Network Protocols/Mobile IP

❑ Motivation ❑ Problems
❑ Data transfer ❑ Micro mobility support
❑ Encapsulation ❑ DHCP
❑ Security ❑ Ad-hoc networks
❑ IPv6 ❑ Routing protocols

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.1

 Motivation for Mobile IP

Routing
❑ based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42)
determines physical subnet
❑ change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a
topological correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in
the routing tables
Specific routes to end-systems?
❑ change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right
destination
❑ does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent
changes in the location, security problems
Changing the IP-address?
❑ adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
❑ almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to
long time
❑ TCP connections break, security problems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.2

 Requirements to Mobile IP (RFC 3344, was: 3220, was: 2002)

Transparency
❑ mobile end-systems keep their IP address
❑ continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
❑ point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
Compatibility
❑ support of the same protocols as IP
❑ no changes to current end-systems and routers required
❑ mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
Security
❑ authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
❑ only little additional messages to the mobile system required
(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
❑ world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the
whole Internet

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.3

 Terminology
Mobile Node (MN)
❑ system (node) that can change the point of connection
to the network without changing its IP address
Home Agent (HA)
❑ system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
❑ registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
❑ system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
❑ forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the
default router for the MN
Care-of Address (COA)
❑ address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
❑ actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
❑ can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
Correspondent Node (CN)
❑ communication partner
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.4
 Example network

HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.5

 Data transfer to the mobile system

HA
2
MN

home network 3 receiver

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN
by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
sender to the MN

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.6

 Data transfer from the mobile system

HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN
FA works as default router

receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.7

 Overview
COA

router
home router MN
FA
network HA

foreign
Internet network

CN router

3.
router
home router MN
2. FA
network HA
4.
foreign
Internet network

1.
CN router

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.8

 Network integration

Agent Advertisement
❑ HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
physical subnets
❑ MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a
foreign network (standard case for home network)
❑ MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
❑ MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
❑ these actions have to be secured by authentication
Advertisement
❑ HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e.
standard routing information
❑ routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA
responsible for a MN over a longer period of time)
❑ packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
❑ independent of changes in COA/FA

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.9

 Agent advertisement

0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type code checksum
#addresses addr. size lifetime
router address 1
preference level 1
router address 2
preference level 2
...
type = 16
length = 6 + 4 * #COAs type = 16 length sequence number
R: registration required registration lifetime R B H F M G r T reserved
B: busy, no more registrations COA 1
H: home agent COA 2
F: foreign agent ...
M: minimal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression)
T: FA supports reverse tunneling
reserved: =0, ignored

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.10

 Registration

MN FA HA MN HA

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.11

 Mobile IP registration request

0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type = 1 S B DMG r T x lifetime
home address
home agent
COA
identification

extensions . . .

S: simultaneous bindings
B: broadcast datagrams
D: decapsulation by MN
M mininal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored
T: reverse tunneling requested
x: =0, ignored

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.12

 Mobile IP registration reply
0 7 8 15 16 31
type = 3 code lifetime
home address
home agent
identification
Example codes: extensions . . .
registration successful
0 registration accepted
1 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported
registration denied by FA
65 administratively prohibited
66 insufficient resources
67 mobile node failed authentication
68 home agent failed authentication
69 requested Lifetime too long
registration denied by HA
129 administratively prohibited
131 mobile node failed authentication
133 registration Identification mismatch
135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.13

 Encapsulation

original IP header original data

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.14

 Encapsulation I

Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload

❑ e.g. IPv6 in IPv4 (6Bone), Multicast in Unicast (Mbone)
❑ here: e.g. IP-in-IP-encapsulation, minimal encapsulation or GRE
(Generic Record Encapsulation)
IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory, RFC 2003)
❑ tunnel between HA and COA
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL IP-in-IP IP checksum
IP address of HA
Care-of address COA
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN
TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.15

 Encapsulation II

Minimal encapsulation (optional)

❑ avoids repetition of identical fields
❑ e.g. TTL, IHL, version, DS (RFC 2474, old: TOS)
❑ only applicable for unfragmented packets, no space left for
fragment identification

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL min. encap. IP checksum
IP address of HA
care-of address COA
lay. 4 protoc. S reserved IP checksum
IP address of MN
original sender IP address (if S=1)
TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.16

 Generic Routing Encapsulation

original
original data
header

GRE original
outer header original data
header header

RFC 1701 new header new data

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL GRE IP checksum
IP address of HA RFC 2784
Care-of address COA
C R K S s rec. rsv. ver. protocol C reserved0 ver. protocol
checksum (optional) offset (optional) checksum (optional) reserved1 (=0)
key (optional)
sequence number (optional)
routing (optional)
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN

TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.17

 Optimization of packet forwarding

Triangular Routing
❑ sender sends all packets via HA to MN
❑ higher latency and network load
“Solutions”
❑ sender learns the current location of MN
❑ direct tunneling to this location
❑ HA informs a sender about the location of MN
❑ big security problems!
Change of FA
❑ packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
❑ new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards
remaining packets to new FA
❑ this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the
MN

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.18

 Change of foreign agent
CN HA FAold FAnew MN

Data Data Data

Update
ACK

Data Data
MN changes
location
Update Registration
ACK
Data
Data Data
Warning
Request
Update
ACK
Data
Data
t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.19

 Reverse tunneling (RFC 3024, was: 2344)

HA
2
MN

home network sender

1
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. MN sends to FA
3 2. FA tunnels packets to HA
CN by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.20

 Mobile IP with reverse tunneling

Router accept often only “topological correct“ addresses (firewall!)

❑ a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological
correct
❑ furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home
network correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver)
Reverse tunneling does not solve
❑ problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to
circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
❑ optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through
the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing)
The standard is backwards compatible
❑ the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with
current implementations without these extensions
❑ Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.21

 Mobile IP and IPv6

Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
❑ security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of
registration is included
❑ COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one
candidate), every node has address autoconfiguration
❑ no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement
which can be used instead of the special agent advertisement;
addresses are always co-located
❑ MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not
needed in this case (automatic path optimization)
❑ „soft“ hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is
supported
⚫ MN sends the new COA to its old router
⚫ the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and
forwards them to the new COA
⚫ authentication is always granted

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.22

 Problems with mobile IP

Security
❑ authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to
another organization
❑ no protocol for key management and key distribution has been
standardized in the Internet
❑ patent and export restrictions
Firewalls
❑ typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special
set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)
QoS
❑ many new reservations in case of RSVP
❑ tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special
treatment needed for the QoS
Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and
discussions!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.23

 Security in Mobile IP

Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet

Protocol, RFC 1825)
❑ Integrity
any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected
by the receiver
❑ Authentication
sender address is really the address of the sender and all data
received is really data sent by this sender
❑ Confidentiality
only sender and receiver can read the data
❑ Non-Repudiation
sender cannot deny sending of data
❑ Traffic Analysis
creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible
❑ Replay Protection
receivers can detect replay of messages

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.24

 IP security architecture I

❑ Two or more partners have to negotiate security mechanisms to

setup a security association
❑ typically, all partners choose the same parameters and
mechanisms
❑ Two headers have been defined for securing IP packets:
❑ Authentication-Header
⚫ guarantees integrity and authenticity of IP packets
⚫ if asymmetric encryption schemes are used, non-repudiation can also
be guaranteed

IP-Header
IP header Authentification-Header
authentication header UDP/TCP-Paket
UDP/TCP data

❑ Encapsulation Security Payload

⚫ protects confidentiality between communication partners

not encrypted encrypted

IP header ESP header encrypted data

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.25

 IP security architecture II

❑ Mobile Security Association for registrations

❑ parameters for the mobile host (MH), home agent (HA), and foreign
agent (FA)
❑ Extensions of the IP security architecture
❑ extended authentication of registration
MH-FA authentication FA-HA authentication
MH-HA authentication
registration request
registration request
MH FA registration reply HA
registration reply

❑ prevention of replays of registrations

⚫ time stamps: 32 bit time stamps + 32 bit random number
⚫ nonces: 32 bit random number (MH) + 32 bit random number (HA)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.26

 Key distribution

Home agent distributes session keys

FA MH

response:
EHA-FA {session key}
EHA-MH {session key}
HA

❑ foreign agent has a security association with the home agent

❑ mobile host registers a new binding at the home agent
❑ home agent answers with a new session key for foreign agent
and mobile node

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.27

 IP Micro-mobility support

Micro-mobility support:
❑ Efficient local handover inside a foreign domain
without involving a home agent
❑ Reduces control traffic on backbone
❑ Especially needed in case of route optimization

Example approaches:
❑ Cellular IP
❑ HAWAII
❑ Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)

Important criteria:
Security Efficiency, Scalability, Transparency, Manageability

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.28

 Cellular IP

Operation:
❑ „CIP Nodes“ maintain routing Internet
entries (soft state) for MNs
❑ Multiple entries possible Mobile IP
❑ Routing entries updated based
on packets sent by MN CIP Gateway
data/control
CIP Gateway: packets
❑ Mobile IP tunnel endpoint from MN 1
❑ Initial registration processing
Security provisions:
BS BS BS
❑ all CIP Nodes share packets from
„network key“ MN2 to MN 1
❑ MN key: MD5(net key, IP addr)
MN1 MN2
❑ MN gets key upon registration

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.29

 Cellular IP: Security

Advantages:
❑ Initial registration involves authentication of MNs
and is processed centrally by CIP Gateway
❑ All control messages by MNs are authenticated
❑ Replay-protection (using timestamps)

Potential problems:
❑ MNs can directly influence routing entries
❑ Network key known to many entities
(increases risk of compromise)
❑ No re-keying mechanisms for network key
❑ No choice of algorithm (always MD5, prefix+suffix mode)
❑ Proprietary mechanisms (not, e.g., IPSec AH)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.30

 Cellular IP: Other issues

Advantages:
❑ Simple and elegant architecture
❑ Mostly self-configuring (little management needed)
❑ Integration with firewalls / private address support possible

Potential problems:
❑ Not transparent to MNs (additional control messages)
❑ Public-key encryption of MN keys may be a problem
for resource-constrained MNs
❑ Multiple-path forwarding may cause inefficient use of available
bandwidth

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.31

 HAWAII

Operation:
❑ MN obtains co-located COA 1
Internet
and registers with HA 2 HA
❑ Handover: MN keeps COA,
new BS answers Reg. Request 3 Backbone
and updates routers 4 Router
❑ MN views BS as foreign agent
Crossover
Router
Security provisions:
❑ MN-FA authentication mandatory 2
❑ Challenge/Response Extensions
4 Mobile IP
mandatory DHCP
BS BS BS
Server
Mobile IP
3
MN MN DHCP
1

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.32

 HAWAII: Security

Advantages:
❑ Mutual authentication and C/R extensions mandatory
❑ Only infrastructure components can influence routing entries

Potential problems:
❑ Co-located COA raises DHCP security issues
(DHCP has no strong authentication)
❑ Decentralized security-critical functionality
(Mobile IP registration processing during handover)
in base stations
❑ Authentication of HAWAII protocol messages unspecified
(potential attackers: stationary nodes in foreign network)
❑ MN authentication requires PKI or AAA infrastructure

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.33

 HAWAII: Other issues

Advantages:
❑ Mostly transparent to MNs
(MN sends/receives standard Mobile IP messages)
❑ Explicit support for dynamically assigned home addresses

Potential problems:
❑ Mixture of co-located COA and FA concepts may not be
supported by some MN implementations
❑ No private address support possible
because of co-located COA

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.34

 Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6)

Operation:
❑ Network contains mobility anchor point
(MAP) Internet
HA
⚫ mapping of regional COA (RCOA) to link
COA (LCOA)
RCOA
❑ Upon handover, MN informs
MAP only MAP
⚫ gets new LCOA, keeps RCOA
❑ HA is only contacted if MAP binding AR AR
changes update
LCOAnew LCOAold
Security provisions:
❑ no HMIP-specific MN MN
security provisions
❑ binding updates should be
authenticated

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.35

 Hierarchical Mobile IP: Security

Advantages:
❑ Local COAs can be hidden,
which provides some location privacy
❑ Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is possible (but
might be dangerous)

Potential problems:
❑ Decentralized security-critical functionality
(handover processing) in mobility anchor points
❑ MNs can (must!) directly influence routing entries via binding
updates (authentication necessary)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.36

 Hierarchical Mobile IP: Other issues

Advantages:
❑ Handover requires minimum number
of overall changes to routing tables
❑ Integration with firewalls / private address support possible

Potential problems:
❑ Not transparent to MNs
❑ Handover efficiency in wireless mobile scenarios:
⚫ Complex MN operations
⚫ All routing reconfiguration messages
sent over wireless link

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.37

 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Application
❑ simplification of installation and maintenance of networked
computers
❑ supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP
address, DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default
router etc.
❑ enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the
Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
Client/Server-Model
❑ the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server
(might be via a DHCP relay) DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPDISCOVER
server client

client relay

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.38

 DHCP - protocol mechanisms
server client server
(not selected) initialization (selected)
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER
collection of replies

selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
(reject) (options) confirmation of
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed

release
DHCPRELEASE delete context

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.39

 DHCP characteristics

Server
❑ several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
Renewal of configurations
❑ IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
Options
❑ available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol)
timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory,
DNS (domain name system)

Big security problems!

❑ no authentication of DHCP information specified

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.40

 Mobile ad hoc networks

Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure

❑ Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network
❑ DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility
Sometimes there is no infrastructure!
❑ remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas
❑ cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure!
Main topic: routing
❑ no default router available
❑ every node should be able to forward

A B C

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.41

 Manet: Mobile Ad-hoc Networking

Mobile
Router

Manet

Mobile
Devices

Mobile IP,
DHCP

Fixed
Network

Router End system

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.42

 Routing examples for an ad-hoc network

N1 N1
N2 N3
N3 N2

N4 N4
N5 N5

time = t1 good link time = t2

weak link

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.43

 Traditional routing algorithms

Distance Vector
❑ periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that
contain information about who can be reached at what distance
❑ selection of the shortest path if several paths available
Link State
❑ periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all
physical links
❑ router get a complete picture of the network
Example
❑ ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
❑ every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality
❑ updating of tables also by reception of packets
❑ routing problems solved with limited flooding

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.44

 Problems of traditional routing algorithms

Dynamic of the topology

❑ frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants

Limited performance of mobile systems

❑ periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing
to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize
❑ limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the
exchange of routing information
❑ links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent
transmission quality

Problem
❑ protocols have been designed for fixed networks with infrequent
changes and typically assume symmetric links

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.45

 DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)

Early work
❑ on demand version: AODV

Expansion of distance vector routing

Sequence numbers for all routing updates

❑ assures in-order execution of all updates
❑ avoids loops and inconsistencies

Decrease of update frequency

❑ store time between first and best announcement of a path
❑ inhibit update if it seems to be unstable (based on the stored time
values)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.46

 Dynamic source routing I

Split routing into discovering a path and maintaining a path

Discover a path
❑ only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed
and no path is currently available

Maintaining a path
❑ only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be
used continuously

No periodic updates needed!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.47

 Dynamic source routing II

Path discovery
❑ broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID
❑ if a station receives a broadcast packet
⚫ if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address)
then return the packet to the sender (path was collected in the packet)
⚫ if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then
discard the packet
⚫ otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet
❑ sender receives packet with the current path (address list)

Optimizations
❑ limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known
❑ caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets
⚫ stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths
or paths for other hosts)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.48

 Dynamic Source Routing III

Maintaining paths
❑ after sending a packet
⚫ wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable)
⚫ listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if
possible)
⚫ request an explicit acknowledgement
❑ if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a
packet or look-up a new path locally

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.49

 Interference-based routing

Routing based on assumptions about interference between signals

N1
N2

R1
S1 N3

N4

N5 N6 R2
S2

N8 N9
N7
neighbors
(i.e. within radio range)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.50

 Examples for interference based routing

Least Interference Routing (LIR)

❑ calculate the cost of a path based on the number of stations that
can receive a transmission
Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR)
❑ calculate the cost of a path based on a probability function of
successful transmissions and interference
Least Resistance Routing (LRR)
❑ calculate the cost of a path based on interference, jamming and
other transmissions

LIR is very simple to implement, only information from direct

neighbors is necessary

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.51

 A plethora of ad hoc routing protocols

Flat
❑ proactive
⚫ FSLS – Fuzzy Sighted Link State
⚫ FSR – Fisheye State Routing
⚫ OLSR – Optimised Link State Routing Protocol
⚫ TBRPF – Topology Broadcast Based on Reverse Path Forwarding

❑ reactive
⚫ AODV – Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector
⚫ DSR – Dynamic Source Routing
Hierarchical
❑ CGSR – Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing
❑ HSR – Hierarchical State Routing
❑ LANMAR – Landmark Ad Hoc Routing
❑ ZRP – Zone Routing Protocol
Geographic position assisted
❑ DREAM – Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
❑ GeoCast – Geographic Addressing and Routing
❑ GPSR – Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
❑ LAR – Location-Aided Routing

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.52

 Clustering of ad-hoc networks

Internet

cluster

super cluster

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS02 8.53