6.

Superposition of Waves
The water is displaced locally where the stone
Can you recall? actually falls in water. The disturbance slowly
spreads and distant particles get disturbed from
1. What is wave motion?
their position of rest. The wave disturbs the
2. What is a wave pulse?
particles for a short duration during its path.
3. What are common properties of
waves? These particles oscillate about their position
4. What happens when a wave of rest for a short time. They are not bodily
propagates? moved from their respective positions. This
5. What are mechanical waves? disturbance caused by the stone is actually a
6. What are electromagnetic waves? wave pulse. It is a disturbance caused locally
7. How are mechanical waves different for a short duration.
from electromagnetic waves? A wave, in which the disturbance
8. What are sound waves? produced in the medium travels in a given
6.1 Introduction: direction continuously, without any damping
You may be familiar with different waves and obstruction, from one particle to another,
like water waves, sound waves, light waves, is a progressive wave or a travelling wave
mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves e.g., the sound wave, which is a pressure wave
etc. A mechanical wave is a disturbance consisting of compressions and rarefactions
produced in an elastic medium due to periodic travelling along the direction of propagation
vibrations of particles of the medium about of the wave.
their respective mean positions. In this 6.2.1 Properties of progressive waves:
process, energy and momentum are transferred 1) Each particle in a medium executes the
from one particle to another. Thus, a wave same type of vibration. Particles vibrate
carries or transfers energy from one point to about their mean positions performing
another., but there is no transfer of matter or simple harmonic motion.
particles of the medium in which the wave 2) All vibrating particles of the medium
is travelling. Another type of waves, known have the same amplitude, period and
as electromagnetic waves, do not require frequency.
material medium for their propagation; these 3) The phase, (i.e., state of vibration of a
are non-mechanical waves. We have studied particle), changes from one particle to
sound waves (which are mechanical waves), another.
their properties and various phenomena like 4) No particle remains permanently at rest.
echo, reverberation, Doppler effect related to Each particle comes to rest momentarily
these waves in earlier classes. In this Chapter, while at the extreme positions of vibration.
we will study mechanical waves, reflection 5) The particles attain maximum velocity
of these waves, principle of superposition of when they pass through their mean
waves, various phenomena like formation of positions.
stationary waves, beats, and their applications. 6) During the propagation of wave, energy
6.2 Progressive Wave: is transferred along the wave. There is no
Have you seen ripples created on the transfer of matter.
surface of water when a stone is dropped in it? 7) The wave propagates through the medium
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 with a certain velocity. This velocity are rad m-1, m and rad s-1 respectively. If
depends upon properties of the medium. T is the time period of oscillation, then
8) Progressive waves are of two types - n = 1/T = ω /(2π) is the frequency of oscillation
transverse waves and longitudinal waves. measured in Hz (s-1). If the wave is travelling
9) In a transverse wave, vibrations of to the left i.e., along the negative x-direction,
particles are perpenduclar to the direction then the equation for the disturbance is
of propogation of wave and produce crests
and troughs in their medium of travel. y(x,t) =Asin(kx + ωt) --- (6.3)
In longitudinal wave, vibrations of
Can you tell?
particles are along the direction of
propagation of wave and produce What is the minimum distance between any
compressions and rarefactions along the two particles of a medium which always
direction of propagation of the wave. have the same speed if a sine wave travels
10) Both, the transverse as well as the through the medium?
longitudinal, mechanical waves can
6.3 Reflection of Waves:
propagate through solids but only
longitudinal waves can propagate through When a progressive wave, travelling
fluids. through a medium, reaches an interface
You might recall that when a mechanical separating two media, a certain part of the
wave passes through an elastic medium, the wave energy comes back in the same medium.
displacement of any particle of the medium The wave changes its direction of travel. This is
at a space point x at time t is given by the called reflection of a wave from the interface.
expression Reflection is the phenomenon in which
y(x,t) = f(x - vt) --- (6.1) the sound wave traveling from one medium
where v is the speed at which the disturbance to another comes back in the original medium
travels through the medium to the right with slightly different intensity and energy. To
(increasing x). The factor (x - vt) appears
understand the reflection of waves, we will
because the disturbance produced at the point
consider three examples below.
x = 0 at time t reaches the point x = x′ on
6.3.1 Reflection of a Transverse Wave:
the right at time (t + x′/v) or we say that the
disturbance of the particle at time t at position
x = x′ actually originated on the left side at
time (t - x′/v). Thus, Eq. (6.1) represents a
progressive wave travelling in the positive Fig. 6.1: Reflection of a wave pulse sent as a
x-direction with a constant speed v. The crest from a rarer medium to a denser medium.
function f depends on the motion of the source Example 1
of disturbance. If the source of disturbance is • Take a long light string AB. Attach one
performing simple harmonic motion, the wave end of the string to a rigid support at B.
is represented as a sine or cosine function of (Here, for the wave pulse traveling on the
(x - vt) multiplied by a term which will make string, the string is the rarer medium and
(x - vt) dimensionless. Generally we represent the rigid support acts as a denser medium.)
such a wave by the following equation • By giving a jerk to the free end A of the
y(x,t) =Asin(kx - ωt) --- (6.2) string, a crest is generated in the string.
where A is the amplitude of the wave, k = 2π/λ • Observe what happens when this crest
is the wave number, λ and ω are the wavelength moves towards B?
and the angular frequency of the wave and • Observe what happens when the crest
v = ω /k is the speed. The SI units of k, λ and ω reaches B?
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• Perform the same activity repeatedly and • Observe the part of wave pulse reflected
observe carefully. Try to find the reasons back on the heavy string.
of movements in above observations. • Produce a wave pulse as a crest on the
Example 2 light string Q moving towards the junction
point O.
• Observe the part of wave pulse reflected
on the light string.
• What difference do you observe when the
Fig.6.2: Reflection of a wave pulse sent as a wave pulse gets reflected on the light string
crest from a denser medium to a rarer medium. and when the wave pulse gets reflected on
the heavy string?
• Take a long light string AB. Attach the
• Try to find reasons behind your
end B of the string to a ring which can
slide easily on a vertical metal rod without observations.
friction. (Here string is the denser medium In example 1, when crest moves along the
while end B attached to the sliding ring is string towards B, it pulls the particles of string
at the interface of a rarer medium as it can in upward direction. Similarly when the crest
move freely.) reaches B at rigid support, it tries to pull the
• Give a jerk to free end A of the string. point B upwards. But being a rigid support,
• Observe what happens when crest reaches B remains at rest and an equal and opposite
the point B attached to the ring. reaction is produced on the string according
• Try to find the reason of the observed to Newton’s third law of motion. The string is
movement. pulled downwards. Thus crest gets reflected as
Example 3 a trough (Fig. 6.1) or a trough gets reflected as a
crest. Hence from example 1, we can conclude
that when transverse wave is reflected from a
rigid support, i.e., from a denser medium, a
crest is reflected as a trough and a trough is
reflected as a crest. You have learnt in Xth and
(a) XIth Std. that there is a phase difference of π
radian between the particles at a crest and at
a trough. Therefore we conclude that there is
a phase change of π radian on reflection from
the fixed end, i.e., from a denser medium.
In example 2, we observe that when the
(b)
crest reaches the point B, it pulls the ring
Fig. 6.3: Reflection of a crest from (a) denser upwards and causes the ring to move upward.
medium (in this case a heavy string) and (b)
The wave is seen to get reflected back as a
rarer medium (in this case a light string).
crest and no phase change occurs on reflection
• Take a heavy string P and a light string
from a rarer medium (Fig. 6.2).
Q and join them. Suppose they are joined
In example 3, we find that a crest
at point O. (Heavy string acts as a denser
travelling from the heavy string gets reflected
medium and light string is the rarer as a crest from the lighter string, i.e., reflection
medium.) at the surface when a wave is travelling from
• Produce a wave pulse as a crest on the heavy a denser medium to a rarer medium causes a
string P moving towards the junction O. crest to be reflected as a crest (Fig. 6.3 (a)).
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But in example 3 (Fig. 6.3 (b)), when a crest
travels from the lighter string to the heavy
string, the crest is reflected as a trough and
vice versa.
6.3.2 Reflection of a Longitudinal Wave:
Consider a longitudinal wave travelling
from a rarer medium to a denser medium. In
a longitudinal wave compression is a high
Fig. 6.5: Reflection of a longitudinal wave from
pressure region while rarefaction is a low
a rarer medium.
pressure region. When compression reaches 6.4 Superposition of Waves:
the denser medium, it tries to push the particles Suppose you wish to listen to your
of that medium. But the energy of particles in favourite music. Is it always possible
the rarer medium is not sufficient to compress particularly when there are many other sounds
the particles of denser medium. According to from the surroundings disturbing you. How can
Newton’s third law of motion, an equal and the background sounds be blocked? Of course,
opposite reaction comes into play. As a result, the mobile lover generation uses headphones
the particles of rarer medium get compressed. and enjoys listening to its favorite music.
Thus, when the longitudinal wave travels But you cannot avoid the background sound
from a rarer medium to a denser medium, a completely. Why?
compression is reflected as a compression We know that sound waves are
and a rarefaction is reflected as a rarefaction. longitudinal waves propagating through an
There is no change of pressure phase during elastic medium. When two waves travelling
this reflection (Fig. 6.4). through a medium cross each other, each
wave travels in such a way as if there is no
other wave. Each wave sets the particles of
the medium into simple harmonic motion.
Thus each particle of the medium is set into
two simple harmonic motions due to the two
waves. The total displacement of the particles,
at any instant of time during travelling of
these waves, is the vector sum of the two
Fig. 6.4: Reflection of a longitudinal wave from displacements. This happens according to the
a denser medium. principle of superposition of waves, which
When longitudinal wave travels from a states that, when two or more waves, travelling
denser medium to a rarer medium (Fig. 6.5), a through a medium, pass through a common
compression is reflected as a rarefaction. Here point, each wave produces its own displacement
reversal of pressure phase takes place, i.e., at that point, independent of the presence of
pressure phase changes by π radians. the other wave. The resultant displacement
When compression reaches a rarer at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
medium from denser medium, it pushes the displacements due to the individual wave at that
particles of rare medium. Due to this, particles point. As displacement is a vector, we must add
of the rarer medium get compressed and move the individual displacements by considering
forward and a rarefaction is left behind. Thus their directions. There is no change in the
a compression gets reflected as a rarefaction. shape and nature of individual waves due to
Similarly a rarefaction gets reflected as a superposition of waves. This principle applies
compression (Fig. 6.5). to all types of waves like sound waves, light
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waves, waves on a string etc. and we say that propagation after superposition are shown
interference of waves has taken place. in Figs. 6.6 (a) to 6.6 (g). Suppose two
You might have seen singers using a special waves cross each other between t = 2 s and
type of headphones during recording of t = 4 s, as shown in Figs. 6.6 (c), (d) and
songs. Those are active noise cancellation (e). Here the two wave pulses superpose,
headphones, which is the best possible the resultant displacement is equal to the
solution to avoid background sound. sum of the displacements (full line) due to
Active noise cancellation headphones individual wave pulses (dashed lines). This
consist of small microphones one on each is constructive interference. The displacement
earpiece. They detect the ambient noise due to wave pulses after crossing at t = 5 s and
that arrives at the ears. A special electronic t = 6 s are shown in Figs. 6.6 (f) and (g). After
circuit is built inside the earpiece to create crossing each other, both the wave pulses
sound waveforms exactly opposite to the continue to maintain their individual shapes.
arriving noise. This is called antisound. 6.4.2 Superposition of Two Wave Pulses
The antisound is added in the earphones so of Equal Amplitude and Opposite Phases
as to cancel the noise from outside. This is Moving towards Each Other :
possible due to superposition of waves, as
the displacements due to these two waves
cancel each other. The phenomena of
interference, beats, formation of stationary
waves etc. are based on the principle of
superposition of waves.
Let us consider superposition of two wave
pulses in two different ways.
6.4.1 Superposition of Two Wave Pulses of
Equal Amplitude and Same Phase Moving
towards Each Other :
Fig. 6.7: Superposition of two wave pulses of
equal amplitude and opposite phases moving
towards each other.
The propagation of approaching wave
pulses, their successive positions after every
second, their superposition and propagation
after superposition are shown in Fig. 6.7 (a) to
Fig. 6.7 (e).
These wave pulses superimpose at
t = 2 s and the resultant displacement (full
line) is zero, due to individual displacements
(dashed lines) differing in phase exactly
Fig. 6.6: Superposition of two wave pulses
by 180°. This is destructive interference.
of equal amplitude and same phase moving
towards each other. Displacement due to one wave pulse is
The propagation of approaching wave cancelled by the displacement due to the
pulses, their successive positions after other wave pulse when they cross each other
every second, their superposition and their (Fig. 6.7 (c)). After crossing each other, both

135
the wave pulses continue and maintain their phase, the resultant amplitude is
individual shapes. A  A12  2A1 A2 cos  A2 2  (A1  A2 ) 2
6.4.3 Amplitude of the Resultant Wave = |A1- A2|
Produced due to Superposition of Two Waves: The resultant amplitude is minimum when
Consider two waves having the same frequency ϕ = π.
but different amplitudes A1 and A2. Let these If the amplitudes of the waves are equal i.e.,
waves differ in phase by ϕ . The displacement A1 = A2 = A0 (say), then the resultant amplitude
of each wave at x = 0 is given as is zero.
y1  A1 sin  t
Thus, the maximum amplitude is the
y 2  A2 sin  t    sum of the two amplitudes when the phase
According to the principle of superposition difference between the two waves is zero and
of waves, the resultant displacement at x = 0 is the minimum amplitude is the difference of
y  y1  y 2 the two amplitudes when the phase difference
or, y  A1 sin t  A2 sin  t    between the two waves is π.
y  A1 sin t  A2 sin t cos  A2 cos  t sin 
 The intensities of the waves are
proportional to the squares of their amplitudes.
y   A1  A2 cos  sin  t  A2 sin cos t
Hence, when ϕ = 0
If we write I max ( Amax ) 2  ( A1  A2 ) 2 --- (6.8)
A1  A2 cos  A cos --- (6.4)
and when = π ϕ
and A2 sin  Asin --- (6.5)
I min ( Amin ) 2  (A1  A2 ) 2 --- (6.9)
we get
Therefore intensity is maximum when the
y  Acos sin t  Asin cos t
two waves interfere in phase while intensity is
∴ y  Asin  t    --- (6.6)
minimum when the two waves interfere out of
This is the equation of the resultant
phase.
wave. It has the same frequency as that of the
You will learn more about superposition
interfering waves. The resultant amplitude A
of waves in Chapter 7 on Wave Optics.
is given by squaring and adding Eqs. (6.4) and
(6.5). Example 6.1: The displacements of two
A2 cos 2  A2 sin 2   A1  A2 cos   A2 2 sin 2 sinusoidal waves propagating through a
2

A2   A12  2 A1 A2 cos  A2 2 cos 2  A2 2 sin 2 string are given by the following equations

∴ A  A1  2A1 A2 cos  A2
2 2
--- (6.7) y1  4 sin  20 x  30t 
Special cases: y 2  4 sin  25 x  40t 
1. When ϕ = 0, i.e., the waves are in phase, where x and y are in centimeter and t is in
the resultant amplitude is second.
a) Calculate the phase difference between
A  A12  2 A1 A2 cos 0  A2 2  (A1  A2 ) 2
these two waves at the points x = 5 cm and
= A1 + A2
t = 2 s.
The resultant amplitude is maximum when
b) When these two waves interfere, what
ϕ = 0.
are the maximum and minimum values of
If the amplitudes of the waves are equal i.e.,
the intensity?
A1 = A2 = A0 (say), then the resultant amplitude
Solution: Given
is 2A0.
y1  4 sin  20 x  30t 
2. When ϕ = π, i.e., the waves are out of

136
 and y 2  4 sin  25 x  40t  ∴ frequency n = 1/T = (1/16) × 103 s-1
a) To find phase difference when x = 5 cm = 62. 5 Hz
and t = 2 s: As shown in Fig. (b), points A, B, and C
correspond to mean positions, but the string
y1  4 sin  20  5  30  2 
is moving in one direction at point A and
 4 sin 100  60   4 sin 40 in the opposite direction at point B. Thus,
y 2  4 sin  25  5  40  2  out of the two consecutive particles at
their mean positions, one will be moving
 4 sin 125  80   4 sin 45
upwards while the other will be moving
∴ Phase difference is 5 radian because ϕ downwards. The distance between them
= |45 – 40| = 5 radian. is 2.0 cm. Therefore distance between two
b) To find the maximum and minimum consecutive particles moving in the same
values of the intensity : direction will be 2 × 2 cm = 4 cm. Thus the
Amplitudes of the two waves are A1 = 4 cm wavelength λ = 4 cm = 0.04 m
and A2 = 4 cm, Speed of wave v = n × λ = 62.5 × 0.04
∴ I max   A1  A2    4  4   64
2 2
= 2.5 m/s.
when the phase difference is zero 6.5 Stationary Waves:
We have seen the superposition of two
and I   A  A 2   4  4 2  0 wave pulses, having same amplitudes and either
min 1 2

when the phase difference is π. same phase or opposite phases, and changes
in the resultant amplitude pictorially in section
Example 6.2: A progressive wave travels
6.4. We have also derived the mathematical
on a stretched string. A particle on this
expression for the resultant displacement when
string takes 4.0 ms to move from its mean
two waves of same frequency superimpose as
position to one of its extreme positions. The given by Eqs. (6.4) to (6.6). Now we are going
distance between two consecutive points on to study an example of superposition of waves
the string which are at their mean positions having the same amplitude and the same
(at a certain time instant) is 2.0 cm. Find frequency travelling in opposite directions.
the frequency, wavelength and speed of the 6.5.1 Formation of Stationary Waves:
wave. Imagine a string stretched between two
Solution : fixed points. If the string is pulled at the
middle and released, we get what is know as a
(a) stationary wave. Releasing of string produces
two progressive waves travelling in opposite
directions. These waves are reflected at the
fixed ends. The waves produced in the string
(b) initially and their reflected waves combine
to produce stationary waves as shown in
Fig. 6.8 (a).
A particles takes 4.0 × 10-3 s to travel from
its mean position to extreme position. This
is a quarter of the complete oscillation as
shown in Fig. (a). Hence, the particle will
take 4 × 4.0 × 10-3 s = 16 × 10-3 s to complete Fig. 6.8 (a): Formation of stationary
waves on a string. The two sided arrows
one oscillation. indicate the motion of the particles of the string.
137
6.5.2 Equation of Stationary Wave on a point on the string oscillates with the same
Stretched String: frequency ω (same as that of the individual
Consider two simple harmonic progressive progressive wave). All the particles of the
waves of equal amplitudes (a) and wavelength string pass through their mean positions
(λ) propagating on a long uniform string in simultaneously twice during each vibration.
opposite directions (remember 2π/λ = k and The string as a whole is vibrating with
2πn = ω). frequency ω with different amplitudes at
The equation of wave travelling along the different points. The wave is not moving either
x-axis in the positive direction is to the left or to the right. We therefore call such
 x a wave a stationary wave or a standing wave.
y1  a sin{2  nt  } --- (6.10)
  Particles move so fast that the visual effect is
The equation of wave travelling along the formation of loops. It is therefore customary
x-axis in the negative direction is to represent stationary waves as loops. In case
  x  --- (6.11) of a string tied at both the ends, loops are seen
y 2  a sin  2  nt   
    when a stationary wave is formed because
When these waves interfere, the resultant each progressive wave on a string is a traverse
displacement of particles of string is given by wave. When two identical waves travelling
the principle of superposition of waves as along the same path in opposite directions
y  y1  y 2 interfere with each other, resultant wave is
  x    x  called stationary wave.
y  a sin  2  nt     a sin  2  nt   
        Condition for node:
Nodes are the points of minimum
By using,
displacement. This is possible if the amplitude
C D CD
sin C  sin D  2 sin   cos  ,we
2 
is minimum (zero), i.e.,
 2   2 x
get 2a cos 0,
2 x 
y  2a sin  2 nt  cos
 2 x
2 x or, cos = 0,
y = 2 a cos sin  2 nt  or, --- (6.12) 
 or, 2 x  ,3 ,5 ,……….
Using 2a cos 2 x  A in Eq. (6.12), we get  2 2 2
  3 5
y  A sin( 2 nt ) ∴ x = , , ,
4 4 4
As ω = 2πn, we get, y  A sin  t . i.e., x   2 p  1  where p = 1, 2, 3, ………
This is the equation of a stationary wave 4
The distance between two successive nodes is
which gives resultant displacement due to two λ.
simple harmonic progressive waves. It may be 2
noted that the terms in position x and time t Condition for antinode:
appear separately and not as a combination Antinodes are the points of maximum
2π (nt ± x/λ). displacement,
Hence, the wave is not a progressive i.e., A  2a
wave. x is present only in the expression for 2 x
∴ 2a cos  2a
the amplitude. The amplitude of the resultant 
2 x
wave is given as A  2a cos . It is a 2 x
 or, cos  1
periodic function of x i.e., the amplitude is 
varying periodically in space. The amplitudes 2 x
∴   0,  , 2 , 3 
are different for different particles but each 
138
  3 through a medium along the same path in
or, x  0, , , , .. opposite directions.
2 2
p 2. If two identical transverse progressive
i.e., x  where p = 0, 1, 2,3…. waves superimpose or interfere, the
2
The distance between two successive antinodes resultant wave is a transverse stationary
is λ . Nodes and antinodes are formed wave as shown in Fig. 6.8 (a).
2 • When a transverse stationary wave is
alternately. Therefore, the distance between a produced on a string, some points on the
λ string are motionless. The points which do
node and an adjacent antinode is .
4 not move are called nodes.
When sin ω t = 1, at that instant of time,
• There are some points on the string which
all the particles for which cos kx is positive
oscillate with greatest amplitude (say A).
have their maximum displacement in positive
They are called antinodes.
direction. At the same instant, all the particles
• Points between the nodes and antinodes
for which cos kx is negative have their
vibrate with values of amplitudes between
maximum displacement in negative direction.
0 and A.
When sin ω t = 0, all the particles cross their
3. If two identical longitudinal progressive
mean positions, some of them moving in the
waves superimpose or interfere, the
positive direction and some in the negative
resultant wave is a longitudinal stationary
direction.
wave. Figure 6.8 (b) shows a stationary
Longitudinal waves e.g. sound waves sound wave produced in a pipe closed at
travelling in a tube /pipe of finite length one end.
are relected at the ends in the same way as • The points, at which the amplitude of the
transverse waves along a string are reflected particles of the medium is minimum (zero),
at the ends. Interference between these
are called nodes.
waves travelling in opposite directions gives
• The points, at which the amplitude of the
rise to standing waves as shown in Fig. 6.8
particles of the medium is maximum (say
(b). We represent longitudinal stationary
wave by a loop but the actual motion of the A), are called antinodes.
particles is along the length of the loop and not • Points between the nodes and antinodes
perpendiculat to it. vibrate with values of amplitudes between
0 and A
4. The distance between two consecutive
Fig. 6.8 (b): Figure on the λ
left shows standing waves nodes is and the distance between two
2
in a conventional way while consecutive antinodes is λ .
figure on the right shows 2
the actual oscillations of 5. Nodes and antinodes are produced
material particles for a alternately. The distance between a node
longitudinal stationary and an adjacent antinode is λ .
wave. Points A and N 4
6. The amplitude of vibration varies
denote antinodes and nodes
periodically in space. All points vibrate
respectively.
with the same frequency.
7. Though all the particles (except those
6.5.3 Properties of Stationary Waves: at the nodes) possess energy, there is
1. Stationary waves are produced due to no propagation of energy. The wave is
superposition of two identical waves (either localized and its velocity is zero. Therefore,
transverse or longitudinal waves) traveling we call it a stationary wave.
139
8. All the particles between adjacent nodes 6. All particles between two consecutive
(i.e., in one loop) vibrate in phase. There nodes are moving in the same direction
is no progressive change of phase from and are in phase while those in adjacent
one particle to another particle. All the loops are moving in opposite directions
particles in the same loop are in the same and differ in phase by 180° in stationary
phase of oscillation, which reverses for the waves but in a progressive wave, phases of
adjacent loop. adjacent particles are different.
Musical instruments such as violin, tanpura,
are based on the principle of formation of Do you know?
stationary waves or standing waves.
• What happens if a simple pendulum is
Example 6.3: Find the distance between pulled aside and released?
two successive nodes in a stationary wave • What happens when a guitar string is
on a string vibrating with frequency 64 plucked?
Hz. The velocity of progressive wave that • Have you noticed vibrations in a drill
resulted in the stationary wave is 48 m s-1 . machine or in a washing machine? How
Solution: Given: do they differ from vibrations in the
Speed of wave = v = 48 m s-1 above two cases?
Frequency n = 64 Hz • A vibrating tuning fork of certain
We have v  n frequency is held in contact with table
v 48 top and vibrations are noticed and then
∴ λ= =  = 0.75m
n 64 another vibrating tuning fork of different
We know that distance between successive
frequency is held on table top. Are the
nodes
vibrations produced in the table top the
 0.75 same for both the tuning forks? Why?
=  = 0.375 m
2 2
6.6 Free and Forced Vibrations:
6.5.4 Comparison of Progressive Waves and The frequency at which an object tends
Stationary Waves:
to vibrate when hit, plucked or somehow
1. In a progressive wave, the disturbance
disturbed is known as its natural frequency.
travels form one region to the other with
In these vibrations, object is not under the
definite velocity. In stationary waves,
disturbance remains in the region where it influence of any outside force.
is produced, velocity of the wave is zero. When a simple pendulum is pulled aside
2. In progressive waves, amplitudes of all and released, it performs free vibrations with
particles are same but in stationary waves, its natural frequency. Similarly when a string
amplitudes of particles are different. of guitar is plucked at some point it performs
3. In a stationary wave, all the particles cross free vibrations with its natural frequency.
their mean positions simultaneously but in In free vibration, the body at first is
a progressive wave, this does not happen. given an initial displacement and the force is
4. In progressive waves, all the particles are then withdrawn. The body starts vibrating and
moving while in stationary waves particles continues the motion on its own. No external
at the position of nodes are always at rest. force acts on the body further to keep it in
5. Energy is transmitted from one region motion.
to another in progressive waves but in Free vibration of a system means that the
stationary waves there is no transfer of system vibrates at its natural frequency. In
energy. case of free vibrations, a body continuously
140
loses energy due to frictional resistance of conditions that constrain the possible
surrounding medium. Therefore, the amplitude wavelengths or frequencies of vibration
of vibrations goes on decreasing, the vibrations of the system. These are called the natural
of the body eventually stop and the body comes frequencies of normal modes of oscillations.
to rest. The minimum of these frequencies is termed the
The vibrations in a drill machine and in a fundamental frequency or the first harmonic.
washing machine are forced vibrations. Also The corresponding mode of oscillations is
the vibrations produced in the table top due to called the fundamental mode or fundamental
tuning forks of two different frequencies are tone. The term overtone is used to represent
different as they are forced vibrations due to higher frequencies. The first frequency higher
two tuning forks of different frequencies. than the fundamental frequency is called
In forced vibrations, an external periodic the first overtone, the next higher frequency
force is applied on a body whose natural period is the second overtone and so on. The term
is different from the period of the force. The 'harmonic' is used when the frequency of a
body is made to vibrate with a frequency equal particular overtone is an integral multiple of
to that of the externally impressed force. The the fundamental frequency. In strings and
amplitude of forced vibrations depends upon air columns, the frequencies of overtones
the difference between the frequency of external are integral multiples of the fundamental
periodic force and the natural frequency of the frequencies, hence they are termed as
body. If this difference is small, the amplitude harmonics. But all harmonics may not be
of forced vibrations is large and vice versa. If present in a given sound. The overtones are
the frequencies exactly match, it is termed as only those multiples of fundamental frequency
resonance and the amplitude of vibration is which are actually present in a given sound.
maximum. The harmonics may or may not be present in
An object vibrating with its natural the sound so produced.
frequency can cause another nearby object to To understand the concept of harmonics
vibrate. The second object absorbs the energy and overtones, let us study vibrations of air
transmitted by the first object and starts column.
vibrating if the natural frequencies of the two
6.7.1 End Correction:
objects match. You have seen the example of
two simple pendula supported from a string in When an air column vibrates either in a
the previous chapter. The second object is said pipe closed at one end or open at both ends,
to undergo forced vibrations. Strings or air boundary conditions demand that there is
columns can also undergo forced oscillations always an antinode at the open end(s) (since
if the frequency of the external source of sound the particles of the medium are comparatively
is close to the natural frequency of the system. free) and a node at the closed end (since there is
Resonance is said to occur and we hear a hardly any freedom for the particles to move).
louder sound. The antinode is not formed exactly at the open
6.7 Harmonics and Overtones: end but it is slightly beyond the open end as air
When a string or an air column is set is more free to vibrate there in comparison to
into vibrations by some means, the waves are the air inside the pipe. Also as air particles in
reflected from the ends and stationary waves the plane of open end of the pipe are not free
can be formed. An important condition to form to move in all directions, reflection takes place
stationary waves depends on the boundary at the plane at small distance outside the pipe.
141
The distance between the open end of the pipe
and the position of antinode is called the end
correction. According to Reynold, to the first Fig. 6.9 (a): Set-up for
generating vibrations
approximation, the end correction at an end is of air column in a
given by e = 0.3d, where d is the inner diameter pipe closed at one end.
of the pipe. Thus the length L of air column is The distance of the
antinode from the open
different from the length l of the pipe. end of the pipe has
For a pipe closed at one end been exaggerated.

The corrected length of air column L = length This is the simplest mode of vibration of
of air column in pipe l + end correction at the air column closed at one end, known as the
open end. fundamental mode.
∴ L = l + e --- (6.13) ∴ Length of air column

For a pipe open at both ends L  and   4 L
4
The corrected length of air column L = length where λ is the wavelength of fundamental
of air column in pipe l + end corrections at mode of vibrations in air column. If n is the
fundamental frequency, we have
both the ends. v  n --- (6.15)
∴ L = l + 2e --- (6.14) v
n 
6.7.2 Vibrations of air column in a pipe v
v
n   --- (6.16)
closed at one end: 4L 4( l  e )
The fundamental frequency is also known
Consider a long cylindrical tube closed at
as the first harmonic. It is the lowest frequency
one end. It consists of an air column with rigid
of vibration in air column in a pipe closed at
boundary at one end. When a vibrating tuning
one end.
fork is held near the open end of the closed The next mode of vibrations of air column
pipe, sound waves are sent by the fork inside closed at one end is as shown in Fig. 6.9 (b).
the tube. Longitudinal waves traveling along Here the air column is made to vibrate in such
a pipe of finite length are reflected at the ends a way (as shown in Fig. 6.9 (b)) that it contains
as transverse waves are refelcted at the fixed a node at the closed end, an antinode at the
ends of a string. The phase of the reflected open end with one more node and antinode
wave depends on whether the end of the pipe in between. If n1 is the frequency and λ1 is the
is open or closed and how wide or narrow the wavelength of wave in this mode of vibrations
pipe is in compansion to the wavelength of in air column, we have, the length of the air
longitudinal wave like a sound wave. column L 31
4
At the closed end there is least freedom 4 L 4( l  e )
for motion of air particles. Thus, there must be  1   --- (6.17)
3 3
a node at the closed end. The particles little The velocity in the second mode is given
beyond the open end are most free to vibrate. as v  n11
As a result, an antinode must be formed little v 3V 3V
 n1   
beyond the open end. The length l of pipe and 1 4 L 4 ( l  e )
length L of air column are shown separately in
∴ n1 = 3n --- (6.18)
all the figures (refer Figs. 6.9 and 6.10).
This frequency is the third harmonic. It is
The first mode of vibrations of air column the first overtone. Remember that the overtones
closed at one end is as shown in Fig. 6.9 (a). are always numbered sequentially.
142
 Even though both the ends of the pipe are
open, the air inside the pipe is still bound by the
wall of the tube. As a result, the air inside the
pipe is little denser than the air outside. When
the waves travel to the other open end, there is
partial reflection at the open end. The partially
reflected waves superimpose with the incident
waves. Under suitable conditions, stationary
waves will be formed. There is maximum
freedom for motion of air column at both the
(b) (c)
ends as pipe is open at both ends.
Fig. 6.9 (b) and (c): First and second overtones
for vibrations of air column in a pipe closed Suppose a compression produced by a
at one end. The distance of the antinode from tuning fork travels through the air column. It
the open end of the pipe has been exaggerated.
The next higher mode of vibrations of air
column closed at one end is as shown in Fig.
6.9 (c). Here the same air column is made to
vibrate in such a way that it contains a node
at the closed end, an antinode at the open end
with two more nodes and antinodes in between.
If n2 is the frequency and λ2 is the wavelength
of the wave in this mode of vibrations in air
column, we have
5 (a) (b)
Length of air column L  2
4L 4( l + e ) 4
 2  = --- (6.19) Fig. 6.10: First three
5 5
modes of vibrations of
The velocity this mode is given as air column in a pipe
v  n2 2 open at both ends.
The distance of the
v 5V 5V
 n2    ∴ n2 = 5 n -- (6.20) antinodes from the
2 4 L 4 ( l  e )
open ends of the pipe
This frequency is the fifth harmonic. It is has been exaggerated.
the second overtone. (c)
Continuing in a similar way, for the pth
overtone we get the frequency np as
gets reflected as a rarefaction at open end. The
np   2 p  1 n . -- (6.21)
rarefaction moves back and gets reflected as
Thus for a pipe closed at one end only odd
compression at the other end. It suffers second
harmonics are present and even harmonics are
reflection at open end near the source and then
absent.
interferes with the wave coming in by a path
6.7.3 Vibrations of air column in a pipe open
difference of 2L.
at both ends:
In this case boundary conditions are such The different modes of vibrations of air
that an antinode is present at each open end. column in pipe open at both ends are shown
When a source of sound like a tuning fork in Fig. 6.10 (a), (b) and (c). The fundamental
is held near one end of the pipe, it sends the tone or mode of vibrations of air column open
waves inside the pipe. at both ends is as shown in Fig. 6.10 (a). There
143
are two antinodes at two open ends and one np   p  1 n --- (6.28)
node between them. where n is the fundamental frequency and p =

∴ Length of air column  L  or,   2L 0,1,2,3…
2
It may be noted that
and v = 2 nL ----(6.22) 1. Sound produced by an open pipe contains
v v v all harmonics. Its quality is richer than
 n  
 2 L 2( l  2e ) ----(6.23)
that produced by a closed pipe.
This is the fundamental frequency or 2. Fundamental frequency of vibration of air
the first harmonic. It is the lowest frequency of column in an open pipe is double that of
vibration. the fundamental frequency of vibration in
The next possible mode of vibrations of a closed pipe of the same length.
air column open at both ends is as shown in Using the formula and knowing values
Fig. 6.10 (b). Three antinodes and two nodes of n, l and end correction velocity of sound
are formed. in air at room temperature can be calculated.
As discussed earlier, the antinodes are formed
∴ Length of air column  L  1
little beyond the open ends of the pipe. It is
i.e., λ1 = L = (l +2e) ----(6.24)
however not possible to locate the positions
If n1 and λ1 are frequency and wavelength of the antinodes precisely. Therefore, in
of this mode of vibration of air column experiments, the length of the pipe is measured
respectively, then and end corrections are incorporated.
v  n11 6.7.4 Practical Determination of End
v v v
n1    Connection:
1 L ( l  2e )
An exact method to determine the end
∴ n1 = 2 n --- (6.25)
correction, using two pipes of same diameter
This is the frequency of second harmonic but different lengths l1 and l2 , with fundamental
or first overtone. frequencies n1 and n2 respectively, is as follows.
In the next possible mode of vibrations of
For a pipe open at both ends:
air column open at both ends (as shown in Fig.
= v 2=n1 L1 2 n2 L2 using Eq. (6.22)
6.10 (c)), four antinodes and three nodes are
n1 L1  n2 L2
formed.
3  n1  l1  2e  n2  l2  2e 
∴Length of air column  L  2
2 nl n l n l nl
2 L 2( l  2e ) 
 e   1 1 2 2 or  2 2 1 1 --- (6.29)
 2 
3

3
--- (6.26) 2  n2  n1  2  n1  n2 
If n2 and λ2 are the frequency and For a pipe closed at one end:
wavelength of this mode of vibration of air =v 4=
n1 L1  4 n2 L2
column respectively, then v  n2 2 n1 L1  n2 L2
v 3v 3v n1  l1  e  n2  l2  e 
 n2   
2 2 L 2( l  2e ) n2 l2  n1l1
n1l1  n2 l2 --- (6.30)
e  or
 n2  3n --- (6.27)  n2  n1   n1  n2 
This is the frequency of third harmonic or Remember this
second overtone.
Thus all harmonics are present as For correct value of end correction, the inner
overtones in the modes of vibration of air diameter of pipe must be uniform throughout
column open at both ends. its length. It may be noted that effect of flow
Continuing in this manner, the frequency np for of air and effect of temperature of air outside
pth overtone is, the tube has been neglected.
144
 Example 6.4: An air column is of length
Activity
17 cm long. Calculate the frequency of 5th
overtone if the air column is (a) closed at one Take a glass
end and (b) open at both ends. (Velocity of tube open at both
sound in air = 340 ms-1). ends and clamp
Solution: Given it so that its one
Length of air column = 17cm = 0.17m end dips into a
Overtone number p = 5 and velocity of sound glass cylinder
in air = 340 ms-1. containing water
For an air column closed at one end, as shown in the
v 340
Fundamental frequency nc   accompanying
4 L 4  0.17
figure. By
= 500 Hz changing the
and frequency of p overtone p   2 p  1 nc
th
n c
position of the
∴ for fifth overtone n5   2  5  1  500 tube at the clamp,
C

you can adjust the length of the air column

= 5500Hz in the tube. Hold a vibrating tuning fork of
For an air column open at both ends,
v 340 frequency 488 Hz or 512 Hz just above the
Fundamental frequency n  2 L  2  0.17
0

open end of the tube and make the air column

n = 1000Hz vibrate. What is the difference between the
and frequency of p overtone n p   p  1 n
th 0 0
sounds that you hear? The sound will be
∴ for fifth overtone n 50   5  1  1000 louder. This is an example of resonance.
nO = 6000 Hz This set-up is a resonance tube. Note the
5
Example 6.5 : A closed pipe and an open pipe heights of the air column when you hear
have the same length. Show that no mode of louder sound. Interpret your observations.
the closed pipe has the same wavelength as Take another tuning fork of the same
any mode of the open pipe. frequency as the first one. Vibrate them
Solution: For a closed pipe (that is a pipe together above the open end of the tube. Do
closed at one end and open at the other), you hear beats? If the two tuning forks are of
the frequency of allowed modes is given by same frequency, you should not hear beats.
4
n cp =  2 p + 1 n c where n c = (superscript In practice, due to usage, frequencies change
4L and in most of the cases, you will hear beats.
c and o refer to closed and open pipe
If you do not hear beats, there can be two
respectively) using Eqs. (6.21) and (6.16),
reasons : (i) frequencies of the two forks
where p is any integer.
4 L , where p is any integer. are exactly same or (ii) the frequencies are
 pc   very much different (difference greater than
2 p 1
n0m = (m + 1)n0 and n0 = V/2L. Using Eqs 6-7 Hz) and we cannot recognize the beats.
(6.28) and (6.23) where m is any integer. ∴ Then wind a piece of thread around the tong
4L 2L of one of the tuning fork so that its frequency
λ0m = 
2 p 1 m 1
4L 2L changes slightly. Try to hear the beats. By
If p  m , it would mean 2 p  1  m  1 .
c o
changing the position of the thread, vary the
Or, 2 (m +1) = 2p + 1 which is not possible. frequency and note down your observations
Hence the two pipes cannot have modes with systematically. What information you get
the same frequency or wavelength. from this activity?
145
 λ
Activity Length of loop = =l
2
Take two pipes of slightly different ∴λ = 2l
diameters, open at both the ends, so that The frequency of vibrations of the string,
one pipe can be moved freely inside v 1 T  T 
n   v  
the other. Keep the wider pipe fixed by  2l m  m 
clamping on a stand
This is the lowest frequency with which
and move the other
the string can vibrate. It is the fundamental
pipe up and down
by hand as shown in
the accompanying (a)
figure. Use a tuning
fork of frequency
320 Hz or 288 Hz
and keep it above the
open end of the fixed
pipe. Move the inner
tube and try to hear (b)
the various sound patterns and write down
your observations. Try to analyze the results
based on the knowledge you have from the
sound pattern formed with a pipe open at
both ends.

6.7.5 Vibrations Produced in a String: (c)

Consider a string of length l stretched
between two rigid supports. The linear density
Fig. 6.11: Different modes of vibrations of a
(mass per unit length of string) is m and the
stretched string.
tension T acts on the string due to stretching. If frequency of vibrations or the first harmonic.
it is made to vibrate by plucking or by using a If the centre of the string is prevented from
vibrator like a tuning fork, a transverse wave vibrating by touching it with a light object and
can be produced along the string. string is plucked at a point midway between
When the wave reaches to the fixed ends one of the segments, the string vibrates as
of the string, it gets reflected with change shown in Fig. 6.11 (b).
of phase by π radians. The reflected waves Two loops are formed in this mode of
interfere with the incident wave and stationary vibrations. There is a node at the centre of the
waves are formed along the string. The string string and at its both ends. If λ1 is wavelength
vibrates with different modes of vibrations. 1 l
of vibrations, the length of one loop = 
If a string is stretched between two rigid 2 2
supports and is plucked at its centre, the string ∴ 1  l
vibrates as shown in Fig 6.11 (a). It consists Thus, the frequency of vibrations is given as
1 T
of an antinode formed at the centre and nodes n1 
at the two ends with one loop formed along
1 m
its length. If λ is the wavelength and l is the 1 T
n1 =
length of the string, we get l m
146
 Comparing with fundamental frequency
kept fixed? (b) While this string is vibrating
we get that n1=2n.
in the fundamental harmonic, what is the
Thus the frequency of the first overtone wavelength of sound produced in air if the
or second harmonic is equal to twice the velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s?
fundamental frequency. Solution: The wavelength of the
The string is made to vibrate in such a way fundamental mode is λ = 2l, hence the
that three loops are formed along the string as fundamental frequency is
v v 225 m / s
shown in Fig. 6.11 (c). If λ2 is the wavelength n    225 s 1 = 225 Hz
 l  2 l 2  0.5m
here, the length of one loop is 2 
2 3 While the string is vibrating in the
2l fundamental harmonic, the frequency of
∴ 2 
3 the sound produced by the string will be
Therefore the frequency of vibrations is same as the fundamental frequency of the
1 T string. The wavelength of sound produced
n2 
2 m is  v s  330 m / s =1.467 m.
n 225 s 1
3 T
n2 = 6.7.6 Laws of a Vibrating String :
2l m
Comparing with fundamental frequency, The fundamental frequency of a vibrating
we get that n2=3n. string under tension is given as
1 T
Thus frequency of second overtone or third n= --- (6.32)
2l m
harmonic is equal to thrice the fundamental From this formula, three laws of vibrating
frequency. Similarly for higher modes of string can be given as follows:
vibrations of the string, the frequencies of 1) Law of length: The fundamental frequency
vibrations are as 4n, 5n, 6n…etc. Thus all of vibrations of a string is inversely proportional
harmonics are present in case of a stretched to the length of the vibrating string, if tension
string and the frequencies are given by and mass per unit length are constant.
np = pn --- (6.31) n ∝ 1 , if T and m are constant. --- (6.33)
l
Example 6.6: A string is fixed at both ends. 2) Law of tension: The fundamental frequency
What is the ratio of the frequency of the first of vibrations of a string is directly proportional
harmonic to that of the second harmonic? to the square root of tension, if vibrating length
Solution: For a string of length l fixed at and mass per unit length are constant.
both ends, the wavelengths of the first and n ∝ T , if l and m are constant. --- (6.34)
second harmonics are given as l = λ/2 and 3) Law of linear density: The fundamental
l = λ1 respectively. Hence the ratio of their frequency of vibrations of a string is inversely
frequencies is proportional to the square root of mass per
n v /  1 l 1 unit length (linear density), if the tension and
   
n1 v / 1  2l 2 vibrating length of the string are constant.
Example 6.7: The velocity of a transverse 1
n∝ , if T and l are constant. --- (6.35)
wave on a string of length 0.5 m is 225 m/s. m
(a) What is the fundamental frequency of a If r is the radius and ρ is the density of material
standing wave on this string if both ends are of string, linear density is given as

147
Linear density = mass per unit length the weights, the tension in the wire can be
= volume per unit length × density varied. The movable bridges allow us to
( r 2 l / l )ρ change the vibrating length AB of the wire.
1
As n ∝ , if T and l are constant, we get
m
1
n  
 r2
1 1
∴ n and n ∝ --- (6.36)
 r
Thus the fundamental frequency of
vibrations of a stretched string is inversely
proportional to (i) the radius of string and (ii)
the square root of the density of the material of Fig. 6.12: Experimental set-up of a sonometer.
vibrating string. If the wire is plucked at a point midway
Example 6.8: A string 105 cm long is between the bridges, transverse waves are
produced in the wire. Stationary waves are
fixed at one end. Transverse vibrations of
produced between the two bridges due to
frequency 15 Hz are imposed at the free end.
reflection of transverse wave at the bridges
A stationary wave, produced in the string,
and their superposition. Thus portion AB of
consists of 3 loops. Calculate the speed of the wire between the two bridges P and Q is
progressive waves which have produced the the vibrating length. Wire can also be made to
stationary wave in the string. vibrate by holding a vibrating tuning fork near
Solution: Given it. The frequency of vibration is then same
Length of string = l = 105 cm = 3 loops as that of the tuning fork. If this frequency

 l  3 happens to be one of the natural frequencies of
2 the wire, standing waves with large amplitude
2 2
   l   105  70 cm  0.70 m are set up in the wire since the two vibrate in
3 3
Speed of wave = v  n resonance.
v  15  0.70  10.50 m s 1 To identify the resonance, a small piece of
paper, known as the rider R, is placed over the
6.8 Sonometer:
wire at a point in the middle of the length AB
A sonometer consists of a hollow
as determined by the position of the bridges P
rectangular wooden box called the sound box.
and Q. If the frequency of the tuning fork and
The sound box is used to make a larger mass
of the fundamental mode of vibration of the
of air vibrate so that the sound produced by
wire match (this is achieved by adjusting the
the vibrating string (metal wire in this case)
length AB of wire using the bridges P and Q),
gets amplified. The same principle is applied
the paper rider happens to be at the antinode
in stringed instruments such as the violin,
and flies off the wire.
guitar, tanpura etc. There are two bridges P
Sonometer can be used to verify the laws
and Q along the width of the box which can be
of a vibrating string.
moved parallel to the length of box. A metal
1) Verification of first law of a vibrating
wire of uniform cross-section runs along the
string:
length of the box over the bridges. It is fixed at
By measuring length of wire and its
one end and its other end passes over a pulley.
mass, the mass per unit length (m) of wire is
A hanger with suitable slotted weights can be
attached to the free end of wire. By changing determined. Then the wire is stretched on the
148
sonometer and the hanger is suspended from ∴ n ∝ T if l and m are constant. This is
its free end. A suitable tension (T) is applied the second law of a vibrating string.
to the wire by placing slotted weights on the 3) Verification of third law of a vibrating
hanger. The length of wire (l1) vibrating with string:
the same frequency (n1) as that of the tuning For verification of third law of a vibrating
fork is determined as follows. string, two wires having different masses per
A light paper rider is placed on the wire unit lengths m1 and m2 (linear densities) are
midway between the bridges. The tuning fork used. The first wire is subjected to suitable
is set into vibrations by striking on a rubber tension and made to vibrate in unison with
pad. The stem of tuning fork is held in contact given tuning fork. The vibrating length is noted
with the sonometer box. By changing distance as (l1). Using the same fork, the second wire
between the bridges without disturbing paper is made to vibrate under the same tension and
rider, frequency of vibrations of wire is the vibrating length (l2) is determined. Thus the
changed. When the frequency of vibrations of frequency of vibration of the two wires is kept
wire becomes exactly equal to the frequency of same under same applied tension T. It is found
tuning fork, the wire vibrates with maximum that,
amplitude and the paper rider is thrown off. l m = l m2
1 1 2
In this way a set of tuning forks having l m = constant
different frequencies n1, n2, n3, …………are 1
But by first law of a vibrating string, n ∝
used and corresponding vibrating lengths of 1 l
wire are noted as l1, l2, l3……….by keeping the Therefore we get that, n ∝ , if T and l
m
tension T constant . We will observe that are constant. This is the third law of vibrating
n1l1 = n2l2 = n3l3 =…….= constant, for constant string.
value of tension (T) and mass per unit length In this way, laws of a vibrating string are
(m). verified by using a sonometer.
∴nl = constant
1 Example 6.9: A sonometer wire of length
i.e., n ∝ , if T and m are constant.
l 50 cm is stretched by keeping weights
Thus, the first law of a vibrating string is equivalent of 3.5 kg. The fundamental
verified by using a sonometer. frequency of vibration is 125 Hz. Determine
2) Verification of second law of a vibrating the linear density of the wire.
string: Solution: Given, l = 50 cm = 0.5 m , T = 3.5
The vibrating length (l) of the given wire kg × 9.8 m/s2 = 34.3 N, n = 125 Hz
of mass per unit length (m) is kept constant for
1
T
verification of second law. By changing the n=
2l
m
tension the same length is made to vibrate in
1 T
∴n = 2
2
unison with different tuning forks of various
4l m
frequencies. If tensions T1, T2, T3……..
T
correspond to frequencies n1, n2, n3,………etc. ∴m = 2 2
4n l
we will observe that.
n1 n n 34.3
 2  3  ..  constant m 
4  125    0.5 
2 2
T1 T2 T3
n
= constant  m  2.195  10 3 kgm 1
or
T
149
Example 6.10: Two wires of the same
material and the same cross section are 420 Hz = p T and 490 Hz = p + 1 T
2l m 2l m
stretched on a sonometer in succession.
490 p  1
Length of one wire is 60 cm and that of the  
420 p
other is 30 cm. An unknown load is applied
or, p = 6
to the first wire and second wire is loaded
Using this value of p, for the frequency of
with 1.5 kg. If both the wires vibrate
with the same fundamental frequencies, pth harmonic, we get
calculate the unknown load. 6 360 N 900
420 Hz = 3
= m/s
Solution: Two wires are given to be of the 2l 4.0 10 kg / m l
same material and having the same cross ∴ l = 900/420 m = 2.143 m
section,
 m1  m2  m
6.9 Beats:
Same fundamental frequency, n= 1 n=
2 n
This is an interesting phenomenon
l1 = 60 cm = 0.6 m, l2 = 30 cm = 0.3 m,
based on the principle of superposition of
T2 = 1.5 ×9.8 N
1 T1 waves. When there is superposition of two
For the first wire, n1 =
2l1 m1 sound waves, having same amplitude but
slightly different frequencies, travelling in the
For the second wire, n = 1 T2
2
2l2 m2 same direction, the intensity of sound varies
n l T1  m2 periodically with time. This phenomenon is
 1  2
n2 l1 T2  m1 known as production of beats.
n 0.3 T1  m The occurrences of maximum intensity
 
n 0.6 1.5  9.8  m are called waxing and those of minimum
1 T1 intensity are called waning. One waxing and
1  successive waning together constitute one
2 1.5  9.8
beat. The number of beats heard per second is
T1
2  called beat frequency.
1.5  9.8
6.9.1 Analytical method to determine beat
T1
or, 4  ∴ T1  6  9.8 N frequency:
1.5  9.8
Consider two sound waves, having same
∴Applied load = 6 kg. amplitude and slightly different frequencies
Example 6.11: A wire has linear density n1 and n2. Let us assume that they arrive in
4.0 × 10-3 kg/m. It is stretched between
phase at some point x of the medium. The
two rigid supports with a tension of 360 N.
displacement due to each wave at any instant
The wire resonates at a frequency of 420
of time at that point is given as
Hz and 490 Hz in two successive modes.
  x  
Find the length of the wire. y1  a sin 2  n1t   
  1  
Solution: Given m = 4.0 × 10-3 kg/m, T =
360 N. Let the wire vibrate at 420 Hz and   x  
y 2  a sin 2  n2 t   
  2  
490 Hz in its pth and (p+1)th harmonics.
Let us assume for simplicity that the listener
Then np = p.n where n = 1 T is the is at x = 0.
2l m
fundamental frequency ∴ y1  a sin( 2 n1t )

150
 and y 2  a sin( 2 n2 t ) The number of waxing heard per second is the
According to the principle of superposition of reciprocal of period of waxing.
waves, ∴ frequency of beats, N = n1 – n2 --- (6.39)
y  y1  y 2 The intensity of sound will be minimum
when amplitude is zero (waning):
∴ y  a sin  2 n1t   a sin  2 n2 t 
For minimum amplitude, A = 0,
or,
 n n    n n  
y  2a sin  2  1 2  t  cos  2  1 2  t  ∴ 2a cos  2  n1  n2  t   0
  2  
  2     2      
--- (6.37) or,  n n  
cos  2  1 2  t   0
[By using formula,   2  
C D CD   n1  n2    3 5
sin C  sin D  2 sin  cos   ] ∴  2 
 2 

 2   t   , , ...
  2   2 2 2
Rearranging the above equation, we get 1 3 5
 2  n1  n2    2  n1  n2   ∴t= , , ,
2( n1 − n2 ) 2( n1 − n2 ) 2( n1 − n2 )
y  2 a cos  t  sin  t
 2   2  Therefore time interval between two
1
Substituting 2 a cos  2 ( n1  n2 ) t   A successive minima is also , which is
 2  ( n1 − n2 )
  expected.
n  n
and 1 2  n , we get
2
y  Asin  2 nt  --- (6.38)
This is the equation of a progressive wave
having frequency n and amplitude A. The
frequency n is the mean of the frequencies n1
and n2 of arriving waves while the amplitude A
varies periodically with time.
The intensity of sound is proportional
to the square of the amplitude. Hence the
resultant intensity will be maximum when the
amplitude is maximum.
For maximum amplitude (waxing),
A  2a Fig. 6.13: Superposition of two harmonic waves
2 ( n1  n2 ) 
∴ 2a cos 
of nearly equal frequencies resulting in the
2  t  2a formation of beats.
 
By comparing the instances of successive
 2 ( n1  n2 ) 
or, cos 
2  t  1 waxing and waning, we come to know that
  waxing and waning occur alternately with
 n n   equal frequency.
i.e., 2  1 2  t   0,  , 2 , 3 ,……
  2   The variation in the loudness of sound
1 2 3 that goes up and down is the phenomenon
∴ t  0,n  n ,  , , .
1 2 n1  n2 n1  n2 , of formation of beats. It can be considered
Thus, the time interval between two as superposition of waves and formation of
1
successive maxima of sound is always . standing waves in time at one point in space
n1 − n2
1 where waves of slightly different frequencies
Hence the period of beats is T = . are passing. The two waves are in and out
n1 − n2
151
of phase giving constructive and destructive When a source of sound and the listener
interference. The interval between two are in relative motion, the listener detects
maximum sound intensities is the time period a sound whose frequency is different from
of beats. the actual or original frequency of the
sound source. This is Doppler effect.
Remember this A microwave signal (pulse) of known
We can hear beats if the frequency difference frequency is sent towards the moving airplane.
between the two superimposed waves is Principle of Doppler effect giving the apparent
frequency when the source and observer are
very small (practically less than 6-7 Hz,
in relative motion applies twice, once for
for normal human ear). At frequencies
the signal sent by the microwave source and
higher than these, individual beats cannot
received by the airplane and second time
be distinguished from the sound that is when the signal is reflected by the airplane
produced. and is received back at the microwave
source. Phenomenon of beats, arising due to
Activity the difference in frequencies produced by
the source and received at the source after
• Take two tuning forks of the same reflection from the air plane, allows us to
frequency. calculate the velocity of the air plane.
• Put some wax on the prongs of one of The same principle is used by traffic
the forks. police to determine the speed of a vehicle to
• Vibrate both the tuning forks and keep check whether speed limit is exceeded. Sonar
them side by side. (Sound navigation and ranging) works on
• Listen to the periodic vibrations of similar principle for determining speed of
loudness of resulting sound. submarines using a sound source and sensitive
• How many beats have you heard in one microphones.
minute? Doppler ultrasonography and echo
• Can you guess whether frequency of cardiogram work on similar principle. Doctors
tuning fork is increased or decreased by use an analogous set up to assess the direction
applying wax on the prong? and speed of blood flow in a human body and
• How you can find the new frequency of identify circulation problems. Measurement of
the fork after applying wax on it. the dimension of the blood vessels can be used
to estimate the volume flow rate. Ultrasound
6.9.2 Applications of beats :
beams also determine phase shifts to diagnose
1] The phenomenon of beats is used for
vascular problems in arteries and veins.
matching the frequencies of different 3] Unknown frequency of a sound note can
musical instruments by artists. They go be determined by using the phenomenon
on tuning until no beats are heard by of beats. Initially the sound notes of
their sensitive ears. When beat frequency known and unknown frequency are heard
becomes equal to zero, the musical simultaneously. The known frequency
instruments are in unison with each other from a source of adjustable frequency
i.e., their frequencies are identical and is adjusted in such a way that the beat
the effect of playing such instruments frequency reduces to zero. At this stage
together gives a pleasant music. frequencies of both the sound notes
2] The speed of an airplane can be determined become equal. Hence unknown frequency
by using Doppler RADAR. can be determined.
152
 sound wave travels through a medium, there
Example 6.12: Two sound waves having are regions of compressions and rarefactions.
wavelengths 81cm and 82.5 cm produce Thus there are changes in pressure. When
8 beats per second. Calculate the speed of a sound is heard, say by a human, the wave
sound in air.
exerts pressure on the human ear. The pressure
Solution: Given
variation is related to the amplitude and hence
λ1 = 81 cm = 0.81 m
to the intensity. Depending on the sound
λ2 = 82.5 cm = 0.825 m
v v produced, the variation in this pressure is
n1   
1 0.81 from 28 Pa for the loudest tolerable sound

v v to 2.0 × 10-5 Pa for the feeblest sound like
n2   
2 0.825 a whisper that can be heard by a human.
Here 1  2 ,n
 1  n2 . Intensity is a measurable quantity while
As 8 beats are produced per second, the sensation of hearing or loudness is very
n1  n2  8 subjective. It is therefore important to find
v v out how does a sound of intensity I affect a
  8
1 2 detectable change ∆I in the intensity for the
1 1 human ear to note. It is known that the value
∴v   8 of such ∆I depends linearly on intensity I and
 1 2 
this fact allows humans to deal with a large
 1 1 
v   8 variation in intensity.
 0.81 0.825  The response of human ear to sound is
 v  356.4 exponential and not linear. It depends upon the
Example 6.13: Two tuning forks having amount of energy crossing unit area around a
frequencies 320 Hz and 340 Hz are sounded point per unit time. Intensity is proportional to
together to produce sound waves. The the square of amplitude. It also depends upon
velocity of sound in air is 326.4 m s-1. Find various other factors like distance of source
the difference in wavelength of these waves.
from the listener, the motion of air, density of
Solution: Given
medium, the surface area of sounding body etc.
n1 = 320 Hz, n2 = 340 Hz, v = 326.4 m s-1.
The presence of other resonant objects around
v  n11  n2 2
the sounding body also affects loudness of
Here, n1 < n2, ∴λ1 > λ2
sound.
v v
 1  2   Scientifically, sound is specified not by its
n1 n2 intensity but by the sound level β (expressed in
1 1 decibles (dB)), defined as
 1  2  v   
 n1 n2   I 
  10 log10   , --- (6.40)
 1 1   I0 
 1  2  326.4    where I0 is a minimum reference intensity
 320 340 
∴λ1 - λ2 = 0.06 m (10-12 W/m2) that a normal human ear can hear.
Sound levels are then expressed in decibel
6.10 Characteristics of Sound: (dB). When I = I0, β = 0, thus the standard
Sound has three characteristics: loudness, reference intensity has measure of sound level
pitch and quality. 0 dB. The unit of difference in loudness is bel.
1. Loudness: Loudness is the human perception You have studied about this unit in XIth Std.
to intensity of sound. We know that when a
153
 1 A sequence of frequencies which have a
1 decibel = bel specific relationship with each other is called
10
As mentioned above, minimum audible a musical scale. Normally both in Indian
sound is denoted by 0 dB while whispering classical music and western classical music,
and normal speech have levels 10 dB and 60 eight frequencies, in specific ratio, form an
dB respectively at a distance of approximately octave, each frequency denoting a specific
1 m from the source. The intensity level of note. In a given octave frequency increases
maximum tolerable sound for a human ear is along sa re ga ma pa dha ni så (as well as
around 120 dB. along Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Dò). An example
Loudness is different at different of values of frequencies is 240, 270, 300, 320,
frequencies, even for the same intensity. For 360, 400, 450, 480 Hz respectively.
measuring loudness the unit phon is used. 6.11 Musical instruments:
Phon is a measure of loudness. It is equal to Audible waves originate in vibrating
the loudness in decibel of any equally loud strings, vibrating air columns and vibrating
pure tone of frequency 1000Hz. plates and membranes. Accordingly, musical
2. Pitch: It is a sensation of sound which instruments are classified into three main types.
helps the listener to distinguish between a high (a) Stringed instruments (b) wind instruments
frequency and a low frequency note. Pitch is (c) percussion instruments.
the human perception to frequency- higher a) Stringed instruments: consist of stretched
frequency denotes higher pitch. The pitch of strings. Sound is produced by plucking of
a female voice is higher than that of a male strings. The strings are tuned to certain
voice. frequencies by adjusting tension in them. They
3. Quality or timbre: Normally sound are further of three different types.
generated by a source has a number of frequency 1) Plucked string type: In these instruments
components with different amplitudes. Quality string is plucked by fingers, e.g., tanpura,
of sound is that characteristic which enables sitar, guitar, veena, etc.
us to distinguish between two sounds of same 2) Bowed string type: In these instruments, a
pitch and loudness. We can recognize the string is played by bowing, e.g., violin, sarangi.
voice of a person or an instrument due to its 3) Struck string type: the string is struck by a
quality of sound. Quality depends on number stick , e.g. santoor, piano.
of overtones present in the sound along with a b) Wind instruments: These instruments
given frequency. consist of air column. Sound is produced by
A sound which produces a pleasing setting vibrations of air column. They are
sensation to the ear is a musical sound. It is further of three different types
produced by regular and periodic vibrations 1) Freewind type: In these instruments free
without any sudden change in loudness. brass reeds are vibrated by air. The air is
Musical sound has certain well-defined either blown or compressed. e.g., mouth organ,
frequencies with sizable amplitude; these harmonium etc.
are normally harmonics of a fundamental 2) Edge type: In these instruments air is blown
frequency. A mixture of sounds of different against an edge. e.g., Flute.
frequencies which do not have any relation 3) Reedpipes: They may consists of single
with each other produces what we call a noise. or double reeds and also instruments without
Noise therefore is not pleasant to hear. If in reeds .e.g., saxophone, clarinet (single reed),
addition, it is loud, it may cause headaches. bassoon (double reed), bugle (without reed).
154
c)  Percussion instruments: In these
instruments sound is produced by setting Do you know?
vibrations in a stretched membrane. e.g., tabla,
drum, dhol, mridangam, sambal, daphali,etc. Sir C.V. Raman, the great physicist and
the first Noble Laureate of India, had done
These instruments sometimes also consist of
research on the Indian classical musical
metal plates which produce sound when they
instruments such as mridangam and
are struck against each other or with a beater.
tabla. Read more about his research work
e.g., cymbals (i.e., jhanja), xylophone, etc. in this field from website: [Link]
A blow on the membrane or plate or [Link] [Link] work on
plucking of string produces vibrations with Indian music.
one fundamental and many overtones.
Superposition of several natural modes of Internet my friend
oscillations with different amplitudes and
hence intensities characterize different • [Link]
musical instruments. We can thus distinguish Demos/superposition/[Link]
the instruments by their sounds. • [Link]
Production of different notes by musical [Link]
instrument depends on the creation of stationary • [Link]
waves. For a stringed instrument such as guitar search?client=firefox-b-
or sitar, the two ends of the string are fixed. d&q=superposition+of+waves
Depending on where the string is plucked, • [Link]
stationary waves of various modes can be Oto3mUIuk
produced, plucking at the midpoint produces • [Link]
the minimum frequency or the fundamental watch?v=GsP5LqGtkwE
mode of vibration. In wind instruments, air
• [Link]
column is made to vibrate by blowing. By
drussell/Demos/StandingWaves/
changing the length of air column note can be [Link]
changed. In wind instrument like flute, holes
can be uncovered to change the vibrations of • [Link]
class/waves/Lesson-4/Formation-of-
air column this changes the pattern of nodes
Standing-Waves
and antinodes.
In practice, sound produced is made up • [Link]
of several stationary waves having different class/waves/Lesson-4/Formation-of-
patterns of nodes and antinodes. Musicians Standing-Waves
skill lies in stimulating the string or air column • [Link]
to produce the desired mixture of frequencies. D9UlPcJSRM
• [Link]
watch?v=jHjXNFmm8y4
• [Link]
watch?v=BWqyXHKhaZ8
• [Link]
• [Link]
watch?v=nrJrV_Gn_Cw&t=661s

155
 Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. will be the answer to this question if the
i) When an air column in a pipe closed at string is vibrating in its first and second
one end vibrates such that three nodes overtones?
are formed in it, the frequency of its iii) What are harmonics and overtones?
vibrations is …….times the fundamental iv) For a stationary wave set up in a string
frequency. having both ends fixed, what is the ratio
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 of the fundamental frequency to the
ii) If two open organ pipes of length 50 cm second harmonic?
and 51 cm sounded together produce 7 v) The amplitude of a wave is represented by
beats per second, the speed of sound is.  t x  in SI units.
y  0.2 sin 4   
(A) 307 m/s (B) 327m/s  0.08 0.8 
(C) 350m/s (D) 357m/s Find (a) wavelength, (b) frequency and
iii) The tension in a piano wire is increased (c) amplitude of the wave.
by 25%. Its frequency becomes ….. times [(a) 0.4 m (b) 25 Hz (c) 0.2 m]
the original frequency. 3. State the characteristics of progressive
(A) 0.8 (B) 1.12 (C) 1.25 (D) 1.56 waves.
iv) Which of the following equations 4. State the characteristics of stationary
represents a wave travelling along the waves.
y-axis? 5. Derive an expression for equation of
(A) x  A sin  ky   t  stationary wave on a stretched string.
(B) y  A sin  kx   t  6. Find the amplitude of the
(C) y  A sin  ky  cos( t ) resultant wave produced due to
interference of two waves given as
(D) y  A cos  ky  sin ( t ) y1  A1 sin  t y 2  A2 sin  t   
v) A standing wave is produced on a string 7. State the laws of vibrating strings and
fixed at one end with the other end free. explain how they can be verified using a
The length of the string sonometer.
(A) must be an odd integral multiple of 8. Show that only odd harmonics are present
λ/4. in the vibrations of air column in a pipe
(B) must be an odd integral multiple of closed at one end.
λ/2. 9. Prove that all harmonics are present in
(C) must be an odd integral multiple of λ. the vibrations of the air column in a pipe
(D) must be an even integral multiple of λ. open at both ends.
2. Answer in brief. 10. A wave of frequency 500 Hz is travelling
i) A wave is represented by an equation y = with a speed of 350 m/s.
A sin (Bx + Ct). Given that the constants (a) What is the phase difference between
A, B and C are positive, can you tell in two displacements at a certain point at
which direction the wave is moving? times 1.0 ms apart? (b) what will be the
ii) A string is fixed at the two ends and is smallest distance between two points
vibrating in its fundamental mode. It is
which are 45º out of phase at an instant
known that the two ends will be at rest.
Apart from these, is there any position on of time?
the string which can be touched so as not [Ans : π, 8.75 cm ]
to disturb the motion of the string? What
156
 11. A sound wave in a certain fluid medium 18. A pipe open at both the ends has a
is reflected at an obstacle to form a fundamental frequency of 600 Hz. The
standing wave. The distance between first overtone of a pipe closed at one
two successive nodes is 3.75 cm. If the end has the same frequency as the first
velocity of sound is 1500 m/s, find the overtone of the open pipe. How long are
frequency. the two pipes? (Take velocity of sound to
[Ans : 20 kHz] be 330 m/s)
12. Two sources of sound are separated by [Ans : 27.5 cm, 20.625 cm]
a distance 4 m. They both emit sound 19. A string 1m long is fixed at one end.
with the same amplitude and frequency Transverse vibrations of frequency 15 Hz
(330 Hz), but they are 180º out of phase.
are imposed at the free end. Due to this, a
At what points between the two sources,
stationary wave with four complete loops,
will the sound intensity be maximum?
is produced on the string. Find the speed
(Take velocity of sound to be 330 m/s)
of the progressive wave which produces
[Ans: ± 0.25, ± 0.75, ± 1.25 and
± 1.75 m from the point at the center] the stationary wave.[Hint: Remember
13. Two sound waves travel at a speed of 330 that the free end is an antinode.]
m/s. If their frequencies are also identical [Ans: 6.67 m s-1]
and are equal to 540 Hz, what will be 20. A violin string vibrates with fundamental
the phase difference between the waves frequency of 440Hz. What are the
at points 3.5 m from one source and 3 m frequencies of first and second overtones?
from the other if the sources are in phase? [Ans: 880 Hz, 1320 Hz]
[Ans : 1.636 π] 21. A set of 8 tuning forks is arranged in a
14. Two wires of the same material and series of increasing order of frequencies.
same cross section are stretched on a Each fork gives 4 beats per second with
sonometer. One wire is loaded with 1.5 the next one and the frequency of last
kg and another is loaded with 6 kg. The fork is twice that of the first. Calculate
vibrating length of first wire is 60 cm and the frequencies of the first and the last
its fundamental frequency of vibration fork.
is the same as that of the second wire. [Ans: 28 Hz, 56 Hz]
Calculate vibrating length of the other 22. A sonometer wire is stretched by tension
wire. of 40 N. It vibrates in unison with a
[Ans: 1.2 m] tuning fork of frequency 384 Hz. How
15. A pipe closed at one end can produce many numbers of beats get produced in
overtones at frequencies 640 Hz, 896 Hz two seconds if the tension in the wire is
and 1152 Hz. Calculate the fundamental decreased by 1.24 N?
frequency. [Ans: 12 beats]
[Ans: 128 Hz] 23. A sonometer wire of length 0.5 m is
16. A standing wave is produced in a tube stretched by a weight of 5 kg. The
open at both ends. The fundamental
fundamental frequency of vibration is
frequency is 300 Hz. What is the length
100 Hz. Calculate linear density of wire.
of tube in the fundamental mode? (speed
[Ans: 4.9×10-3 kg/m]
of the sound= 340 m s-1). [Ans: 0.5666 m]
24. The string of a guitar is 80 cm long and
17. Find the fundamental, first overtone and
has a fundamental frequency of 112 Hz. If
second overtone frequencies of a pipe,
open at both the ends, of length 25 cm if a guitarist wishes to produce a frequency
the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s. of 160 Hz, where should the person press
[Ans: 660 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1980 Hz] the string? [Ans : 56 cm from one end]

157