GEN ED_ ENGLISH

Part 1: Grammar & Sentence Structure

Sentence Patterns

1. Subject - Intransitive Verb (S-IV)

o The verb does not require an object.

o Example: "The sun rises."

2. Subject - Linking Verb - Complement (S-LV-C)

o The complement renames or describes the subject.

o Tip: A linking verb can often be replaced by an equals

sign (=).
o Predicate Nominative (renames subject): Example:

"You are a teacher."

o Predicate Adjective (describes subject): Example:

"The soup smells delicious."

3. Subject - Transitive Verb - Direct Object (S-TV-DO)
o The direct object receives the action of the verb.

o Example: "Alex writes a poem." (Poem is the D.O.)

4. Subject - Transitive Verb - Indirect Object - Direct

Object (S-TV-IO-DO)
o The indirect object identifies to whom or for whom the

action is done.
o Example: "I gave my friend a gift." (Friend is the I.O., gift

is the D.O.)
5. Subject - Transitive Verb - Direct Object - Object of
Preposition (S-TV-DO-OP)
o Example: "I wrote a poem for my friend." (Poem is the

D.O., friend is the O.P.)

6. Subject - Transitive Verb - Direct Object - Object
Complement (S-TV-DO-OC)
o The object complement renames or describes the direct

object.
o Example: "The committee appointed Jelmar chairperson."

(Jelmar is the D.O., chairperson is the O.C.)

Types of Sentences (by structure)

 Simple: Contains one independent clause (IC).

  Compound: Contains two or more independent clauses,
joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so). (IC + CC + IC).
 Complex: Contains one independent clause (IC) and at least
one dependent clause (DC).
 Compound-Complex: Contains two or more independent
clauses (IC) and at least one dependent clause (DC).

Conditional Sentences

 Zero Conditional: General truths and facts.

o Structure: If + Present Simple, ... Present Simple.

o Example: "Water boils if it reaches 100 degrees Celsius."

 First Conditional: Possible future situations.

o Structure: If + Present Simple, ... will + base form of verb.

o Example: "If we study, we will pass the test."

 Second Conditional: Imaginary or unlikely situations.

o Structure: If + Past Simple, ... would + base form of verb.

 Third Conditional: Imaginary situations in the past that did

not happen.
o Structure: If + Past Perfect, ... would/could/might + have

+ past participle.

Verb Moods

 Indicative: Asks a question or expresses a statement.

 Imperative: Gives a command or request. (Example: "Please
help the patient.")
 Subjunctive: Expresses a wish or doubt. (Example: "I wish
you were here.")

Sentence Errors

 Run-on Sentence: Two independent clauses joined without

proper punctuation or conjunction.
 Comma Splice: Two independent clauses joined only by a
comma.
 Dangling Modifier: A modifying phrase where the subject
it's meant to modify is missing from the sentence.
 Sentence Fragment: An incomplete sentence, missing a
subject or a verb.
Part 2: Parts of Speech

Pronouns (substitute for a noun)

 Antecedent: The noun that a pronoun refers to or replaces.

 Personal: Substitutes a proper noun.
 Reflexive: Ends in "-self" or "-selves"; the doer and receiver
of the action are the same. (Example: "I rewarded myself.")
 Intensive: Ends in "-self" or "-selves"; used only for
emphasis. (Example: "The actor himself signed the award.")
 Demonstrative: Points to or identifies a noun (this, that,
these, those). (Example: "These were the items I bought.")
 Indefinite: Does not refer to a specific person or thing (e.g.,
one, someone, any). (Example: "One has committed to
attend.")
 Distributive: Refers to members of a group separately (e.g.,
each, either, neither). (Example: "Each student needs to
work.")
 Relative: Joins clauses and relates them (e.g., who, whom,
which, that). (Example: "The man who fainted can stay.")

Adjectives (modify a noun or pronoun)

 Demonstrative: this, that, these, those.

 Interrogative: Used in questions; followed by a noun (e.g.,
whose, what, which).
 Cardinal: Describes quantity (e.g., one, nine, ten).
 Ordinal: Describes order or sequence (e.g., first, second,
third).
 Coordinate: A series of adjectives modifying the same noun.
(Example: "a classy, latest, black, leather jacket.")
 Possessive: Shows possession.
 Proper: Capitalized adjectives derived from proper nouns
(e.g., Korean, Shakespearean).
 Descriptive: Describes a quality or attribute of a noun.

Verbs

 Regular Verbs: Form the past tense by adding -d or -ed.

 Irregular Verbs: Change spelling to form the past tense
(e.g., go -> went).
  Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a complement (e.g.,
is, are, was, seem, feel).
 Transitive Verbs: Require a direct object.
 Ditransitive Verbs: Have both a direct and an indirect
object.
 Ergative Verbs: Can be used both transitively and
intransitively. (Example: "I broke the glass" / "The glass
broke.")

Interjections

 Express strong emotion, location, direction, etc. Often

followed by an exclamation mark.

Part 3: Figurative Language & Literary Devices

 Allusion: An indirect reference to a person, place, event, or

literary work. (Example: "It was a real David and Goliath
situation.")
 Anadiplosis: Repetition where the last word of a clause is the
first word of the next clause.
 Anastrophe: Inverting the normal word order of a sentence.
(Example: "In the night sky shimmered the stars.")
 Bathos: An abrupt turn from the serious and poetic to the
trivial and silly.
 Bildungsroman: A coming-of-age story focusing on the
protagonist's moral and psychological growth. (Example:
Harry Potter)
 Deus ex Machina: An unexpected character or event that
suddenly resolves a conflict.
 Figurative Language:
o Metonymy: Substituting the name of an attribute for the

thing meant. (Example: "She is the crown's friend."

'Crown' refers to the monarchy.)
 Litotes: An understatement using double negatives to
express a positive. (Example: "You're not wrong.")
 Motif: A recurring element, symbol, or idea in a story.
 Palindrome: A word or phrase that reads the same backward
as forward. (Example: "A man, a plan, a canal, Panama.")
  Paradox: A statement that appears self-contradictory but
contains a latent truth.
 Polyptoton: Repetition of words derived from the same root.
(Example: "Love is not love which alters when it alteration
finds.")

Part 4: Linguistics, Phonology & Poetics

Sound & Speech

 Pitch: The highness or lowness of a voice.

 Emphasis: The force or stress placed on a word.
 Volume: The loudness or softness of a sound.
 Cacophony: Harsh, discordant sounds in writing (e.g.,
using /b/, /k/, /p/).
 Euphony: Pleasant, harmonious sounds in writing (e.g., using
/l/, /m/, /n/, /r/).

Morphemes (smallest units of meaning)

 Free (Root Word): Can stand alone as a word.

 Bound (Affixes): Must be attached to another morpheme.
o Inflectional: Doesn't change the word's meaning or

class (e.g., -s, -ing, -ed).

o Derivational: Changes the word's meaning or class

(e.g., re-, un-, -ness).

SESSION 1
 1: Grammar and Word Formation

I. Foundational Concepts in Grammar

 Prescriptive Grammar: Defines the "correct" usage of language based on

established rules and standards. It dictates how language should be used,
often referring to what is considered grammatically acceptable.
 Descriptive Grammar: Describes how language is actually used by
speakers in their everyday lives. It is based on the observation of language
in use, as championed by linguists like Noam Chomsky.
 Transformational Grammar: Focuses on the system of rules that govern
the structure of language, including syntax, phonology, and morphology.
 Traditional Grammar: The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts
commonly taught in schools, focusing on the structure of language.
 Functional Grammar: Views language as a system of meanings,
emphasizing its contextual and integrated nature. It considers factors like
the field, tenor, and mode of communication.
 Formal Grammar: A framework that combines both prescriptive and
descriptive approaches.
 Notional Grammar: Defines grammatical categories based on their
meaning or "notion."

II. Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify or describe a verb, adjective, another

adverb, or an entire sentence.

 Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often an action occurs.

o Examples: always, usually, normally, often, sometimes, occasionally,
seldom, rarely, never.
 Adverbs of Degree: Describe the intensity of something.
o Examples: very, extremely, really, hardly, almost, totally.
 Adverbs of Manner: Explain how an action is performed.
o Examples: quickly, slowly, softly.
 Adverbs of Place: Specify where an action takes place.
o Examples: up, around, away, down.
 Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an action occurs.
o Examples: yesterday, yearly, daily, tomorrow.

III. Affixes

Affixes are morphemes added to a word to change its meaning or function.

 Prefix: Added to the beginning of a word.

 Suffix: Added to the end of a word.
 Infix: Inserted into the middle of a word (e.g., "mother-in-law").
 Circumfix: An affix with two parts, one at the beginning and one at the end
of a word.
 IV. Word Formation Processes

These are the processes by which new words are created.

 Borrowing: Adopting words from other languages (e.g., "patio" from

Spanish).
 Compounding: Combining two or more words to create a new one.
o Open Form: first aid
o Hyphenated: mass-produce
o Closed Form: schoolbus
 Blending: Mixing two words to form a new one (e.g., "smoke" + "fog" =
"smog").
 Clipping: Shortening a word (e.g., "gasoline" = "gas").
 Backformation: Creating a new word by removing an affix (e.g., from
"option" comes "to opt").
 Conversion: Changing a word's function without changing its form (e.g.,
"empty" (adjective) becomes "to empty" (verb)).

Page 2: Language Dynamics and Learning Theories

I. Language in Society

 Language Attrition: The study of how individuals or communities forget a

language.
 Didactic: Refers to a place or method designed for learning.
 Language Minority: A group of people whose primary language is
different from the dominant language of the country or region they live in.
 Literacy Components:
o Automaticity: The ability to read and understand text with speed and
accuracy.
o Prosody: The use of expression, pacing, tone, pitch, stress, and intonation
in reading.
 Language Shift: The process where a community gradually stops using
one language in favor of another.
o Accommodation: The process of adapting one's language or
communication style to be more similar to that of others.
 Translanguaging: The practice of using multiple languages in a fluid and
flexible manner in communication and education.
 Language Interference: The influence of one's native language on the
acquisition and use of a second or target language.

II. Theories of Language Acquisition

 BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills): The linguistic skills

needed for everyday, social, face-to-face interactions. This is the language
used in informal settings like the playground or on the phone. (Collier &
Thomas, 1995)
 CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency): The academic
language proficiency required to succeed in a school environment.

III. Krashen's Monitor Model

A set of five hypotheses on second language acquisition:

 Monitor Hypothesis: The role of conscious learning and acquisition in

languages.
o Acculturation: The process by which foreign language learners integrate
into and are accepted as native speakers in another language community.
 Affective Filter Hypothesis: Proposes that emotional factors such as
motivation, stress, and self-confidence can affect language acquisition.
 Natural Order Hypothesis: Suggests that learners acquire grammatical
structures in a predictable order.
 Input Hypothesis (i+1): States that learners acquire language best when
they receive input that is slightly above their current level of understanding.

IV. Language Policy and Structure

 Spolsky's Language Policy Model: A framework for analyzing language

policy based on three components: language practices, language beliefs,
and language management.
 Grapheme: The smallest unit in a written language.
 Adjective Clauses: Dependent clauses that provide additional information
about nouns.

Page 3: Pragmatics and Language Competence

I. Gricean Maxims

Principles for effective and cooperative communication:

 Maxim of Quality: Be truthful. Do not say what you believe to be false or

for which you lack adequate evidence.
 Maxim of Quantity: Provide the right amount of information—no more, no
less than is required.
 Maxim of Relation: Be relevant. Say things that are pertinent to the
conversation.
 Maxim of Manner: Be clear, orderly, and avoid ambiguity.

II. Pragmatic Concepts

 Deixis: Words or phrases that point to the time, place, or situation in which
a speaker is speaking (e.g., "here," "there," "he").
 Implicature: What a speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, which
may be different from what is literally said.
 Presupposition: An implicit assumption about the world or background
belief relating to an utterance.
 Politeness: The use of respectful language and social conventions in
speaking.
 Entailment: A relationship between statements where the truth of one
statement guarantees the truth of another.
 Discourse: The use of language to share ideas, insights, and information,
with temporal (time), spatial (place), and locational elements.

III. Linguistic and Communicative Competence

 Linguistic Competence: The unconscious knowledge of grammar that

allows a speaker to produce and understand language.
 Strategic Competence: The ability to use techniques to overcome
language gaps and enhance communication.
 Sociolinguistic Competence: The awareness of the social rules of
language use.
 Discourse Competence: The ability to understand and create connected
discourse (e.g., conversations, narratives).

IV. Language Learning and Use

 Error Analysis: The process of identifying and studying the mistakes made
by language learners.
 Code-Switching: The practice of switching between two or more
languages within a conversation.
 Bilingual Education: An educational approach where students are taught
in two languages.
 Multilingualism: The use of three or more languages.

Page 4: Morphology and Semantics

I. Morphology

The study of words, their structure, and their parts.

 Allomorph: A variation of a morpheme. The inflectional morpheme "-s" has

three allomorphs:
o /s/ in "cats"
o /z/ in "dogs"
o /ɪz/ in "buses"
 Metathesis: The transposition of sounds or letters in a word (e.g.,
"nucyular" for "nuclear").

II. Semantics
 The study of meaning in language.

 Hyponymy: A relationship between words where one word's meaning is

included in that of another (e.g., "poodle" is a hyponym of "dog").
 Compositional Semantics: The study of how the meanings of individual
words combine to form the meanings of larger phrases and sentences.
 Homonyms: Words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but
different meanings.
o Homograph: Same spelling, different meaning (e.g., "bear" the animal vs.
"bear" to endure).
o Homophone: Same pronunciation, different meaning (e.g., "bear" vs.
"bare").

III. Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a

language.

 Semantic Check: Does the sentence make sense?

 Syntactic Check: Is the structure grammatically correct?
 Graphophonic Check: Does it look right visually (spelling)?

IV. Language Ambiguity

 Lexical Ambiguity: A word has more than one meaning.

 Syntactic Ambiguity: A sentence can be interpreted in two or more ways.

V. Pragmatics and Speech Acts

The study of how context contributes to meaning.

 Speech Acts (Proponent: John Austin):

o Locutionary Act: The literal act of saying something.
o Illocutionary Act: The speaker's intention in uttering a phrase (e.g.,
stating, denying, asking).
o Perlocutionary Act: The effect of the utterance on the hearer.
 Types of Speech Acts:
o Assertives: Describe the world and convey information.
o Directives: Used to get the hearer to do something.
o Commissives: Commit the speaker to a future action.
o Expressives: Express the speaker's emotions.
o Declarations: Statements that change the state of the world by their
utterance (e.g., "I now pronounce you husband and wife").

Page 5: Phonology and Phonetics

I. Branches of Linguistics
 Phonology: The study of the sound system of a language.
 Phonetics: The study of the production and classification of speech sounds.

II. Core Concepts in Phonetics

 Phoneme: The smallest single unit of sound that can distinguish one word
from another (e.g., the /k/ sound).
 Allophone: A variant of a phoneme (e.g., the aspirated [pʰ] in "pat" vs. the
unaspirated [p] in "spat").
 Aspirated: Pronounced with a burst of air.
 Unaspirated: Pronounced without a burst of air.
 Assimilation: The process by which two sounds combine and one
influences the other (e.g., /t/ + /j/ = /tʃ/).

III. Suprasegmentals

Features of speech that go beyond individual sounds and affect larger units
like syllables, words, or sentences.

 Stress: Emphasis placed on a syllable.

 Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice.
 Intonation: The rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
 Length: The duration of a sound.

IV. Voicing

The presence or absence of vibration in the vocal cords during the

articulation of a sound.

 Voiced Consonants: /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /ŋ/, /z/, /ʒ/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/
 Unvoiced Consonants: /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/, /h/, /θ/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/

Page 6: Word Origins and Verb Tenses

I. Word Formation

 Eponyms: Words derived from the names of people or places (e.g.,

"boycott," "Parkinson's disease").
 Abbreviation: A shortened form of a word or phrase (e.g., "NASA," "Pres.").
 Neologism: A newly coined word or expression (e.g., "selfie").

II. Verb Tenses

 Simple Tenses:
o Simple Past: An action that happened and was completed in the past.
o Simple Present: An action that happens in the present.
o Simple Future: An action that will happen in the future.
 Progressive (Continuous) Tenses: Describe ongoing actions.
o Past Progressive: An ongoing action in the past.
o Present Progressive: An ongoing action in the present.
o Future Progressive: An ongoing action in the future.
 Perfect Tenses: Describe completed actions.
o Past Perfect: An action completed before another action in the past.
o Present Perfect: An action that started in the past and is completed at the
present time.
o Future Perfect: An action that will be completed before another action in
the future.

III. Sentence Structure

 Clause: A group of words containing a subject and a predicate.

 Phrase: A short group of words used as a single unit in a sentence.

IV. Views of Language

 Structuralist: Views language as a system of related elements or "building

blocks" (phonemes, morphemes, tagmemes).
 Transformationist: Focuses on the rules that generate different
grammatical structures from a set of basic structures.
 Functionalist: Views language as a tool for communication and
emphasizes its practical use in real-life situations.
 Interactionalist: Focuses on the social aspects of language and
communication.