PHYSICS OF SATALITE AND ITS IMPACT ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: A

REVIEW

This review paper explores the physics behind satellite technology and how it has revolutionized the
study of Earth’s atmosphere. It emphasizes Newtonian mechanics and orbital physics as foundations for
satellite movement, categorizes satellite orbits, and discusses sensor technologies used in atmospheric
monitoring. Furthermore, it evaluates the applications of satellite data in weather forecasting, climate
monitoring, and environmental science, while also examining their limitations and challenges. Visual
aids including orbit diagrams, satellite mission charts, and atmospheric trend graphs are included to
support the discussion.

1. Introduction

Satellites are indispensable tools in modern atmospheric science. Since the launch of Sputnik in 1957,
satellites have evolved to provide real-time data on global weather patterns, atmospheric composition,
and climate trends. They offer global coverage, long-term data records, and high-frequency observations
that are not possible with ground-based methods alone. In this review, we will analyze the physical
principles governing satellite operation and how these systems impact atmospheric science.

2. Physics of Satellite Motion

2.1 Newton's Laws and Gravitational Forces

Satellite motion is governed by Newton's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. The
gravitational pull from Earth acts as a centripetal force, keeping the satellite in orbit. The balance
between forward inertia and downward gravitational pull ensures continuous orbital motion.

2.2 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

 First Law: Satellites move in elliptical orbits with Earth at one focus.
 Second Law: A line drawn from the satellite to Earth sweeps equal areas in equal time.
 Third Law: The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the orbit's semi-major axis.
2.3 Types of Satellite Orbits

Satellites operate in different orbital zones depending on their mission:

 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): 160–2,000 km altitude; ideal for Earth imaging and atmospheric sampling.

 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): 5,000–12,000 km; used in navigation systems like GPS.

 Geostationary Orbit (GEO): 35,786 km; satellites remain fixed over one point, useful for continuous
monitoring.

Figure 1.
Satellite Orbits (LEO, MEO, GEO)
Source: Research Gate

3. Satellite Sensors and Instruments

 Satellites carry specialized instruments to detect atmospheric characteristics:

 Radiometers: Measure thermal radiation.

 Spectrometers: Detect gases by analyzing wavelengths.

 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Detects particles and cloud heights.

 Radar Altimeters: Measure surface elevation and sea level.

Figure 2.
Satellite Sensor Payload Illustration
Source: Research Gate.

These sensors help collect data on temperature, humidity, aerosol content, and chemical composition.
4. Applications in Atmospheric Science

4.1 Weather Forecasting

Satellites like NOAA’s GOES and EUMETSAT’s Meteosat monitor cloud patterns, cyclone development,
and precipitation. Real-time imagery helps predict storms, track hurricanes, and improve emergency
response.

Figure 3.
Cyclone Tracking by Meteosat-11
Source: EUMETSAT Image Library

4.2 Climate Monitoring

Long-term satellite missions such as NASA’s Aqua, Terra, and ESA’s Sentinel missions help track global
temperature changes, ice sheet dynamics, and greenhouse gas trends.
Figure 4.
Global Temperature Anomalies (NASA GISS)
Source: NASA GISS Climate Data

4.3 Environmental Observation

Satellites detect wildfires, pollution, volcanic ash, and deforestation. For example, MODIS aboard NASA’s
Terra and Aqua detects surface temperatures and aerosol levels.

5. Case Studies of Satellite Missions

 OCO-2 (NASA): Measures atmospheric CO2 for climate modeling.

 Sentinel-5P (ESA): Focuses on global air quality monitoring.
 GOSAT (Japan): Provides global measurements of greenhouse gases.
 Suomi NPP: Offers environmental data on cloud properties, sea surface temperatures, and ozone
levels.

Figure 5.
Greenhouse Gas Concentrations Measured by GOSAT
Source: Research Gate

6. Challenges and Limitations

Data Gaps: Cloud interference and orbit gaps can limit coverage.

Calibration Issues: Sensor drift can affect long-term accuracy.

High Costs: Developing and maintaining satellites is expensive.

Spatial Resolution Limits: Some satellites cannot resolve small features or rapid events.
7. Conclusion

Satellites play a vital role in atmospheric science by providing continuous, high-resolution, and global
data that cannot be matched by ground-based observations. From forecasting weather to monitoring
long-term climate change, their importance is unparalleled. Understanding the physics behind satellite
motion and the capabilities of their instruments enhances our ability to predict and respond to
atmospheric changes.

8. Glossary

LEO (Low Earth Orbit): A region 160–2,000 km above Earth’s surface.

MEO (Medium Earth Orbit): Orbit between LEO and GEO; includes GPS satellites.

GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit): Orbit where satellite matches Earth's rotation.

Radiometer: Device that measures the intensity of radiant energy.

Spectrometer: Analyzes light to detect gas composition.

LIDAR: Uses lasers to measure distances and atmospheric properties.

Altimeter: Measures altitude using radar or laser signals.

9. FAQs

Q1: Why are satellites better than ground instruments for atmospheric science?

Ans: Satellites provide global coverage and long-term datasets, unlike ground stations which are limited
to specific locations.

Q2: What determines the choice of a satellite's orbit?

Ans: The mission's goal. For weather forecasting, GEO is ideal. For Earth observation and climate
research, LEO is often preferred.

Q3: How accurate are satellite measurements?

Ans: Satellite sensors are very accurate, but they must be calibrated regularly. Errors can arise from
instrument drift, cloud cover, or spatial resolution limits.

Q4: Can satellites monitor pollution in real time?

Ans: Yes. Instruments like those on Sentinel-5P can detect pollutants such as NO2 and SO2 daily.

Q5: What are the limitations of satellite data?

Ans: Coverage gaps, data latency, high costs, and sensor degradation over time.

9. References

1. NASA Earth Science Division. https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science

2. European Space Agency (ESA). https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth

3. NOAA National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service. https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/

4. JAXA GOSAT Project. https://www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gosat/

5. Wallace, J. M., & Hobbs, P. V. (2006). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey. Academic Press.

6. Petty, G. W. (2006). A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation. Sundog Publishing.

7. NASA GISS Global Temperature Data: https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/

8. ESA Earth Online Portal: https://earth.esa.int/eogateway

9. Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net