Chemistry library

notes
Contents
Unit 1: Atoms, compounds, and ions
Lesson 1: Introduction to the atom
Lesson 2: Ions and compounds
Lesson 3: Names and formulas of ionic compounds

Unit 2: More about atoms

Unit 1
Lesson 2: Molecules and
compounds
I. Covalent bonds and molecules
II. Representing molecules: chemical formulas
III. Representing molecules: structural formulas
IV. Ions and ion formation
V. Ionic bonds
VI. Drawing ionic bonds
VII. Covalent vs. ionic compounds: molecules vs.
formula units

Compounds can be classified as ionic or covalent. Molecules are the simplest unit of a
covalent compound, and molecules can be represented in many different ways.

Atoms are the smallest units of matter that still retain the fundamental
chemical properties of an element. Much of the study of chemistry, however,
involves looking at what happens when atoms combine with other atoms to
form compounds. A compound is a distinct group of atoms held together by
chemical bonds. Just as the structure of the atom is held together by the
electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electrons surrounding it, the stability within chemical
bonds is also due to electrostatic attractions. To illustrate further, consider
the two major types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds and ionic bonds. In
covalent bonds, two atoms share pairs of electrons, while in ionic bonds,
electrons are fully transferred between two atoms so that ions are formed.
Let’s consider both types of bonds in detail.
 I. Covalent bonds and molecules
A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electron pairs. In a
covalent bond, the stability of the bond comes from the shared electrostatic
attraction between the two positively charged atomic nuclei and the shared,
negatively charged electrons between them.

A neutral hydrogen atom, shown left, contains one electron. Two hydrogen atoms
can combine by donating each of their electrons into a single covalent bond,
depicted on the right as the area where the gray clouds around each hydrogen
atom overlap. In the covalent bond, the electron pair is shared between the two
hydrogen atoms. When the covalent bond is formed, we no longer have two
separate hydrogen atoms but instead a single molecule of hydrogen- H 2.
Image credit: Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0

When atoms combine by forming covalent bonds, the resulting

collection of atoms is called a molecule. We can therefore say that a
molecule is the simplest unit of a covalent compound. As we will now see,
there are a variety of different ways to represent and draw molecules.

Explanation
Note: We have just defined a molecule to be any distinct group of
atoms bound together with covalent bonds. However, a few teachers and
textbooks define a molecule more narrowly. According to this less common
definition, a molecule is a group of covalently bound atoms of the same
element only. In the rest of this article, we will stick to the broader definition
 of molecule because it is more common. Therefore, we will be using the
terms molecule and covalent compound interchangeably.
By this less common definition, O2 - oxygen gas - and N2 - nitrogen
gas - would be two examples of molecules, but ammonia, NH3,
would not properly be called a molecule because it contains more than one
type of element. By this less common definition, we would have to classify
ammonia as a covalent compound, but not a molecule.
To be safe, you should probably use whatever definitions are
provided to you by your teacher and your own textbook, but keep in mind
that you might come across another definition.

II. Representing molecules: chemical formulas

Chemical formulas, sometimes also called molecular formulas, are
the simplest way of representing molecules. In a chemical formula, we use
the elemental symbols from the periodic table to indicate which elements are
present, and we use subscripts to indicate how many atoms of each element
exist within the molecule. For example, a single molecule of NH3, ammonia,
contains one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. By contrast, a single
molecule of N2H4 hydrazine, contains two nitrogen atoms and four
hydrogens atoms.

Concept
check
The chemical formula for acetic acid, a common acid found in
vinegar, is C2H4O2. How many oxygen atoms are there in three
molecules of acetic acid?
Answer will be at the end of this lesson
 As your study of chemistry continues, you will find that sometimes
chemists write molecular formulas in different ways. For example, as we just
saw, the chemical formula for acetic acid is C2H4O2; however, we will often
see it written as CH3COOH. The reason for this second type of formula is
that the order in which the atoms are written helps to show the structure of
the acetic acid molecule—this is sometimes called the condensed structural
formula. As such, we can think of CH 3COOH as being like a cross between
a chemical formula and a structural formula, which we will consider next.

III. Representing molecules: structural formulas

Chemical formulas only tell us how many atoms of each element are
present in a molecule, but structural formulas also give information about
how the atoms are connected in space. In structural formulas, we actually
draw the covalent bonds connecting atoms. In the last section, we looked at
the chemical formula for ammonia, which is NH3. Now, let’s consider its
structural formula:

Two structural formulas for ammonia, NH 3. The formula on the left gives only
a two-dimensional approximation of molecular structure, whereas the
formula on the right shows the orientation of atoms in space using dashes
going into the plane of the page and wedges coming out of the plane of the
page. The two dots on nitrogen in the right formula indicate a lone pair of
electrons.
 Image credit: left, Physique Applique, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; right, Wikipedia, CC BY-
SA 3.0

From both of these structural formulas, we can see that the central
nitrogen atom is connected to each hydrogen atom by a single covalent
bond. Keep in mind, however, that atoms and molecules, just like everything
else in the universe, exist in three dimensions—they have length and width,
as well as depth. In the structural formula to the left, we are only seeing a
two-dimensional approximation of this molecule. However, in the more
detailed structural formula on the right, we have a dashed line to indicate
that the rightmost hydrogen atom is sitting behind the plane of the screen,
while the bold wedge indicates that the center hydrogen is sitting out in front
of the plane of the screen. The two dots above nitrogen indicate a lone pair
of electrons that are not involved in any covalent bond. We will discuss the
significance of these electrons at the end of this section. To help show this
three-dimensional shape even more accurately, we can rely on space-filling
models as well as ball-and-stick models. Let's consider both of these models
for NH3:

A space-filling model, left, and a ball-and-stick model, right, for ammonia, NH 3.

Nitrogen atoms are depicted in blue, and hydrogen atoms are depicted in white.
Image credit: left, Wikipedia; right, Wikipedia, public domain
 The left-hand image shows the space-filling model for ammonia. The
nitrogen atom is depicted as the larger, central blue sphere, and the three
hydrogen atoms are depicted as the smaller white spheres off to the sides,
which form a kind of tripod. The overall shape of the molecule is a pyramid
with nitrogen at the vertex and a triangular base formed by the three
hydrogen atoms. As you will learn when you study molecular shapes and
molecular geometry, this type of arrangement is known as trigonal
pyramidal. The main advantage of the space-filling model is that it gives us
a sense of the relative sizes of the different atoms—nitrogen has a larger
atomic radius than hydrogen.

The right-hand image shows us the ball-and-stick model for

ammonia. As you might be able to guess, the balls represent the atoms, and
the sticks that connect the balls represent the covalent bonds between the
atoms. The advantage of this type of model is that we get to see the covalent
bonds, which also allows us to more easily see the geometry of the molecule.

Why are the hydrogen atoms in ammonia pushed

Q:A downward into a tripod shape?

Answer
All molecular geometry has to do with electron-electron repulsion. Keep in mind
that in space-filling models and in ball-and-stick models, we only show chemical bonds,
not lone pairs of electrons. In the case of ammonia, there exists a lone pair of electrons on
top of the central nitrogen atom that isn’t pictured in the three-dimensional models—but
is pictured in the two-dimensional structural model with the dashes and wedges. These
electrons and the electrons around each hydrogen atom repel each other, which pushes
the hydrogen atoms down and away, forming a tripod, or three-sided pyramid shape.

IV. Ions and ion formation

Now that we have an understanding of covalent bonds, we can begin
to discuss the other major type of chemical bond—an ionic bond. Unlike
covalent bonds, in which electron pairs are shared between atoms, an ionic
bond is formed when two oppositely charged ions attract one another. To
better illustrate this, we first need to examine the structure and formation of
ions.

Recall that neutral atoms have an equal number of protons and

electrons. The result of this is that the total positive charge of the protons
exactly cancels the total negative charge of the electrons, so that the atom
itself has an overall charge, or net charge, of zero.

However, if an atom gains or loses electrons, the balance between

protons and electrons is upset, and the atom becomes an ion—a species with
a net charge. Let’s first look at what happens when a neutral atom loses an
electron:

A neutral sodium atom, Na, loses one electron to form a cation, Na+
Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological,
CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

In the diagram above, we see a neutral atom of sodium, Na, losing an

electron. The result is that the sodium ion, Na +, has 11 protons, but only 10
electrons. Thus, the sodium ion has a net charge of 1+, and it has become
a cation—a positively charged ion.
Next, we’ll look at the formation of an anion - an ion with a net
negative charge.
 A neutral chlorine atom, Cl, gains an electron to form an anion, Cl -.
Image credit: : Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological,
CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Note: When neutral
atoms gain electron(s) In this diagram, we see the opposite process of what we saw with the
to form anions, they
are typically named
sodium atom. Here, a neutral chlorine atom, Cl, is gaining an electron. The
with an -ide suffix. For result is that the newly formed chloride ion, Cl -, has 17 protons and 18
example, Cl- is
electrons. Because electrons carry a 1- charge, the net charge on the chloride
chloride, Br- is
bromide, O2- is oxide, ion from the extra electron is 1-. It has become an anion, or a negatively
N3- is nitride, etc. charged ion.

V. Ionic bonds
In the last section, we looked separately at how sodium can lose an
electron to form the cation Na+ and at how chlorine can gain an electron to
form the anion Cl+. In reality, however, this process can occur all in one step
when sodium gives its electron away to chlorine! We can illustrate this as
follows:
 Sodium donates its electron to chlorine to form Na + and Cl -.

Image credit: Boundless Learning, CC BY-SA 4.0

Here, we can see how an electron is transferred from sodium to

chlorine in order to form the ions Na + and Cl-. Once these ions are formed,
there is a strong electrostatic attraction between them, which leads to the
formation of an ionic bond. We can see that one of the major distinguishing
factors between ionic bonds and covalent bonds is that in ionic bonds,
electrons are completely transferred, whereas in covalent bonds, electrons
are shared.

Why are the hydrogen atoms in ammonia pushed

Q:A downward into a tripod shape?

Answer
All molecular geometry has to do with electron-electron repulsion. Keep in mind that in
space-filling models and in ball-and-stick models, we only show chemical bonds, not
lone pairs of electrons. In the case of ammonia, there exists a lone pair of electrons on top
of the central nitrogen atom that isn’t pictured in the three-dimensional models—but is
pictured in the two-dimensional structural model with the dashes and wedges. These
electrons and the electrons around each hydrogen atom repel each other, which pushes
the hydrogen atoms down and away, forming a tripod, or three-sided pyramid shape.
VI. Drawing ionic bonds
We will now consider the different ways we can draw or depict ionic bonds. We will
continue looking at the most commonly known ionic compound—sodium chloride, which is best
known as table salt. A single ionic bond in sodium chloride can be shown as follows:

A structural drawing showing an ionic bond between a sodium cation, Na +,

and a chloride anion, Cl -. Note that there is no single line connecting the two
ions because that would indicate shared electrons in a covalent bond. Here,
electrons have been transferred completely, and the bond is purely ionic.
Image credit: Wikispaces, CC BY-SA 3.0

The positively charged sodium cation and the negatively charged

chloride anion like to position themselves next to each other due to their
mutual electrostatic attraction. Because no electrons are shared, we don’t
depict an ionic bond with a line as we do for covalent bonds. We simply
recognize that the attraction is there due to the opposite charge signs on the
ions.

The above diagram, however, is just a model. In nature, sodium

chloride does not exist as a single sodium cation bonded with a single
chloride anion. As we mentioned earlier, sodium chloride is table salt—and
if we were able to use a super-powered microscope that could examine table
salt at the atomic level, we would see something like the following structure:
 If we were to examine a crystal of sodium chloride at the atomic level, we
would see sodium ions and chloride ions evenly positioned next to one
another in space. The orderly, stable structure is due to the strong ionic
bonds between Na+ and Cl -
Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological,
CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

We can see from this diagram that the Na+ and Cl- ions naturally
position themselves next to one another in space due to the shared
electrostatic attractions between them. The ions are then held in place by
their very strong ionic bonds. The above structure is known as a crystal
lattice, and sodium chloride-like most ionic compounds – is a crystalline
solid. You will learn more about this in future lessons on the different types
of solids.

VII. Covalent vs. ionic compounds: molecules vs. formula

units
Now that we’ve discussed the basics of both covalent and ionic
bonding, we need to draw a few necessary distinctions. We know that a
group of atoms joined by only covalent bonds is known as a molecule. It
should be noted, however, that the word molecule should only be used in
reference to covalent compounds. In an ionic compound, such as sodium
chloride, there is no such thing as a single molecule of sodium chloride
since, in reality, sodium chloride is actually made up of multiple sodium and
 chloride ions joined together in a large crystal lattice—as we saw in the
previous diagram. As such, we refer to one piece of NaCl not as a molecule
but as a formula unit. Keep in mind that single formula units, unlike single
molecules, largely do not exist in nature—we simply rely on formula units
for ease of reference and convenience.

Which type of compounds are composed of molecules – ionic or

covalent?
Conclusion
All chemical bonding is due to electrostatic attraction.
When atoms combine through chemical bonding, they
form compounds—unique structures composed of
two or more atoms. The basic composition of a
compound can be indicated using a chemical formula.
A chemical formula uses symbols from the periodic
table to indicate the types of elements present in a
particular compound while using subscripts to
represent the number of each type of element
present.
Compounds can be covalent or ionic. In covalent
compounds, atoms form covalent bonds that consist
of electron pairs shared between two adjacent atomic
nuclei. An example of a covalent compound is
ammonia. The chemical formula of ammonia is NH3,
which tells us that in a single molecule of ammonia,
there is one nitrogen atom, and three hydrogen
atoms. The structure of a covalent compound can be
depicted through space-filling models as well as ball-
and-stick models.
In ionic compounds, electrons are completely
transferred from one atom to another so that a cation
—positively charged ion—and an anion—negatively
charged ion—form. The strong electrostatic attraction
between adjacent cations and anions is known as an
ionic bond. The most common example of an ionic
compound is sodium chloride NaCl, better known as
table salt. Unlike covalent compounds, there is no
such thing as a molecule of an ionic compound. This is
because in nature NaCl does not exist in individual
units, but in crystal lattice structures that are
composed of multiple Na+ and Cl- ions alternating in
space. The chemical formula NaCl specifies one
formula unit of this compound.
Lesson 3: Naming monatomic ions
and ionic compounds
I. Cations and anions
II. Predicting charges on monatomic cations and
anions
III. Elements that form cations
IV. Elements that form anions
V. Naming cations
VI. Elements that form multiple types of cations
VII. Naming monatomic anions
VIII. Formulas and naming of basic ionic compounds
IX. Naming ionic compounds with polyvalent cations

Learn how to name monatomic ions and ionic compounds containing monatomic ions,
predict charges for monatomic ions, and understand formulas.

Sodium chloride is an ionic compound made up of sodium ions and chloride

ions in a crystal lattice.
Image credit: Wikipedia Commons, public domain
 Atoms are electrically neutral because the number of protons, which
carry a 1+ charge, in the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number of
electrons, which carry a 1- charge, in the atom. The result is that the total
positive charge of the protons cancels out the total negative charge of the
electrons so that the net charge of the atom is zero. Most atoms, however,
can either gain or lose electrons; when they do so, the number of electrons
becomes different from the number of protons in the nucleus. The resulting
charged species is called an ion.

I. Cations and anions

When a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, the total number of
electrons decreases while the number of protons in the nucleus remains the
same. The result is that the atom becomes a cation—an ion with a net
positive charge.

The opposite process can also occur. When a neutral atom gains one
or more electrons, the number of electrons increases while the number of
protons in the nucleus remains the same. The result is that the atom becomes
an anion—an ion with a net negative charge. We can illustrate this by
examining some very simple cations and anions, those formed when a single
hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron.

NOTE
Hydrogen is actually somewhat unusual in that it readily forms
both cations and anions. Most elements much prefer to form only
one or the other. In terms of its electron configuration, can you
explain why hydrogen can form both cations and anions? Feel free
to post in the comments at the end of the article!
 If a neutral hydrogen atom (H, center) loses an electron, it becomes a
hydrogen cation ( H+, left). Conversely, if the neutral H atom gains an
electron, it becomes a hydrogen anion (H-, right), also known as a hydride
ion.
Image credit: adapted from Boundless Learning, CC BY-SA 4.0.

In the center column, we have a diagram of a single, neutral

hydrogen atom. It contains one proton and one electron; thus, its net charge
is zero. If hydrogen loses its electron, it forms the cation H+ (left column).
The H+ cation has a net charge of 1+ from the one proton in the nucleus
since there are no electrons to cancel out the positive charge. If neutral
hydrogen gains an electron, it forms the anion H- (right column).
The H- anion has a net charge of 1- because it has one extra electron
compared to the total number of protons.
Concept
check

A certain ion has 20 protons and 18 electrons. What kind of

element is this ion, and what is its net charge?
 Firstly, we know that this ion has 20 protons. The #of protons is
equal the atomic number, so, if we look at the Periodic table, Ca
(Calcium) has atomic number of 20, so it’s ion of Calcium.
Secondly, the proton in this ion is more than electrons, so this
ion has 2+ charge.
Answer:
Because the ion has 20 protons, the element in question must be
calcium, Ca, which has an atomic number of 20. The 20 protons contribute a
total charge of 20+, and 18 electrons contribute a total charge of 18-:

Thus, the net charge on the ion will be 2+. We can write the symbol
for the calcium 2+ cation as follows: Ca 2+.

II. Predicting charges on monatomic одноатомний cations and anions

Did you know that you can use the periodic table to predict the
charges certain elements will have when they ionize? This is a very
convenient and powerful tool, so it's worth examining in some detail. The
following figure summarizes the common charges for the elements in the
eight main groups, or families, on the periodic table. Remember that
periodic groups refer to columns on the periodic table, whereas rows are
known as periods. Keep in mind that these charges only apply when these
elements are found in ionic compounds since covalent compounds don't
contain ions. Ionic compounds are made up of ions, which are held together by ionic bonds
REMINDER
between ions of opposite charge.
In covalent compounds, however, electrons are shared in covalent bonds, so
there are no true ions with full charges on them. Elements in covalent compounds,
however, can be assigned oxidation states or oxidation numbers, which are similar to an
apparent charge. We can consider oxidation numbers to be what the charge on the element
would be if the electrons in the covalent bond were completely transferred to the more
electronegative atom. If you would like to learn more about oxidation states, this video on
oxidation states and how they are used.
That said, it is important to realize that the distinction between ionic bonds and
covalent bonds isn't always clear. Instead of thinking about all compounds as falling into
one of two categories, it is more accurate to think of a continuum between ionic and
covalent bonds, and compounds. Many compounds contain bonds with some fraction of
covalent character as well as some ionic character.
 For Group 14 elements, forming cations with a 4+ charge is much more
common than forming anions with a 4- charge. Carbon, however, can form
both types of ions, so we include both charges here.

As a general rule of thumb, the main group elements will usually

gain or lose electrons in order to get a full octet of valence electrons. By
figuring out how many electrons an element is likely to lose or gain to reach
a full octet, we can predict the charge on the ion. This requires first knowing
how many valence electrons are in the neutral atom.

Tip: The number of valence electrons in the neutral atom is equal to

the number in the 1st place in the new IUPAC group number.

III. Elements that form cations

For groups 1, 2, 13, and 14, the elements have one to four valence
electrons as neutral atoms, and they will usually give away these valence
electrons to become ions – carbon is sometimes an exception to this trend
since it can also gain four electrons to form the C 4- anion. Since the resulting
ion has fewer electrons than protons, the net charge on the ion is positive.
The magnitude of the charge is equal to the number of electrons lost, which
is equal to the number of valence electrons in the neutral atom.

For example, what if we wanted to predict the charge on an

aluminum ion? Aluminum is in group 13, or IIIA. Since the group number
13, has the number 3 in the 1st place, we would predict the charge to be 3+
to give Al3+. We can also think about a neutral aluminum atom losing its
three valence electrons to become Al3+ which has a full octet.

Can we relate this to electron configuration?

Yup! When we talk about atoms losing or gaining electrons in order to get to a full octet,
we can also think of this process as the atom losing or gaining electrons to get to the same
electron configuration as the nearest noble gas.
For our current example, the Al3+ ion has the same electron configuration as the noble gas
neon, Ne. They both have the following electron configuration:
1s22s22p6

IV. Elements that form anions

For groups 15 through 17, the charge is usually negative because
these elements are more likely to gain than lose electrons. The charge on the
ion is therefore equal in magnitude to the number of electrons gained to
reach a full octet of eight valence electrons. Mathematically, we can
calculate the magnitude of the charge by subtracting the number of valence
electrons in the neutral atom from eight. We can also use the periodic table
to count how many columns to the right we need to go to reach the noble
gases, group 18, where each adjacent column counts as one electron that
needs to be gained to reach the full octet.

If we use these guidelines to predict the charge on a sulfur ion, which

is in group 16, we predict that the magnitude of the charge is 8-6=2 since
sulfur has six valence electrons. We can also find the number of valence
electrons by checking sulfur's group number, group 16, which has a 6 in the
1st place. That means that a neutral sulfur atom will need to gain two
 electrons to reach a full octet of eight electrons. Therefore, we predict that
Concept
the most common charge on a sulfur ion will be 2-.
check

What ionic compound would you predict to form in a reaction

between potassium metal and liquid bromine?

Answer:
Potassium metal is a group 1 alkali metal and therefore usually forms cations with a 1+
charge, namely, K+.
Bromine, as a group 17 halogen, usually forms anions with a 1- charge, namely, Br –.
Because the charges on these ions are equal and opposite, they will combine in a 1:1 ratio
so that their charges exactly cancel. Therefore, we predict that the ionic compound
formed will be KBr, potassium bromide.

V. Naming cations
Now that we know that many common elements take on predictable
charges, let's consider how to name the ions. We'll first look at the alkali
metals—the elements in group 1 on the periodic table. From the figure
above, we can see that the alkali metals tend to form cations with a 1+
charge. Thus, these cations include H+, Li+, Na+, K+, and so on. Naming
these types of cations requires no special rule. For instance, we can refer to a
hydrogen cation, H+, simply by calling it "H-plus" or a "hydrogen ion".
Similarly, a sodium cation, Na+, can be called "Na-plus", "sodium plus", or
most commonly, a "sodium ion". Note that it is unnecessary to say "a one
plus sodium ion", because it is understood that a sodium ion usually has a 1+
charge.

The same logic also applies to all other elements that typically form
cations of one particular charge. For instance, the alkaline earth metals,
group 2, form cations with a charge of 2+: Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, etc. While we
often refer to an ion such as Mg2+ as "magnesium two-plus", we could also
simply say "magnesium ion", since it's understood what the charge on a
magnesium ion is.
 Note: The discussion in this section is mainly for naming cations by
themselves, and the naming convention will be slightly different when the
cation is part of an ionic compound. The naming of ionic compounds will be
discussed separately below!

VI. Elements that form multiple types of cations

So far, we have considered elements that typically form cations of
one particular charge. For example, the alkali metals and the alkaline earth
metals usually form 1+ ions and 2+ ions, respectively. Most transition
metals, however, can form cations of various charges. That is why the d-
block of the periodic table figure above has been labeled "variable charges".
Iron, for instance, is often found as both the Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ cations, and
sometimes other charges as well. Thus, iron is polyvalent, which literally
means "many valued"—it is able to form cations of different charges.
 Chromium commonly forms compounds as Cr 2+ and Cr 3+. Chromium (II)
chloride, on the left, is a grey-green solid with very different properties and
reactivity compared to chromium (III) chloride, the bright purple solid on the
right. Thus, it is important to specify which one you are referring to!
Image credit: Maria Sanford

For metals that are polyvalent, we need to specify the magnitude of

the charge on the ion. For instance, we have to call Fe 2+ "iron two-plus" or
"iron two" because simply referring to it as "iron ion" will not give enough
information to specify the type of cation. Most of the transition metals—
those metals in the center d-block of the periodic table — are polyvalent.
Since they can form cations with different charges, those charges must be
specified when naming the ions and when naming compounds containing
those ions.

In ionic compounds, the magnitude of the charge for a transition

metal cation is usually included using Roman numerals in parentheses after
the name of the metal, such as for chromium (II) chloride which contains Cr
2+. Naming ionic compounds containing transition metal cations will be
discussed in more detail in a separate section below.

VII. Naming monatomic anions

Most often, when we name monatomic anions, we add the suffix -ide
to the end of the element's name. Because we can predict the charge on
simple cations and anions based on an element's group number, it is not
necessary to specify the magnitude of the charge on an anion most of the
time. The following table shows how the suffix applies to naming anions of
various elements:
VIII. Formulas and naming of basic ionic compounds
Now that we've seen the naming conventions for cations and anions,
we can discuss how they apply to naming simple ionic compounds made up
of monatomic ions. The following guidelines can be used for naming ionic
compounds:
 Always name the cation before the anion; in the chemical formula,
the cation will always appear first as well.
 When naming the cation within an ionic compound, we don't include
the word ion or the charge unless it is a polyvalent cation. That
means we only have to name the element that the ion came from (see
Example 2 below).
 Any ionic compound will have a net charge of zero. Another way of
saying this is that cations and anions must always combine in such a
way so that their charges cancel.
 The number of cations and anions in the formula should be written as
the lowest possible integer value. For example, the formula for
sodium chloride is NaCl, not Na 2Cl2 or some other multiple of NaCl,
even though the charges would still add up to zero.
Let's look at a few more examples:
 Example 1: Finding the chemical formula from the name
Q: What is the chemical formula of potassium chloride?
A: Remember that potassium is a group 1 element that forms a 1+
ion. Chloride, by definition, is an anion that has formed from an atom of
chlorine. Since chlorine is in group 17, it will form a 1- anion. Because their
charges are equal and opposite, there will be one K+ ion for every one Cl-
anion, and the chemical formula will be KCl. Remember that subscripts are
not used when there is only one atom/ion of a particular type.

Example 2: Finding the name from the chemical formula

Q: What is the name of the ionic compound Mg3P2?
A: Magnesium, Mg, is a group 2 element that will form 2+ cations.
Because it usually forms cations of only one type, we don't need to specify
its charge. We can simply refer to the cation in the ionic compound as
magnesium. Phosphorus, P, is a group 15 element and therefore forms 3-
anions. Because it is an anion, we add the suffix -ide to its name to get
phosphide as the name of the ion. Therefore, the name for the compound is
Try it: magnesium
Names phosphide.
and formulas of ionic
compounds

Problem 1: What is the chemical formula for calcium bromide?

Problem 2: What is the name of the compound SrF 2?
Problem 3: What are the constituent ions present in the compound
Al2S3?
IX. Naming ionic compounds with polyvalent cations
Recall from our earlier discussion that if an element can form more
than one type of cation, we have to specify the charge on that cation. The
magnitude of the charge for a transition metal cation is usually indicated
using Roman numerals in parentheses after the name of the metal—this is
also called the systematic name of the ion. The following table lists some of
the most common ions for polyvalent metals. The systematic name is
included for all ions. For some ions, the common or trivial name is also
given. The common or trivial names are somewhat old fashioned nowadays,
but they're still used in some places, so they're helpful to know. Notice that
the ions of lesser charge take the suffix -ous in the common name; ions of
higher charge take the -ic suffix. For example, ferrous chloride (FeCl 2) is the
name of Fe2+, while ferric chloride (FeCl3) is understood to contain Fe3+.

Using this table as a reference, let's look at how to name ionic

compounds containing polyvalent metals.
 Example 3: Naming compounds containing polyvalent cations
Q: What is the name of the compound PbCl4?
A: When naming ionic compounds that contain transition metals,
we first need to determine the charge on the transition metal cation. We can
deduce this charge by first calculating the charge contributed by the anion,
whose charge we already know for sure.
We recognize that Cl is a group 17 halogen, so it forms the chloride
anion Cl-. We can see from the chemical formula PbCl 4 that there are four
chloride ions in the compound. The total negative charge contributed by the
four chloride ions is calculated below:
Total charge from anions = 4 x (1-) = 4-
In order for the compound to be electrically neutral, the lead cation
must be Pb4+. This is because the 4+ charge on this ion will exactly cancel
the net 4- charge contributed by the four chloride ions.
Therefore, the name of PbCl4 is lead (IV) chloride.
Try it: Ionic compounds containing polyvalent
cations

What is the name of the compound Co2 S3?

Conclusion
Cations are positively charged
ions formed when neutral atoms
lose electrons; anions are
negatively charged ions formed
when neutral atoms gain
electrons. It is possible to predict
the charges of common
monatomic ions by looking at the
group numbers on the periodic
table. However, many of the
transition metals are polyvalent,
which means they can form
cations of multiple charges. When
naming these cations or
compounds containing these
cations, it is necessary to specify
their charge.
Cations and anions combine to
form ionic compounds. Ionic
compounds are named with the
cation first and the anion last. The
same convention is used when
writing their chemical formulas.
Ionic compounds must be
electrically neutral. Therefore, the
cations and anions must combine
in such a way that the net charge
contributed by the total number of
Answer:

1. As we can see from the chemical formula, C2H4O2, there are two oxygen
atoms in one molecule of acetic acid. Therefore, in three molecules of acetic
acid, there will be 3x2=6 oxygen atoms.
2. Covalent compounds are composed of molecules.