CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL DISTILLED OCTOPUS NOTES

ALLIANCE HIGH SCHOOOL

EXCERPTS FROM THE practical GUIDE

a) ions form a white precipitate with a soluble sulphate

Reagents used to test for cations

Reagents Cations
Sodium hydroxide Al3+ Pb2+ Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+
Aqueous ammonia Al3+ Pb2+ Zn2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+
Sodium chloride /dilute HCl Pb2+
Sodium sulphate/sulphuric (VI) acid Pb2+ Ca2+ Ba2+
Potassium iodide Pb2+, Fe3+

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 TEST FOR ANIONS : CHECK LIST
2- 2- 2- - 2- - -
1. Lead (II) nitrate- SO3 , SO4 , CO3 , Cl , S , I Br
2- 2- 2-
2. Ba(NO3 )2 /BaCl2 --SO3 , SO4 , CO3 ,
2- - 2-
3. Dilute HCl/HNO3--SO3 , HCO3 , CO3 ,
-
4. Aluminium foil and NaOH - NO3
2- - -, - 2-
5. Wooden splint/ (glowing or burning ) CO3 , NO3 , ClO3 MnO4 O
2- - -, - , 2-
6. Heating -CO3 , NO3 , ClO3 MnO4 O
2-
7. Acidified Potassium manganate (VII) SO3
2-
8. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) SO3

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 - -
9. Chlorine water +Starch indicator Br & I
One can use the brown ring test or Devarda’s test for nitrates
a) In brown ring test -Freshly prepared iron (II) sulphate is added followed by Conc. sulphuric acid formation of brown ring
indicates presence of NO3-
b) In Dervada’s alloy test: NaOH solution is added to the test solution followed by Aluminium foil and warm, bubbles of a
colourless gas that turn red litmus blue and blue litmus paper remain blue indicates presence of NO 3- (refer KCSE 2012 Q2
a(ii).
Observations Inference
Effervescence ½ /Bubbles of Colourless NO3- present
gas with a pungent smell. ½ Changes (tied to red litmus turning blue)
red litmus blue ½ Penalize fully for any contradictory ion 1
Blue litmus remained blue ½ mark
(2 marks)

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS INVOLVING COLOURED IONS

Fe2+ and Cu2+ are usually tested together as they give a green solution. The ions can be further differentiated by adding
aqueous ammonia dropwise till excess, whereby green precipitate insoluble confirms presence of Fe2+ and blue precipitate
soluble in excess ammonia to form deep blue solution confirms presence of Cu2+.
If the substance being tested contained Fe2+ ions, then it can further be subjected to oxidation reaction whereby an oxidizing
agent like concentrated nitric (V) acid or hydrogen peroxide can added. The expected observation will be; green solution
changes yellow, and if aqueous ammonia or aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to the yellow solution then a brown
precipitate is formed. The correct inference for such test is Fe2+ oxidized to Fe3+ and not Fe3+ present. Refer to KCSE 1999
and 2011 question 2.
If the substance being tested contained Cu2+ ions, then it can be subjected to further tests like displacement involving using
zinc metal/iron metal powder. The expcted observations are effervescence and brown solid is deposited. Refer to KCSE 2008
question 2 .
If the substance being tested contained Fe3+ ions, it will form a brown precipitate insoluble in both aqueous ammonia and
aqueous sodium hydroxide. It can be subjected to further tests like test for pH whereby being acidic will give pH 1. Also,
sodium carbonate can be added and the expected observation is bubbles/effervescence. Fe3+ are oxidizing agents and a
reducing agent like potassium iodide can be added of which the expected observation will be brown solution formed/black
solid deposited. The correct inference will be I- oxidized to I2/iodide ions oxidized to iodine. Refer KCSE 2007 question 2.

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ORGANIC QUALITIVE TESTS
Most organic test will test your understanding on saturated and unsaturated compound, how they react with bromine water, how they
burn, colour of flame and sooty or non-sooty, effect on acidified KMnO4,K2Cr2O7. The test on esterification and action on
NaHCO3/NaCO3 if a carbonate is added you look for effervescence, the pH is also tested using either universal indicator solution or pH
reel (paper).

ORGANIC QUALITIVE EXAM CHECK LIST

Observation INFERENCE
1. ADD
WATER/ETHANOL

2. Burn

3. Add bromine water

4. Add acidified
K Cr O
2 2 7

5. Add acidified KMnO

4

6. ESTERIFICATION

7. Add mg ribbon

8. Test pH

9. Add NaOH

Add Add NaHCO /Na CO

3 2 3

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PRELIMINARY TESTS
These are the initial test in a chemistry practical question. The initial test on chemistry practical are summarized below.
Heating – in a boiling tube; here you look for gas produced, its colour, smell, and effect on blue and red litmus paper. You also look for
the sound produced, does the solid melt, the colour of the residue, you look for water of crystallization. Or even a sublimate
NB, when told to heat gently you are only looking for the water of crystallization (which can be tested using blue dry cobalt (II) chloride
paper which changes pink)
When told to heat strongly you are looking for gases evolved (test them with litmus papers or wooden splint), colour of residue,
sublimate etc.
Possible results
Observations Inferences
A colourless vapour that condenses on the cooler
parts of test-tube to form a colourless liquid, or Hydrated salt/water of crystallization present
blue dry cobalt (II) chloride paper changes pink
A gas that that changes a moist red litmus paper
NH4+ present
blue, blue litmus paper remains blue
A gas that that changes a moist red litmus paper NH4+ present
blue and a blue litmus paper changes red, Reasoning:
White sublimate formed on cooler parts of the test- NH4Cl decomposes on heating to NH3 and HCl gases, NH3
tube is lighter and diffuses faster
Hence the litmus first changes from red to blue, and later
the HCl reaches the upper end of test-tube and changes
blue litmus red
The solid melts, brown gas is evolved, NO3-,
Cracking sound, yellow residue remained Pb2+
A colourless gas is evolved which relights a ClO3-,NO3-,MnO4-, O2- Tied to a gas that relights a
glowing splint and red litmus paper remains red glowing [Link] substance
and blue litmus paper remain blue
A colourless ,odourless gas that extinguishes a CO32- produced
burning splint is produced
A colourless gas is evolved the will turn a filter
paper soaked in potassium chromate (VI) from SO32- present
orange to green
Note: when heating in a boiling tube make sure you use a dry boiling tube and when heating to test for gas produced the first
vapour to be produced is water vapour if the salt is hydrated,so for gases to be produced strong heating is needed for the salt to
decompose .
a) Burning using a metallic spatula-here you look for how the solid burns, does it melt, the colour of flame it
b) produces, and whether the flame is sooty or not. This is normally used to test organic substances (see organic tests).
Burning using a nichrome wire/ or a glass rod dipped in a solution, here you look for flame colour’ normally to test for
cations
Observation Inference
Yellow flame Na+
Pale green flame Ba2+
Green flame Cu2+
Red flame Ca2+
Colourless Mg2+
Lilac flame/purple K+
c) Put a portion of the solid provided in a boiling tube add distilled water: here you look for whether the solid dissolves and the
colour of the resulting solution.

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 The solid dissolves to form a colourless Solid is a soluble salt/substance Fe2+,Cu2+,Fe3+absent
solution
Dissolves to form a green solution Fe2+ ,Cu2+ ,p Solid is a soluble salt/substance present
Dissolves to form a blue solution Cu2+ , Solid is a soluble salt/substance present
Dissolves to form a yellow solution Fe3+ , Solid is a soluble salt/substance present
d) Put the liquid in a watch glass and ignite- (see organic qualitative test)
e) You can also be told to place the solid provided in a boiling tube then add distilled water and shake and then filter. In such
a case you have to mention the colour of residue and colour of filtrate.
Observation Inference
Colourless filtrate, Solid is a mixture of soluble and insoluble salt
White residue Fe2+,Cu2+,Fe3+ absent (tied to colourless filtrate)
green filtrate Fe2+ Cu2+
Blue filtrate Cu2+

There is a wrong assumption that only Fe2+ salts are green ,that is a misnomer as some copper (II) salts are
green e.g. copper (II) chloride and copper (II) carbonate. So if you add dilute HCl to a green solid or black solid
and you get a green solution the correct inference for such is Fe2+, Cu2+ present, the ions can be further
differentiated by adding aqueous ammonia dropwise till excess, whereby green ppt insoluble confirms f) You can
presence of Fe2+and blue ppt soluble in excess ammonia to form deep blue solution
also be told to
describe the appearance of a solid, and the following are possible observations.
Observations Observations
A colourless crystalline solid A blue crystalline solid
A white powder A brown crystalline solid
A white crystalline solid A green crystalline solid
g) You can also be told to place the solid provided in a boiling tube then dilute acid
Observation Inference
Disslvves to form a colourless Solid is basic
solution
Bubbles of a gas ythat extinguishes CO32-
a burning splint
Bubbles of a gas ythat extinguishes Solid is a metal above hydrogen in the reactivity series
a burning splint with a pop sound

TEST FOR CATIONS

The cations tested are group into four major groups:
b) Coloured ions- Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+ (CuFeFe)
c) Na+ , K+ , NH4+ -this cations don’t form any precipitate with all the reagents( NaOH,NH4OH
d) Pb2+ Zn2+ andAl3+ (ZAP)these cations ions will form a white precipitate with NaOH soluble in excess this is due to the
amphoteric nature
e) Ba2+ Mg2+ and Ca2+ (CaM) these ions form a white precipitate with NaOH that is insoluble in excess
f) Pb2+ Al3+ Mg2+ ( PAM)these ions form a white precipitate insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia
g) Pb2+ Ca2+ Ba2+ (CaLeB) these ions form a white precipitate with a soluble sulphate

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Reagents used to test for cations

Reagents Cations
Sodium hydroxide Al3+ Pb2+ Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+
Aqueous ammonia Al3+ Pb2+ Zn2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+
Sodium chloride /dilute HCl Pb2+
Sodium sulphate/sulphuric (VI) acid Pb2+ Ca2+ Ba2+
Potassium iodide Pb2+, Fe3+

Summary points on Qualitative Analysis for cations

Effect of adding NaOH and NH4OH dropwise till in excess on solutions containing cations
Cation Add NaOH dropwise till Cation Add NH4OH dropwise till in excess
in excess
Ca2+ , Ba2+, Na+
Na+ , K+ , NH4+ No white precipitate No white precipitate
, K+ , NH4+
White precipitate soluble in Pb2+ Al3+ ,Mg2+ White precipitate insoluble in excess
excess to form a colourless White precipitate soluble in excess to
Pb2+ Zn2+ and Al3+ Zn2+
solution form a colourless solution
Green precipitate insoluble
Fe2+, Fe2+, Green precipitate insoluble in excess
in excess
Brown precipitate insoluble
Fe3+, Fe3+, Brown precipitate insoluble in excess
in excess
Blue precipitate insoluble Blue precipitate soluble in excess to
Cu2+, Cu2+,
in excess form a deep blue solution
Ba2+ Mg2+ and
White precipitate insoluble
Ca2+

TEST FOR ANIONS

The most commonly tested areHCO3- SO32-, SO42-, CO32-, Cl-, S2-, Br- and NO3-
a) Barium nitrate is used to test for sulphate, sulphite and carbonates
b) Lead nitrate or Lead acetate is used to test for sulphates ,sulphites, chlorides, iodide , sulphides and carbonates
c) Silver chloride is used to test for chloride ion
d) In most cases the reagents are acidified to differentiate between carbonates, sulphites and sulphates and chlorides, it is
important to note that if the acid is added this test is usually used to differentiate SO32- and CO32 as both will give a white
precipitate with both Pb (NO3)2, Ba (NO3)2 which will dissolve on addition of dilute nitric acid.
Note; Remember PbCl2 is soluble on hot water so if you are told to add dilute HCl /NaCl and heat to boil and the observation is a white
precipitate is formed soluble on boiling that confirms that Pb2+ is present also if you add Pb (NO3)2, and heat to boil and the
observation is a white precipitate is formed soluble on boiling that confirms that Cl- is present
e) Dilute acids can be used to test for presence of CO32-, SO32-, HCO3- as they react with effervescence, but CO32-, -HCO3
produce odourless gas while SO32- produce a gas with a pungent spell which also changes KMnO4 from purple to colourless
and K2Cr2O7 turn from orange to green
f) Potassium manganate (VII) (VII) and potassium dichromate (VI) is also used to test for presence of SO32- whereby the KMnO4
changes from purple to colourless and K2Cr2O7 turn from orange to green
Use of lead (II) nitrate
Add lead(II) nitrate(if not specified as acidified it means it is not acidified
White precipitate SO32-,SO42-,CO32-, Br-, Cl-, present
Yellow precipitate I - present
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 Black precipitate S2- present
No white precipitate SO32-,SO42-,CO32-, Cl-, absent
Use of acidified lead (II) nitrate
Add acidified Pb(NO3)2 (both SO32-,,CO32 destroyed by acids)
White precipitate SO42- ,Br- Cl-, present but -,CO32- and SO32-, is
contradictory
No white precipitate SO42- , Cl-, absent

Addition of lead (II) nitrate followed by dilute nitric (V) acid

Add Pb(NO3)2 followed by dilute HNO3
White precipitate insoluble on addition of dilute nitric (V) acid Br- SO42-, Cl-, present
White precipitate which dissolve on addition of dilute nitric acid CO32- SO32- present
Dilute HCl or HNO3 can also be added to differentiate SO42- , Cl- and CO32- SO32-
e.g. add to dilute HNO3 to 2 cm3 of solution
No effervescence SO42-, Cl-, present
Effervescence of colourless gas CO32- SO32- present
You can also be told to add HNO3 followed by Pb(NO3)2
No effervescence on adding dilute HNO3, Cl- , SO42- present
White precipitate
Effervescence of colourless gas , No SO32-, CO32- present
White precipitate

You can also be told to add HNO3 followed by Ba(NO3)2

No effervescence on adding dilute HNO3, SO42-, present
White precipitate
Effervescence of colourless gas , No SO32-, CO32-, HCO3- present
White precipitate

Note, the use of Ba (NO3)2 /BaCl2and (PbNO3)2 is similar the only difference is that adding Ba (NO3)2 or BaCl2 cannot test for
Cl-, S2- ions.

 Add Ba(NO3)2/BaCl2followed by few drops of dilute nitric acid

White precipitate insoluble on addition of dilute nitric (V) acid SO42- present
White precipitate which dissolve on addition of dilute nitric acid CO32- SO32- present

Add of Ba(NO3)2/BaCl2
White precipitate SO32-,SO42-,CO32- present
No White precipitate SO32-,SO42-,CO32- absent
Add acidified Ba(NO3)2 /BaCl2(both SO32-,CO32 destroyed by acids )
White precipitate SO42-, present but -,CO32- and SO32-, is contradictory
No white precipitate SO42-, absent

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You can also be told to add HNO3 followed by Ba(NO3)2
No effervescence on adding dilute HNO3, SO42-, present
White precipitate
Effervescence of colourless gas , No SO32-, CO32-, HCO3- present
White precipitate

Complex Qualitative Analysis

This complex qualitative require high order thinking skills (HOTS) and application of mixed concept, ie. First you can carry out to
determine the identity of the first ion present then use it to identify the ion present in the other unknown see (KCSE 2010 Q2).
Test for nitrates
One can use the brown ring test or Devarda’s test
c) In brown ring test -Freshly prepared iron (II) sulphate is added followed by Conc. sulphuric acid formation of brown ring
indicates presence of NO3-
d) In Dervada’s alloy test: NaOH solution is added to the test solution followed by Aluminium foil and warm, bubbles of a
colourless gas that turn red litmus blue and blue litmus paper remain blue indicates presence of NO3- (refer KCSE 2012 Q2
a(ii).
Observations Inference
Effervescence ½ /Bubbles of Colourless NO3- present
gas with a pungent smell. ½ Changes (tied to red litmus turning blue)
red litmus blue ½ Penalize fully for any contradictory ion 1
Blue litmus remained blue ½ mark
(2 marks)

Reasoning; Devarda’s alloy (Cu/Al/Zn) is a reducing agent. When reacted with nitrate in NaOH solution and then add aluminum foil,
NH3 gas is liberated. The ammonia formed may be detected by its characteristic oduor, and by damp red litmus paper's turning blue,
signaling that it is an alkali — very few gases other than ammonia evolved from wet chemistry are alkaline.

NB: details of the reaction are not important.

Questions on displacement reactions.
Qualitative analysis on displacement reaction will involve adding and a more reactive metal into a solution to bring about displacement.
Also displacement of halogens using chlorine water and bromine water. Refer to KCSE 2008
For example; to a portion of solution add solid G
Observations Inference
Effervescence G is more reactive element than P
Brown solid deposited Or G displaces ions of P from its solution

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