INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY

Introduction
We have seen that apart from gravity, the only force between two electric charges is the
Coulomb force. In terms of applications, the importance of electrostatics is not well known to the
ordinary person. Historically, things really got exciting when the charges started moving to form
an electric current. It was by observing electrical currents that the connection between electricity
and magnetism was irrevocably established. All the electrical appliances we use, such as the
radio, electric heater, electric fan refrigerator and so on depends on the flow of charge that is
electric current. The motion of charge usually occurs in conductors which contain free electrons;
in the ionized gases of fluorescent lamps which contain charge carriers of both signs, and also in
an evacuated region, for example, electrons in a TV picture tube.
We simply define electric current has a flow of charge and we would agree that if this charge as
to flow it must flow in a material that would allow them to move (flow). These materials that
allow charge to flow is called conductor and the process of this flow is called conduction. The
unit for electric current is ampere (A) for a steady current;
q  It (1)
A steady current is one that has constant magnitude and direction.
Mathematically, therefore we can say electric current is the rate of flow of charge. i.e.
dq
I (2)
dt
For changing current (like DC and AC)
Conduction of Electric Current in Metal
The reason for the presence of conduction electron in a metal is that the outer shell electrons of
metal atoms are easily removed (because they are tending to be stable). As such when a p.d. is
applied across a metal the free electron would drift (shift) towards the positive terminals; hence,
giving a flow of charge through the metal. Nevertheless, in an insulator the vast majority of the
electron remains firmly attached to the atom.
Considering a figure, that the field acts towards the left and then a motion of free electron acts
towards the right. Suppose each electron moved with the same constant velocity (V) and in time
(dt), each advances a distance we call Vdt. In this time the number of electrons crossing any
plane is the number contained in the section of the length of the wire Vdt or volume AVdt. If
there are n free electrons per unit volume the number crossing the plane in the time dt is nAVdt.
If e represents the charge of each electron, the total charge crossing the area in time (dt) is:
dq nevAdt
I   nevA (3)
dt dt
The current density, J is defined mathematically as;

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 I nevA
J   nev
A A (4)
J
v 
ne
v = drift velocity

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law was propagated by a German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787- 1854). Ohm’s law
states that the current that passes through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference, provided temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
Mathematically;
V I  V  IR (5)
R is the constant of proportionality which is called resistance; the unit of R (Ω)
If you plot the graph of I against V. We are supposed to have a straight line and such material to
give such graph is called harmonic material, harmonic obeys ohm’s law, non-harmonic does not
obeys ohm’s law and it can give a straight line graph.
The Resistance
Resistance is the property/tendency of a substance that makes them to oppose, limit or restrict the
flow of electricity.
Factors that Affect the Resistance of a Wire:
The length; the length of any material is directly proportional to the resistance of that material.
The cross-sectional area of the conducting material; the cross-sectional area is inversely
proportional to the resistance.
Temperature; the temperature is directly proportional to the resistance of that material.
The nature of the material; the way different materials conduct electricity is different for each
material.
l l RA
R R  (6)
A A l
Rho ( ) is the proportionality constant known as the resistivity of the material (the characteristic
of the material from which the wire is made). The resistivity depends mainly on the nature of the
material. The unit is ohm meter (Ωm).
The resistivity of a conducting material like metal is increases by even small amount of
impurities and varies in temperature.
R2  R1   R 1 T  R1 (1  T ) (7)

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From Eqn. (7), we can therefore define the temperature coefficient of resistance, ἁ as the
increase in resistance per ohm of the original resistance per rise in temperature.
Similar variation applies to resistivity and temperature; since, the resistance of a conductor also
varies with the temperature, we can therefore write that:
2  1  1T  1 (1 T ) (8)

Conductance and Conductivity

Conductance, G is the reciprocal of resistance. Whereas the resistance of a conductor measures
the opposition which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance measures the inducement
which it offers to its flow.
1 A A
G   (9)
R l l
Where σ which is the reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity or the specific
conductance and the unit is Siemens per meter [sm-1 or sometimes (Ωm)-1]
1 l
  (10)
 RA
From Eqn. (6),
V l I l
 V 
I A A
I
from, J   V  J l
A
V
J 
l (11)
1
recall ,  

V
and , E 
l
Thus, J   E
Superconductivity
There is a class of metals and compounds with resistances that falls virtually to zero below a
certain temperature (Tc = critical temperature); such materials is termed superconductor. When
the temperature is at or below Tc, however the resistance suddenly drops to zero. This
phenomenon is known as superconductivity and it as first discovered in 1911 by a Dutch
Physicist called H. Kamerlinghonne, when he worked on mercury which is a superconductor
below 4.1K.

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Simple Circuit
A simple circuit consists of one or more electric components such as cells, resistors, ammeters,
voltmeters and capacitors in varied combinations.
Resistors in Series and in Parallel

If the resistance is in series, the current is the same while the voltage is different.

RT  R1  R2  R3 (12)

This shows that the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of
their individual resistances and always greater than any individual resistance.

If the resistance is in parallel, the current is different while the voltage is the same

1 1 1 1
   (13)
R T R1 R 2 R 3

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This shows that for any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
equals the sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.

The Electromotive Force (emf)

The emf of a coil of battery of cells is the energy converted into electrical energy per coulomb of
charge inside the cell. It is the source of the electric power in a circuit for which the cell has.
For a cell of emf, E and internal resistance, r is connected to an external node. The potential
difference across the cells terminal when current, I flows will not be equal to E but
When there is a loss of electrical energy in a cell. When it is connected, as it tries to flow through
the cell internal resistance
V  E  Ir
But ,V  IR  E  IR  Ir (14)
E
I 
Rr
This implies that the current in a simple circuit depends on R and r. If R r , we can neglect r
in our analysis.
If we multiply Eqn. (14) by I;
IE  I 2 R  I 2r (15)
It is mostly assured that the internal resistance of a battery in a circuit is negligible.

d  I 2R dI dI
E  2 Ir  0,(max...)
dR dR dR (16)
dI dI
E  2 Ir  E  2 Ir
dR dR
Note: r = R for maximum power output.

Electric Energy and Power

The electric power given up by a charge passing through a device is given by;
W  qV  VIt (17)

The S.I. unit of this energy is Joules (J)

The Electric power is the energy that is liberated per second.

W V2
P   VI  I R 
2
(18)
t R
To bring it out more explicitly, that in this special case the energy appears as heat;

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 dH
P  I 2 R  dH  I 2 Rdt
dt
(19)
V 2t
 H  I Rt  VIt 
2

R
The dissipation of power as heat in a conductor of resistance R, is called Joule heating and Eqn.
(19) is known as Joule’s law of electric heating.

Kirchhoff’s laws
This law was formulated by a German Physicist called Gustar Kirchhof (1824 – 1887).
Kirchhoff’s law is divided into two parts;
The Kirchhoff’s first law is known as the Junction rule and is nick named current or conservation
of charge law. It states that the algebraic sum of the current at a junction is zero.

I  0  I  I 1  I 2  ...  I n (20)

The sum of the current entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the current leaving that
junction. This implies that the algebraic sum of the emf is conserved.
The Kirchhoff’s second law is known as Loop rule (law conservation of energy law). It is about
the potential difference. It states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences across all the
elements any closed circuit loop must be equal to zero. Similarly, it states that the algebraic sum
of the emf in any loop equals the algebraic sum of potential difference (IR) in the same loop. The
algebraic sum of the potential difference across a circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf
round that circuit.

 E   IR  E  IR  IR 1 2  ...  IRn (21)

Terminologies
 A junction is where two or more elements meet.
 A branch point in a network is a point where three or more conductors are joined.
 A loop is any closed conducting part.

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Identify the branch points and loops

a, d, e, and b are branch points. Possible loops are the closed paths aceda, defbd, hadbgh, and
hadefbgh.

Examples/Assignments Three
1. A conductor material has a free electron density of 1024 electron/metre3 when a voltage is
applied; a constant drift velocity of 1.5×10-2 m/s is attained by the electrons. Find the
magnitude of the current, if the cross-sectional area of the material is 1cm2.
2. A 12m length of a metal wire has a radius of 0.8mm, carrying a current of 12A. If the free
electrons of the metal have 1029 free electrons per m3, calculate the drift velocity of the
electron.
3. The current flowing in a metal is related to the time by this equation: I (t )  6t 2  4t  10
Find the quantity of charge that moves across as section through the metal during the
interval of t = 3s to t = 5s.
4. An aluminum wire of 7.5m with diameter 1mm is connected in parallel with a copper
wire of 6m long. When a current of 5A is passed through the combination, it is found that
the current in the aluminum wire is 3A. Find the diameter of the copper wire.
5. A battery produces 50V when 5.5A is drawn from it and 58.2V when 1.8A is drawn.
Calculate the emf and internal resistance of the battery.
6. Calculate the terminal voltage of a battery having an emf and internal resistance of 6V
and 0.4Ω respectively, connected to a circuit having an equivalent resistance of 12Ω.
Home Work Three
1. An electric heater is operated by applying a p.d of 50V to the resistance wire. Calculate
the current carried by the wire and power rating of the electric heater. Then explain what
would happen to the current and power if the applied voltage to the heater is doubled.
2. Calculate the heat energy developed in a resistor of 150Ω, if a current of 1A is
maintained for 2 hours.