Integrated Waste Management for a Smart City-BCV654C

Module 2

Biological treatment of the organic waste fraction;

Direct land application, composting, and anaerobic digestion. MSW Rules 2016, Swachh
Bharat Mission and Smart Cities Program

Biological Treatment of Organic Waste

➢ Organic waste includes

biodegradable materials
such as food scraps,
agricultural residues, garden
waste, and sewage sludge.
Proper treatment of organic
waste helps in reducing
pollution, generating
energy, and improving soil
health.

➢ Biological treatment of organic waste is a natural process that uses microorganisms to

break down biodegradable materials into simpler, stable compounds. This process is
widely used for managing food waste, agricultural residues, sewage sludge, and other
organic materials in an eco-friendly way.

➢ Types of Biological Treatment for Organic Waste: Composting (Aerobic Process),

Anaerobic Digestion (Oxygen-Free Process), Vermicomposting (Worm-Based
Composting), Fermentation (Lactic Acid Process).

➢ The organic waste fraction includes biodegradable materials such as food waste,
agricultural waste, sewage sludge, and yard waste. Biological treatment is a
sustainable method to decompose and stabilize this waste using microorganisms,
resulting in useful by-products like compost, biogas, and biofertilizers.

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Types of Solid Waste That Can Be Biologically Treated

✓ Food Waste
✓ Agricultural Waste
✓ Yard and Garden Waste
✓ Sewage Sludge (Biosolids)
✓ Paper and Cardboard Waste
✓ Animal Waste
✓ Organic Industrial Waste

Types of Solid Waste That Are NOT Biologically Treated

✓ Plastics, metals, glass, and synthetic materials (non-biodegradable).

✓ Toxic or hazardous waste (chemical waste, medical waste, electronic
waste).

Applications of Biological Waste Treatment in Smart Cities are:

✓ Waste-to-energy plants for sustainable electricity.

✓ Urban composting programs to support organic farming.
✓ Biogas from food waste for cooking in smart homes.
✓ Decentralized composting units in residential societies.

Biological treatment of organic waste: Direct Land Application

➢ Direct land application is a biological treatment method where organic waste is

applied directly to soil to enhance soil fertility and promote microbial activity.

➢ Direct land application involves spreading untreated or minimally processed organic

waste on land as a natural soil amendment. The waste decomposes naturally, releasing
essential nutrients and improving soil health.

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Fig: Treatment Options of organic wastes

Types of Organic Waste Suitable for Direct Land Application

✓ Animal Manure: Rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), manure

improves soil fertility.
✓ Sewage Sludge (Biosolids): Processed municipal wastewater sludge can be used
as a soil amendment, but must meet regulatory standards.
✓ Agricultural Residues: Crop residues, straw, and husks can improve soil
structure and organic matter content.
✓ Food Waste: Raw or minimally processed food waste can be applied to soil but
should be properly managed to avoid odor and pest issues.
✓ Green Waste: Leaves, grass clippings, and garden waste provide organic matter
and nutrients.
✓ Municipal biosolids: Treated sewage sludge that meets safety standards for land
application.

Methods of Direct Land Application:

✓ Surface Spreading:
o Applying waste material directly onto the soil surface, like wastewater
irrigation or spreading manure for fertilizer.
✓ Subsurface Injection:
o Injecting waste into the soil at a certain depth (typically 10-25 cm).
✓ Landfills:
o A common method for solid waste disposal, where waste is buried and
covered with soil.

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✓ Composting:
o A natural process of breaking down organic waste, creating nutrient-rich
compost suitable for land application.
✓ Anaerobic Digestion:
o A process used to treat organic waste, converting it into biogas and
fertilizer.

Benefits of Direct Land Application

• Enhances Soil Fertility: Supplies essential nutrients for plant growth.

• Improves Soil Structure: Organic matter enhances soil aeration, water retention,
and microbial activity.
• Reduces Waste Disposal Costs: Avoids landfill and incineration, reducing
environmental impact.
• Increases Microbial Diversity: Encourages beneficial microorganisms that aid in
organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling.
• Carbon Sequestration: Helps in capturing atmospheric carbon in the soil.

Environmental Considerations

• Potential soil contamination: Heavy metals, pathogens, and pharmaceuticals must

be monitored.
• Groundwater and surface water protection: Proper application techniques prevent
leaching and runoff contamination.
• Odor and air quality concerns: Proper waste treatment and application timing help
minimize odors.
• Regulations and compliance requirements: Federal, state, and local regulations
govern safe application practices.

Composting

Composting is the biological process of breaking down organic waste into a nutrient-rich soil
amendment called compost.

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Composting is defined as a controlled aerobic biological conversion of organic wastes into a

complex, stable material.

✓ This is also a very good method, where at the source itself we can go for the
degradation process.
✓ The final product has a number of beneficial uses, most commonly used for
agriculture and landscaping.
✓ The composting of MSW, agricultural wastes (plant residues, animal manures), food
factory waste and municipal waste treatment solids (bio solids ) is increasingly used
worldwide as a means of waste management.
✓ Overall composting operation

✓ By product - CO2 , water

✓ Compost is: Dark in color, Crumbly texture, Earthy odour, Resembles rich topsoil.

Process of Composting

Composting is a controlled biological process that converts organic waste into a nutrient-rich
soil amendment. The process occurs in several stages, each involving different microbial
activities.

1. Collection & Preparation of Organic Waste

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• Gather organic materials such as food scraps, yard waste, manure, and crop residues.
• Shred or chop large materials to increase surface area for microbial action.
• Balance carbon-rich materials (browns) (e.g., dry leaves, wood chips, straw) and
nitrogen-rich materials (greens) (e.g., food waste, manure, grass clippings) in an
ideal ratio of 30:1 (Carbon:Nitrogen).

2. Piling & Layering

• Create a compost pile or place materials in a

composting bin.
• Alternate layers of greens and browns to
maintain balance.
• Ensure proper aeration by adding coarse
materials like wood chips to allow airflow.

3. Phases of composting

a) Mesophilic Phase (Initial Breakdown) - 1 to 3 days

• Microorganisms start decomposing organic matter, generating heat.

• Temperature: 20–40°C (68–104°F)
• Activity: Mesophilic (moderate-temperature) bacteria begin breaking down
simple organic compounds.

b) Thermophilic Phase (High-Temperature Phase) - 3 to 14 days

• Heat-loving bacteria dominate, breaking down complex materials (like proteins

and fats) and killing pathogens.
• Temperature: 50–70°C (122–158°F)
• Activity: Heat-loving bacteria break down proteins, fats, and complex materials
while destroying pathogens and weed seeds.
• Action: Regularly turn the pile to maintain aeration and even heat distribution.

c) Cooling & Maturation Phase - Several weeks to months

• Temperature: Gradually decreases as microbial activity slows.

• The temperature decreases, and beneficial microbes refine the compost into a
stable, nutrient-rich product.
• Activity: Fungi, actinomycetes, and beneficial microbes further decompose
materials into stable humus.
• Action: Allow the pile to mature and stabilize.

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Phases of composting

4. Curing & Final Compost

• The compost is left to cure for 1-3 months to ensure complete decomposition.
• The finished compost should be dark, crumbly, earthy-smelling, and free of large,
undecomposed materials.
• It can now be used to enrich soil, improve plant growth, and reduce the need for
chemical fertilizers.

Types of Composting:

✓ Aerobic Composting – Requires oxygen; commonly used in large-scale operations

and backyard composting.
✓ Anaerobic Composting – Decomposition without oxygen, leading to methane
production; used in biogas plants.
✓ Vermicomposting – Uses earthworms to break down organic matter into nutrient-rich
worm castings.

Factors Affecting Composting Efficiency

✓ Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio (C:N) – Ideal ratio of 30:1 for balanced

decomposition.
✓ Moisture Content – Keep it 40-60% (like a damp sponge) to support microbial
activity.
✓ Oxygen (Aeration) – Turn the pile regularly to maintain oxygen levels.
✓ Temperature – Maintain an optimal range of 50–70°C (122–158°F) for pathogen
destruction and rapid decomposition.
✓ Particle Size – Smaller materials break down faster due to increased surface area.

Benefits of Composting:

✓ Reduces landfill waste

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✓ Enhances soil fertility and microbial activity

✓ Improves water retention in soil
✓ Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers
✓ Helps control soil erosion

Composting Methods

1. Aerobic Composting (With Oxygen)

• Microorganisms break down organic matter in the presence of oxygen, generating

heat, CO₂, and water.
• Faster decomposition compared to anaerobic methods.

Types of Aerobic Composting:

a) Windrow Composting

• Organic waste is placed in long rows (windrows)

and regularly turned for aeration.
• Suitable for large-scale composting (farms,
municipalities).
• Pros: Efficient, high-temperature breakdown of pathogens.
• Cons: Requires large space and regular turning.

b) Aerated Static Pile (ASP) Composting

• Compost piles have aeration pipes to provide

oxygen (no need for turning).
• Used for municipal and industrial composting.
• Pros: Faster decomposition, low labor.
• Cons: Requires infrastructure for aeration.

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c) In-Vessel Composting

• Organic material is composted in enclosed

containers or tunnels.
• Suitable for urban areas & industrial food
waste.
• Pros: Odor control, space-efficient.
• Cons: High setup cost.

2. Anaerobic Composting (Without Oxygen)

• Microorganisms decompose organic matter without oxygen, producing methane

(CH₄) and biogas.
• Slower than aerobic composting.

Example: Bokashi Composting

• Uses fermentation with Effective Microorganisms (EMs).

• Waste is placed in an airtight container with Bokashi bran.
• After fermentation (2-4 weeks), it is buried in soil to finish decomposition.
• Pros: Fast, odor-free, good for kitchen waste.
• Cons: Requires additional soil composting.

3. Vermicomposting (Using Earthworms)

• Uses earthworms (e.g., Red Wigglers) to break down organic material into nutrient-
rich worm castings.
• Ideal for home and small-scale composting.

4. Pit Composting

• Another method of composting organic waste to put it in pits and let it turn into
compost over a period of six months or more.

• This process requires more space and time but the main benefits is that waste is not
visible as it is buried in the pit.

Bangalore Process

o Dry waste of material 25cm thick is spread in a pit and a thick suspension of cow
dung in water is sprinkled over for moistening.

o A thin layer of dry waste is laid over the moistened layer

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o Method carried out in pits where

waste was anaerobically
stabilized by alternate layers of
MSW and night soil until it rises
a height of 0.5m

o The pit is completely filled an

final layer is laid to prevent fly
breeding, entry of rain water and
energy conservation

o The material is allowed to

decompose for 4 to 6 months are used as manure

o It is left exposed without covering for 15 days it is given a turning then plastered
with mud or damp grass so that it is closed from outside air.

o This allows anaerobic microorganisms to decompose the heap

Advantages and Disadvantages of Composting

Advantages

✓ Reduces Waste – Composting helps divert organic waste from landfills, reducing
overall waste disposal costs.
✓ Improves Soil Quality – It enhances soil structure, fertility, and water retention
by adding nutrients and organic matter.
✓ Eco-Friendly – Decreases methane emissions from landfills and lowers the
carbon footprint.

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✓ Reduces Chemical Use – Minimizes the need for synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, promoting sustainable farming.
✓ Cost-Effective – Saves money on fertilizers, soil conditioners, and waste
management.
✓ Encourages Biodiversity – Supports beneficial microorganisms, earthworms, and
insects essential for healthy soil.

Disadvantages

✓ Time-Consuming – Composting takes weeks to months to fully break down

organic matter.
✓ Odor Issues – If not managed properly, compost piles can produce foul smells.
✓ Attracts Pests – Poorly maintained compost bins can attract rodents, flies, and
other pests.
✓ Space Requirement – Requires sufficient space, which may not be available in
urban settings.
✓ Labor-Intensive – Needs regular turning, moisture control, and temperature
monitoring for effective decomposition.
✓ Limited Use – Some materials (meat, dairy, and oily food) cannot be composted
easily, restricting what can be processed.

Anaerobic Digestion (AD)

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process in which microorganisms break down organic

matter without oxygen, producing biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and nutrient-
rich digestate. This process is widely used for waste management, renewable energy
production, and fertilizer recovery.

Schematic diagram of anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic Digestion Process

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a biological process in which microorganisms break down

organic matter without oxygen, producing biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) and
digestate (a nutrient-rich residue). The process occurs in four main stages:

1. Hydrolysis (Breaking Down Complex Molecules)

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• Large organic molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down into
smaller molecules (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids).
• Enzymes secreted by bacteria help in this process.
• This is the slowest step and is often the rate-limiting stage.

Example: Complex starch molecules → Simple sugars

2. Acidogenesis (Formation of Organic Acids)

• Acid-forming bacteria convert the smaller molecules into organic acids, alcohols,
hydrogen (H₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
• Common organic acids produced: Acetic acid, Propionic acid, Butyric acid.

Example: Sugars → Ethanol, Acetic Acid, Hydrogen

3. Acetogenesis (Formation of Acetate & Hydrogen)

• The organic acids and alcohols from the previous stage are further broken down
into acetic acid, hydrogen (H₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
• This step is crucial because methanogenic bacteria rely on acetate and hydrogen
for biogas production.
Example: Propionic acid → Acetate + Hydrogen

4. Methanogenesis (Biogas Production)

• Methanogenic bacteria convert acetate, hydrogen, and CO₂ into methane (CH₄)
and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
• This is the final stage, producing biogas, which can be used as a renewable energy
source.
Example: Acetic acid → Methane + CO₂

Final Outputs of Anaerobic Digestion

1. Biogas (50-75% Methane, 25-50% CO₂)
o Can be used for electricity, heating, or converted into biomethane for vehicles.
2. Digestate (Solid and Liquid Residue)
o A nutrient-rich byproduct used as fertilizer in agriculture.

Types of Anaerobic Digestion Systems

Anaerobic digestion (AD) systems are categorized based on factors like moisture content,
temperature, and process flow. Below are the main types:

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1. Based on Moisture Content

A. Wet Anaerobic Digestion

• Also called low-solids digestion (TS < 15%)

• Uses liquid-based feedstock like wastewater, manure, and food slurry.
• Requires stirring or mixing to prevent settling.
• Commonly used in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and agricultural digesters.

B. Dry Anaerobic Digestion

• Also called high-solids digestion (TS > 15%)

• Works with solid waste like food scraps, agricultural residues, and yard waste.
• Requires specialized handling and less water.

2. Based on Temperature

A. Mesophilic Digestion (30–40°C)

• Operates at moderate temperatures, around 35°C.

• Most common type due to stability and lower energy needs.
• Slower digestion process (takes 20–40 days).

B. Thermophilic Digestion (50–60°C)

• Operates at higher temperatures (~55°C).
• Faster digestion (takes 10–14 days).

3. Based on Process Flow

A. Continuous Flow Digestion: Waste is fed continuously into the digester.
B. Batch Digestion: Waste is added in batches and left to digest.
C. Plug Flow Digestion: Waste moves through the digester in a linear flow.

Comparison: Anaerobic Digestion vs. Composting

Feature Anaerobic Digestion Composting

Oxygen No oxygen (anaerobic) Requires oxygen (aerobic)
Requirement
Main Output Biogas & digestate Compost
Energy Produces renewable energy No energy production
Production
Processing Speed Slower (weeks to months) Faster (few weeks)
Odor Issues Less odor if managed well Can be smelly if not maintained
Space Needed More space for industrial plants Can be done in small areas
Best Use Case Large-scale waste treatment, energy Home gardens, farms, small-scale waste
production management

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Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016

The Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 were the first set of rules
in India to regulate the management of municipal solid waste (MSW). These rules were later
replaced by the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016, which provide a more
comprehensive framework for waste management.

The MSW Rules, 2000 were a starting point for solid waste management in India but had
limitations. The SWM Rules, 2016 provided a stronger, more detailed framework for better
waste handling, recycling, and sustainability.

Why Were the Rules Updated in 2016?

✓ To address these gaps and inefficiencies, the Solid Waste Management (SWM)
Rules, 2016 introduced:
✔ Expanded coverage (including rural areas, industries, and special zones).
✔ Mandatory waste segregation into three categories (biodegradable, non-
biodegradable, and hazardous).
✔ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic and packaging waste.

✔ Stronger landfill management rules (allowing only non-recyclable waste in

landfills).
✔ Recognition of waste pickers to improve recycling and waste recovery.
✔ Mandatory user fees & fines for non-compliance.

The Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016 were introduced by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to improve waste management
across India.

Features of SWM Rules, 2016

1. Scope Expansion
• Applies to urban and rural areas, including villages, industrial zones, airports,
railways, and defense establishments.
• Bulk waste generators (institutions, hotels, hospitals, etc.) must manage their
own waste.

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2. Waste Segregation at Source

• Households and institutions must segregate waste into:
o Biodegradable waste (food, garden waste)
o Non-biodegradable waste (plastic, glass, metals)
o Domestic hazardous waste (batteries, paints, e-waste, medicines)

3. Collection & Transportation

• Municipal bodies must provide door-to-door waste collection.
• Rag-pickers and informal waste workers should be integrated into the system.

4. Processing and Treatment

• Organic waste must be composted or converted into biogas.
• Non-recyclable waste should be used in waste-to-energy plants.
• Landfilling is allowed only for non-recyclable and non-biodegradable waste.

5. Ban on Open Burning & Dumping

• Burning of waste in open areas is strictly prohibited to reduce air pollution.
• Old dumpsites must be bio-mined and reclaimed.

6. Responsibility of Bulk Waste Generators

• Apartments, hotels, and large institutions must process their waste using
composting, biogas, or other methods.
• If they fail, they must pay higher user charges to local authorities.

7. Role of Producers & Manufacturers (Extended Producer Responsibility - EPR)

• Manufacturers of plastic, packaging, and e-waste must set up collection systems.
• Encourage recycling and reuse of packaging materials.

8. User Fees & Spot Fines

• Local bodies must charge user fees for waste collection, processing, and disposal.
• Fines are imposed for littering, open dumping, and non-compliance.

9. Landfill Management

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• Only non-recyclable and inert waste can be disposed of in landfills.

• Sanitary landfills must be scientifically designed to prevent pollution.
• Old dump sites must be remediated through bio-mining and reclamation.

Implementation Responsibility

Stakeholder Responsibility
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) Ensure collection, segregation, processing, and disposal of solid
waste.
State Pollution Control Boards Monitor and enforce compliance with waste management rules.
(SPCBs)
Central Pollution Control Board Oversee national-level implementation and provide guidelines.
(CPCB)
Waste Generators (Households & Segregate waste, pay user fees, and avoid littering.
Institutions)
Manufacturers & Producers Follow Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic, e-waste,
and hazardous materials.

Swachh Bharat Mission and Smart Cities Program

➢ The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and Smart Cities Mission (SCM) are two flagship
programs of the Government of India aimed at improving urban and rural infrastructure,
sanitation, and quality of life.

➢ Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM): To achieve a clean and open-defecation free India,
focusing on sanitation, hygiene, and solid waste management.

➢ Smart Cities Mission (SCM): The Smart Cities Mission aims to improve quality of life
and boost economic growth by promoting local area development and using technology
for smart outcomes, focusing on area-based development (retrofitting, redevelopment,
and greenfield) and pan-city initiatives.

Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)

✓ Launched: October 2, 2014

✓ Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) & Ministry of Jal
Shakti (for rural areas)

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✓ Objective: To make India clean and open-defecation-free (ODF) by improving

sanitation, waste management, and hygiene.
Key Components of SBM
✓ SBM-Urban (SBM-U): Focuses on improving solid waste management, public
toilets, and urban sanitation.
✓ SBM-Rural (SBM-G): Aims to make villages open-defecation-free (ODF) by
constructing household toilets.
Major Achievements
✔ 100% rural sanitation coverage (Over 100 million toilets built).
✔ Declared India open-defecation-free (ODF) in 2019.

✔ Promotion of waste segregation, recycling, and composting in urban areas.

✔ SBM 2.0 (2021-2026) introduced for sustainable waste management and ODF+
villages/cities.

Smart Cities Mission (SCM)

✓ Launched: June 25, 2015
✓ Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
✓ Objective: To develop 100 smart cities with advanced infrastructure, technology-
driven governance, and improved quality of life.

Key Features of Smart Cities Mission

✓ Smart Infrastructure: Modern roads, transport, energy-efficient buildings, and
digital governance.
✓ Smart Mobility: Integrated public transport, cycling tracks, electric vehicles,
and reduced congestion.
✓ Sustainability: Renewable energy, water conservation, and waste management
solutions.
✓ Digital Solutions: E-governance, smart meters, CCTV surveillance, and AI-
based traffic management.

Comparison: SBM vs. Smart Cities Mission

Feature Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) Smart Cities Mission (SCM)

Focus Sanitation, cleanliness, waste Urban infrastructure, technology,

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management governance
Scope Rural + Urban Only Urban
Main Toilets, waste management, hygiene Smart roads, transport, green spaces,
Components campaigns digital services
Implementation Community-driven Government & private sector
partnerships
Technology Use Limited (focus on behavioral High (AI, IoT, Big Data, E-Governance)
change)

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