3
Presentationof Data
INTRODUCTION
After the data have been collected, the next step is to present them in some suitable forn. The need
for proper presentation arises becauSe of the fact that statistical data in their raw form almost defy
comprehension. When data are presented in easy to-read form, it can help the reader to acquire knowledge
in much shorter period of time and also facilitate statistical analysis, Presentation can take two basic
forms: () Statistical Table, and (ii) Statistical Chart.
Astatistical table is presentation of numbers in a logical arrangement, with some brief explanation
to show what they are. However, before, tabulating data it is often necessary tofirstclassify them. A
statistical chart or agraph is apictorial device for presenting data. The present chapter has been divided
into three main parts to enable greater clarity : (A) Classification of data, (B) Tabulation of data.
(C)Charting data.
(A) CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
After collection and editing of data an important step towards processing the data is classification.
Classification is the grouping of related facts into different classes. Facts in one class differ from those
of another class with respect to some characteristics called a basis of classification. Sorting facts on one
basis of classification and then on another basis is called cross-classification. This process can be
data is a function
repeated as many times as there are possible basis of classification. Classification of
collected in a post
very similar to that of sorting letters in a post office. It is well known that the letters
destinations as
office are sorted into different lots on a geographical basis, i.e., in accordance with their
Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Jaipur, etc. They are then put in separate bags, each containingisletters with a
data comparable
common characteristic, viz., having the same destination. Classification of statistical
important information gathered
to the sorting operation. The process of classificationgives prominence to of the material
statistical treatment
while dropping unnecessary details facilitates comparison and enables a
collected.
Types of Classification
Broadly, the data can be classified on the following four basis :
etc.
() Geographical, i.e., area-wise, e.g., cities, districts,
(i) Chronological, i.e., on the basis of time.
(ii) Qualitative, i.e., according to some atributes.
(iv) Quantitative, i.e., in terms of magnitudes.
Geographical classification. In geographical classification data are classified on the basis of
)
items. For example, when we present the
geographical or locational differences between .the various
sugar cane, wheat, rice, etc., for various States, this would be called geographical
productionof
classification.
3
Presentation of Data
INTRODUCTION
Afer the data have been collected, the next step is to present them in some suitable forn. The need
proper presentation arises because of the fact that statistical data in their raw form almost defy
for
comprehension. When data are presented in easy to-read form, it can help the reader to acquire knowledge
period of time and also facilitate statistical analysis, Presentation can take two basic
in much shorter
forms:() Statistical Table, and (ii) Statistical Chart.
Astatistical table is presentation of numbers in a logical arrangement, with some briefexplanation
classify them. A
tn show what they are. However, before, tabulating data it is often necessary to first has been divided
chapter
statistical chart or a graph is a pictorial device for presenting data. The present
data, (B) Tabulation of data,
Classification of
into three main parts to enable greater clarity : (A)
(C) Charting data.
(A) CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
the data is classification.
After collection and editing of data an important step towards processing
Facts in one class differ from those
Classification isthe grouping of related facts into different classes. classification. Sorting facts on one
calleda basis of
of another class with respect to some characteristics cross-classification. This process can be
hasis of classification and then on another basis is called
classification. Classification of data is a function
repeated as many times as there are possible basis of
similar to that of sorting letters in a post office. It is well known that the letters collected in a post
very
basis, i.e., in accordance with their destinations as
office are sorted into different lots on a geographical with a
separate bags, each containing letters
Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Jaipur, etc. They are then put inClassification of statistical data is comparable
common characteristic, viz., having the same destination.
prominence to important information gathered
to the sorting operation. The process of classification gives enables a statistical treatment of the material
comparison and
while dropping unnecessary details facilitates
collected.
Types of Classification
basis:
Broadly, the data can be classified on the following four
() Geographical, i.e., area-wise, e.g, cities, districts, eto.
(ii) Chronological, i.e., on the basis of time.
(iii) Qualitative, i.e., according to some attributes.
(iv) Quantitative, i.e., in terms of magnitudes.
Geographical classification. In geographical classification data are classifiedon the basis of
()
geographical or locational differences between the various items. For example, when we present the
various States, this would be called geographical
production of sugar cane, wheat, rice, etc., for
classification.
38 Business Statistics
for easy
listed in alphabetical orderStates
Geographical classifications are usually
emphasise the important areas as in
ranking the
also be listed by size to approach is followed and in summary tables the second:
by reference.
popul ation.isIt ems m
approach
in reference tables the first
() Chronological classification.
classification is known as chronological
classification. For example,the
a period of
When data are observed over sales
figures of a tieme, thefoNlorwmeatype
given below :
Vear
Sales Year
Sales
(?)
company ars
()
2012-13
2006-07
188100 467254
2013-14
2007-08
236015 457246
2014-15
2008-09
238167 501178
324353
2015-16 539007
2010-11
2011-12 393432
2016-17
617955
order, normally starting with the earliest
Time series are usually listed in chronological events, a reverse time order may be used time period.
When the major emphasis falls on the most recent
classification, data are classified on the basis
(iü) Qualitative classification. In qualitative of
attribute or quality, such as sex, colour of hair, literacy,
religion, etc. The point to note in
classification is that the attribute under study cannot be measured: one can only find out whether it ofisthis typesome
present or absent in the units of the population under study. For example, if the attribute under study is
blindness, we may find out how many persons are blind in agiven population. It is not possible to
the degree of blindness in each case. Thus, when only one attribute 1s studied, two classes are formed. measure
possessing the attribute and the other not possessing it. This type of classification is known as ee
classification. For example, the population under study may be divided into two categories as follows:
Population
Non-blinds 26 29nnsny
Blinds
In a similar manner, we may classify population on the basis of sex, i.e., males and females
literacy, ie., literates and illiterates, and so on. This type of classification, where only two classes are
formed, is also called two-fold or dichotomous classification. Ifinstead of forming only two classes, we
further divide the data on the basis of some attribute or attributes, so as to form several classes, the
classification is known as manifold classification. For example, we may first divide the population into
males and females on the basis of the attribute, 'sex'; each of these classes may be further sub-divided
into "literates and illiterates' on the basis of the attribute literacy'. Further classification can be made
based on some other attribute, say, employment. The type of manifold classification described here is
shown below :
Population
Males adtan Females
Literates Iliterates Literates lliterates
Employed Unemployed Employed Unemployed Employed Unemployed
Employed Unemployed
(iv) Quantitative classification. Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data
according to some characteristics that can be measured, such as height, weight, income, sales, etc. For
example, the employees of afactory may be classified according to salary as follows:
Presentation of Data 39
Monthly Salary No. of Employees Monthly Salary No. ofEmployees
() ()
10,000-15,000 50
25,000-30,000 360
15.000-20,000 200
30,000-35,000 90
20,000-25,000 260
35,000-40,000 40
Total 1,000
In this type of classification, there are two elements, namely () the variable, ie., the monthly
salaryinthe,above example, and (ii) frequency, i.e.,the number of employees in each class, There were
50employees havingincome between 10,000 and 15,000, 200 employees having income between
T15,000and 20,000, and so on. The quantitative classification gives bith to afrequency distributíon,*
Variable. Afrequency distribution refers to data classified on the basis of some variable that can be
measured, such as prices, salaries, age, number of units produced or consumed. The tern, varíable"
refers to the characteristic that varies in amount or magnitudei afrequencydistribution. Avariable may
be eithercontinuoussor discrete (also called discontinuous). Acontinuous variable is capable cof manifesting
every conceivable fractional value within the range of possibilities, such as the height or weight of
persons or the weight of a product. Thus, as a student grows, say, from 90 cm to 150 cm, his height
passes through all values between these lines. On the other hand, a discrete variable is that which can try
anly to be finite "jumps" and cannot manifest every conceivable fractional value. For instance, the number
of rooms in ahouse can only take certain values as 1,2, 3, etc. Similarly, the number of employees and
oumber of machines in an establishment are discrete variables. Generally speaking, continuous data are
obtained through measurements, while discontinuous data are derived by counting. Series which can be
described by a continuous variable are called continuous series. Series represented by a discrete variable
are called discrete series. The following are two examples of discrete and continuous frequency distributions :
No. of No. of Age No. of
Children Families (years) Employees
10 20-25 10
1 400 25-30 15
2 800 30-35 40
3 700 35-40 45
4 250 40 45 26
150 45-50 4
6 50
Total 2,360 Total 140
(a) Discrete Frequency Distribution (6) Continuous Frequency Distribution
Although the theoretical distinction between continuous and discrete variables is clear and precise,
in practical statistical work, it is only an approximation. The reason is that even the most precise instruments
of measurement can be used only to finite number of places. Thus, from apractical viewpoint, continuous
series can never be expected to flow continuously with one measurement touching another without any
break in actual observations.
Formation of a Frequency Distribution
The process of preparing this type of distribution is very simple. We have just to count the number
of timesaparticular value is repeated, which is called the frequency of that class. In order to facilitate
counting, prepare a column of tally'. In another column, place all possible values of the variable from
*The word 'distribution' refers to the way in which the observations are distributed in different classes.
