War (1962), clashes with Soviet Union (1969).
• Nuclear Development: First successful atomic bomb test in 1964, asserting
strategic independence.

3. Pragmatic Engagement and Opening (1970–1989)

Context: Post-Cultural Revolution recovery and Deng Xiaoping’s reforms.

• Nixon Visit (1972): U.S.-China rapprochement; realpolitik to balance USSR.

• UN Recognition (1971): PRC gained permanent seat, replacing Taiwan.
• “Four Modernizations” (1978): Focus on agriculture, industry, defense, and
science-tech.
• Open Door Policy: Economic liberalization began; foreign trade and investment
encouraged.
• Shift from Ideology to Pragmatism: Focused on modernization, not exporting
revolution.
Asif Salar, Political Science, GCU Lahore 38

• Tiananmen Crisis (1989): Resulted in temporary diplomatic isolation and re-

evaluation of internal stability vs. global engagement.

4. Peaceful Coexistence and Economic Diplomacy (1990–2008)

Context: Post-Cold War unipolar world dominated by the U.S.

• Rebuilding Ties Post-Tiananmen: Reached out to Africa, Asia, and Global South.
• “Peaceful Rise” Doctrine: Promoted non-aggressive development and win-win
cooperation.
• Regional Stability Strategy: Settled border disputes; joined ASEAN dialogue,
formed SCO (2001).
• WTO Membership (2001): Symbolized full integration into global economy.
• Focus on Multilateralism: Engaged in UN peacekeeping, climate talks, and trade
forums.
• Economic Diplomacy: Used aid, loans, and infrastructure investments to build
influence—especially in Africa and Southeast Asia.

5. Assertive Global Power (2008–Present)

Context: Global financial crisis (2008) accelerated China's confidence as a rising power.

• Belt and Road Initiative (2013): Massive global infrastructure and trade project
spanning Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America.
• South China Sea Militarization: Island-building and sovereignty claims challenged
regional norms.
• Wolf Warrior Diplomacy: Aggressive posturing in diplomacy, especially under Xi
Jinping.
• Taiwan Tensions Escalate: Increased military drills and political pressure.
• China-U.S. Rivalry: Trade war, tech decoupling, ideological and strategic
confrontation.
• COVID-19 Diplomacy: Mixed outcomes—initial criticism, followed by vaccine
diplomacy.
• Goal: Reclaim global leadership role by 2049 (Centenary Goal); reshape
international order favoring Chinese interests.