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Gender AND Development-1

Diploma in social work (Mount Kenya University)

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STANDARD LECTURE NOTES

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

FOR

DIPLOMA COMMUNITY HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT

MODULE III

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1.GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

COURSE OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPT OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF GENDER
ROLE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKER IN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

GENDER THEORIES AND DEVELOPMENT

GENDER THEORIES
IMPLICATION OF THE THEORIES ON GENDER ISSUES

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER IN INSTITUTION

MEANING OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER
ROLES OF GENDER IN A FAMILY
IMPACT OF GENDER DISPARITIES
INTERVENTION OF MEASURES ON GENDER DISPARITIES IN A FAMILY AND OTHER
INSTITUTIONS

GENDER SOCIALIZATION
CONCEPT OF GENDER SOCIALIZATION
TYPES OF GENDER SOCIALIZATION
PROCESS OF GENDER SOCIALIZATION
IMPACT OF SOCIALIZATION ON GENDER

GENDER AND EDUCATION

MEANING OF GENDER AND EDUCATION
ROLE OF EDUCATION ON GENDER ISSUES
IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON GENDER
CHALLENGES OF GENDER IN EDUCATION

GENDER AND EMPLOYMENT

CONCEPT OF GENDER AND EMPLOYMNET
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER AND EMPLOYMENT
GENDER STEREOTYPING IN EMPLOYMENT
GENDER HARASSMENT AT WORK PLACE
LEGISLATION ON GENDER AND EMPLOYMENT

GENDER AND POLITICS

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GENDER PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS AND MANAGEMENT
GENERAL REPRESENTATION IN POLITICS AND MANAGEMENT POSITIONS
IMPACT OF GENDER IN POLITICS AND MANAGEMENT POSITIONS

GENDER AND HEALTH

CONCEPT OF GENDER AND HEALTH
GENDER HEALTH ISSUES
GENDER HEALTH VULNERABILITIES
IMPACT OF HEALTH ON GENDER VULNERABILITIES
CHALLENGES ON GENDER HEALTH VULNERABILITIES

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GENDER AND VIOLENCE

MEANING OF GENDER AND VIOLENCE
FORMS OF GENDER VIOLENCE
GENDER VULNERABILITY IN VIOLENCE
IMPACT OF GENDER VIOLENCE
EMERGING ISSUES IN GENDER VIOLENCE

GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS

LINK BETWEEN GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
EMERGING ISSUES IN GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS
IMPACT OF HUMAN RIGHTS ON GENDER

GENDER AND RESOURCES

GENDER AND RESOURCES DISTRIBUTION
GENDER DISPARITIES IN RESOURCE OWNERSHIP
IMPORTANCE OF INTERGRATING GENDER IN DEVELOPMENT
IMPACT OF GENDER DISPARITIES ON RESOURCES

FEMINISM MOVEMENTS
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF FEMINISM MOVEMENTS
APPROACHES TO FEMINISM MOVEMENTS
CONTRIBUTIONS TO FEMINISM MOVEMENT
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT FRAMEWORK

GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK

MEANING OF GENDER ANALYSIS
IMPORTANCE OF GENDER ANALYSIS
TOOLS OF GENDER ANALYSIS
PRACTICAL AND STRATEGIC NEEDS OF WOMEN

EMERGING TRENDS IN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

EMERGING TRENDS IN GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

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TOPIC I INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Development
Development is a shift to a more desirable status and is a continuous process that includes
social, political and economic aspects.
Development is a process of positive change with aspect to people, technology, proper
planning in social, economic and political terms.
Gender and development
The concept of gender and development (GAD) has become important and recognized in
the development policy and programming especially since one late 1980’s. The gender and
development approach has included one woman in development (WID) approach which
primarily set to improve one status of women, integrate their roles in development and
improve their participation and decision making at all the levels.
While borrowing a lot from the lesson GAD approach has one major importance. It defers
on focus on women but emphasis on the focus of both men and women.
It is important to understand the GAD in order to understand the disadvantage of women,
it is important to compare the situation of women with that of men.
This approach therefore emphasizes the need for detailed analysis of the roles,
contributions per (general situations of men and women, girls and boys and the factors
that determined this in order to understand the root causes of gender disparities. The
results of the analysis form the basis for the design of development intervention.
GAD and WID approach
The main differences between GAD and WID approaches would be defined as follows:
WID
aims at the improvement of the position of women, the focus is on the women often
separate from men.
GAD
both the gender are involved; it analyzes differences in roles, responsibilities and
differences between men and women and the consequences of these differences from
planning and design of development interventions.
Gender roles
Refers to socially constructed roles, responsibilities and expectation of women and men
who are involved
These gender roles change over time and vary according to cultures.
Example: in some cultures women are in charge of roof repair whereas others it is a male
affair and women are not allowed to climb on top of roofs; the different roles,
responsibilities and expectations of men and women in societies and culture affect their
ability and incentive to participate in development projects and leads to different impacts
for men and women.
Sex roles
Sex roles relate to biological and physical differences between men and women, boys and
girls cannot be easily changed/not socially.
Examples
(i) Women get pregnant
(i) Women can breastfeed
(i) Men have or grow beard
(i) Women has menstruation cycle monthly whereas men produce sperms
Gender concerns

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Gender concerns are areas of inequalities and injustice that need to be addressed to
achieve desired social, political, psychological and economic development.
Gender analysis
Gender analysis at the level of the target is a systematic attempt to document and
understand the roles of men and women within a given context.
Key issues in gender analysis include
(i) Provision of labor for both productive and reproductive activities
(i) Access to and control over resources and benefits
(i) Decision making
(i) Social, economic and environmental factors which influence decision making
Gender blindness
This is the inability to perceive/understand that there are different gender roles and
responsibilities leading to different gender needs and consequently the failure to analyze
policies and projects in terms of the differences in their effect on men and women.
Social construction of gender
In order to understand the concept of gender, it is important to start by making a clear
distinction between sex and gender.
Sex is the physical or biological differences between males and female which cannot easily
change. E.g.
Women give birth, man have beard, and both men and women have different sex organs
Gender refers to the sociological differences; gender differences are socially constructed
and therefore can be changed.
They are socially constructed to suit the needs and situations of the human race at
different stages in its history and development.
Gender describes activities as being appropriate for men or women and defines particular
relationships between men and women.
Gender varies between and within cultures and over time and can be influenced by
cultural, environmental, economic and political factors.
Examples of gender roles
1. Women cook in Luo societies
2. Women weed
3. Men clear the bush
4. Men heard the animals
Society’s perception and attitudes towards gender roles, responsibilities and their work
are often based on value, judgment and stereotyping (a stereotype is ones simplified or
biased description of a group)
They are often negative and harmful.
Gender stereotypes
are generally used to describe the abilities of men verse those of women in the community
in an over simplified way.
Examples of stereotyped statements
1 Women are seen to be weak and coward
1 Women are to be maintained and supported
1 Women are seen to be sexy and marketable
1 Men are seen to be strong and brave
1 Men are producers
The realities are always different but the fact that the society holds these stereotypes
become oppressive to all (both men and women). Society has certain expectations of a
male and a female child even before they are born. The roles of a boy or a girl are already
assigned and in some societies they are received with certain symbolism to so what roles
they should perform.

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Social construction of gender in a family

The construction of gender starts at the family level as the young socialize.
Girls start acting like the mother or the woman and boys like the fathers or men.
Attitudes and beliefs about what men and women do are reinforced at the family “men do
not cry” it is a common statement told to young boys. A boy thus grows knowing that it is
only women or a woman or weak men who cry.
The ceremonies performed in the society namely naming, initiation, marriage etc. makes
certain statements along gender.
Social construction of gender in school
Schools continue and reinforce the family socialization process.
They penetrate the fact that boys and girls have different intellectual capacities thus girls
cannot do sciences and mathematics.
The stereotyping of men and women come about because of the socialization process.
Some of the statements are myths. In cases where the statements may have some truth
we do not try to look the underlying factors that cause men and women to act the way
they do.
Social construction is a critical consciousness and openness to change. It must start with
the;
1individual self
2.opening up for sharing
3.experiencing change
4.comparing with others the past present
5.their different experiences
6.their differing circumstances.
Social construction involves analysis, acquiring deeper understanding and making
conclusions.
Analysists, leaders and professionals have a role in socially constructing behaviour,
attitudes, perceptions and opinions and in changing out molded behaviour, practices,
stereotyping and discrimination.
Gender sensitivity – makes people better human beings.
Gender responsiveness – makes policy makers, planner and development worker more
effective in their work.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF GENDER
The women in development approach has its background on the perception of women’s
roles based on western experience which sees women as housewives, home makers while
men are considered to be bread winners.
Resulting from this perception of roles, society has prescribed differences in e.g. type and
content of education for men and women.,
Men are thus trained for productive roles while women are trained for reproductive roles.
This has resulted in alienation of women from mainstream of development.
The WID approach viewed the problem to be the exclusion of women from development
process. The solitaire was seen to be integration of women in existing development
process.
They stressed the need for increased support for women in their multiple roles. Some of
the studies and events that influenced this thinking were:
1. Women roles in economic development by E. BUSERUP and others in 1970
1. UN conferences and outcomes
1. The declaration of the UN decade for women 1975 – 85
In general they advocated for the integration of women in development process and
succeeded by highlighting the importance of women contributions. However, by focusing
only on women, they only emphasized on:

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i) Women’s participation but not benefits

i) They only focused on women’s only practical needs e.g. basic needs
i) They assumed women were outside the mainstream development
The interventions which were proposed aimed at women’s reproductive roles were welfare
oriented and had minimal impact.
UN decade for women from 1975 – 85
The UN decade for women called for equality between men and women. As a result of
their conferences, there was global recognition for the need of action.
1 Women machineries were created
1 Women’s projects were promoted
1 There was increased awareness of women’s multiple roles and need for support
1 There was inclusion in women concerns in development policies
1 But the efforts were too small, handouts such as water pumps; posho mills, pigs or
pig projects only reinforced the reproductive roles of women.
1 There was inappropriate duplication of activities and too much effort for too little
results
However:-
1 Grass-root mobilization and organization was achieved
1 Awareness on women’s situations created
1 Recognition of women’s roles in development achieved; what was needed became
clear, how to achieve it became unclear
End of women’s Decade Evaluation
1 Project were too small for too many – low impacts
1 Minimal benefits for women generally; integration did not happen
1 Projects increased women’s work load
1 Alienated women form mainstream development
However: _
1 Deeper insights into the situation women could gain
1 Recognition that women’s problem have to be solved by the whole society
1 Women have to be part of mainstream development
1 Men have to be part of the change
The Gender and Development approach
Evolved from the lessons from the WID program
Gender and development focused on women and men, girls and boys, female and male
elders.
Emphasizes of qualitative data
Seeks deeper understanding of root causes of gender disparities
Addresses gender and power relation
Challenges individuals to change
Distinguishes between practical and strategic needs
Differences between WID and GAD
The women in Development Approach
1 Concentrates on analysis and planning for women’s needs in general; this is usually
based on practical gender needs for women.
1 Focuses specifically on women
1 Aims at women participation in development but does not necessarily address itself
to the benefits of women’s participation
1 Assumes that women are outside the mainstream development and bring them in
1 Advocates separate development for women

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1 Is welfare oriented and deals with small income generating project activities which
tend to be general towards women’s reproductive roles
1 Deals with separate component or separate projects for women as remedial
activities to enable them participate in mainstream development
1 Is aimed at equality to access
1 Addresses itself as a stop-gap measure for disparity-reduction
The Gender and Development Approach (GAD)
1 Concerns itself with both what women and men do
1 Looks at the impact of development on both women and men as well as their
impact on development
1 Seeks to ensure that women may be involved in development by may not
necessarily benefit
1 Seeks to understand the root causes of gender inequality and address it self to
these causes
1 Emphasizes equality of benefit and control
1 Recognizes the need to look at equity of impact
1 It is not concerned with women per se but with social construction of gender and
assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectations to women and men
1 Addresses the interrelationship between gender roles, access to and control over
resources and power
1 It is apparent that the need to mainstream women cannot be over emphasized and
therefore it is necessary to promote Gender and Development as approach to this
end.

TOPIC II: THEORIES OF GENDER

1. Conflict theory
According to conflict theorists, gender roles are simply a reflection of male dominance. By
their control over economic and political spheres of society (institutions), men have been
able to establish laws and customs that protect their dominant positions. In so doing, they
have blocked women’s access to power.

2. Functionalism (Haralambos & Holborn 1990) functions women are to do

1 Functionalists view women as being disadvantaged only because they are required
to play certain roles that ensure the smooth functioning of the society.
1 They argue that the primary role of women is to be mothers and housewives. Due
to this, the position of women in labour market (outside the home) is weakened
compared to that of men who are constant breadwinners.
1 Women tend to be “secondary bread winners” compared to men therefore, they
tend to be regarded as less valuable in terms of equal pay
1 Also women are not as geographically mobile as men since they tend to be tied to
the home whereas career advancement usually requires residential mobility which
men easily execute i.e. men have more time to devote to learning and perfecting
their skills
1 Women tend to be overabundant in suitable occupations making their demand less
pressing.
1 Functionalists consider the male-female relationship as inevitable based on the
roles they play.
3. Marxists theory (Fredrick Engels 1972)
According to this theory, the acquisition of private property is the root cause of gender

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inequality.
1 He states that in ancient communal societies, men and women were equal because
there was no private property.
1 All major means of production were communally owned
1 Engels argues that at some historical point men began to acquire property turning
it to private property
1 Women became dependent on men for survival in exchange for sex and the
creation of heirs for men’s property
1 From then onwards, men have elaborated their control over women in all areas of
lives. To him the source of men’s power over women is the male ownership of
means of production until property relations are changed; women always hold an
inferior position to men.
4. Feminism
There are 3 categories of feminism, these are as follows
(a) Radical feminism
They blame the exploitation of women on men and the patriarchal class and system based
on the family. Thus men are the ruling class; women are the subject (the exploited class)
women must allegedly liberate themselves by overthrow patriarchal society to establish
equality on the sexes.
(b) Marxist or socialist Feminism
They blame women’s oppression in the different ownership of the means of production
between men and women. Women’s emancipation (freedom) regarded as possible only
with the socialization of the means of production and destruction of social classes under
the socialists and communists revolution.
(c) Liberal Feminism
They advocate the gradual equalization of the sexes through reform or incremental
adjustments of inequality. It is considered that the creation of equal opportunities for
example in education should eventually lead to equality.
1 From these theorists, it can be concluded that the exploitation of women is
associated with power men want to maintain. Men want to remain permanently
remain there; women have to be forced intimidated or influenced to be subjects
in the lower and exploited class.
1 Women exploitation is also associated with ownership of means of production.
Women must liberate themselves through economic empowerment in women
Kenya; this can be achieved through equalization of education.
1 Women should aim at and be encouraged to pursue education to higher levels
Impact of Gender disparities (differences) in society
1. The assumption and misconception in society girls and extension of women are less
intelligent: As a result women are given challenging jobs. Examples
1 A woman truck driver in Kenya, attracts stares and ridicule
1 In Kenya the ministries for finance, health and security were and still preserved for
men; women are relegated to ministries related to sports and social services
1 In schools, the beliefs for male superiority result in some girls keeping quit and
leaving discussions to boys
2. Men occupy position for leadership and authority in society: They dictate who gets
what. In Kenya, because of male domination in politics, women’s representation was
compromised.
A part from politics, men occupy most leadership positions in every sector in Kenyan
economy. To secure their position, men must justify the belief that women are unable to
perform some specific tasks.
3. Girls and women who venture into male dominated careers are labeled defiant

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Many are viewed with suspicion even by fellow women; they are regarded as intruders in
the male dominated domains (fields)
Men are warned not to marry such women because they are too ‘man like’ and wit ‘sit’ on
their husbands.
In politics, female candidates are ridiculed; past misdeeds are often highlighted as proof
of their incapability to lead. On the other hand, the misdeeds of men are not mentioned.
4. Gender violence is mistakenly tolerated in society
It is encouraged by male who see it as a way of assisting and disciplining hay ward ladies.
Te purpose of these men is to dominate women.
5. Ridicule through proverbs, sayings and name callings has been used to keep women in
lower positions.
Educated women and girls are at times treated with hostility.
In Turkana community, an educated woman fetches low bride price compared to
uneducated woman because she is believed to have been polluted by education.
The truth is that the male ego is usually challenged by those women.
6. There are cultural practices that place women in an inferior position to men
Among the Luhyas, a woman cannot construct a house. This at times has forced women to
marry people out of love but for identification purposes.
Culturally, women and girls are not supposed to visit certain places such as hotels
unaccompanied by their partners. However, a lone male can be served.
In order for married women to acquire passports, men or husbands must sign the forms to
allow the issuing of the document.
Title deeds are allocated to males and in most societies, division of land or property for
inheritance is given to male child.

TOPIC III: GENDER SOCIALIZATION

Gender socialization can be defined as the process through which an individual learns
responsibilities and expectations of men and women to fit in one society.
Types of Gender socialization
(a). Status socialization
1 The individual is prepared to occupy a generalized status in life.
1 It involves learning the ways of life of a family or a community.
1 It includes religious observations and initiation ceremonies
1 An individual also learn general positions such as being a mother if one is female, a
husband if one is male.
1 One learns the position he / she occupies in the society as male or female.
(b). Role socialization
1 An individual male or female is prepared for a specific vocation or function in
society, the purpose is to equip one with the skills and expectation that contribute
both to the development of individual in the society e.g. girls learn the roles
expected of them as daughters, wives and mothers while boys learn the roles of
boys in their community e.g. sons, fathers and bread winners.
Process of Gender socialization
Gender socialization is a process of learning the roles, responsibilities and expectations of
males and females to integrate them in the society (make one fit in the society)
1 Gender socialization begins from birth and continues through out the life
1 Gender is reinforced from infancy by selection of sex specific clothes and toys for
playing
1 The inequality that starts right from infancy is translated into unequal power
relations between men and women at all levels of society
Society owes different expectations for both boys and girls. In most cases, little boys are

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expected to be adventures, aggressive, assertive and active while the girls are expected to
be polite, gentle and perceive.
Parents and community members will express concern over a perceive boy and an
aggressive girl.
Men are not expected to show their behaviour but for women it is considered normal to be
emotional.
Some carriers have been a male dominated for along time e.g. some people still feel the
military service is a career for male. They say putting women in the army undermine
national security.
They also argue that women lack the strength and endurance to perform expectedly.
Boys and girls are made to internalize this expectation
Therefore the prophesy that women are inferior to men tends to be reinforced because
children are socialized to view and think differently.
Much gender socialization occurs in the family mostly with the parents, siblings and close
relatives.
Through the immediate families’ action, children learn the roles expected of them. These
roles are latter reinforced in schools, peer groups and society.

TOPIC IV: GENDER AND EDUCATION

Gender issues in the education sector

1Unequal access to schooling

There are inequalities of educational opportunities between boys and girls.
The low educational enrollment and participation on girls can be attributed to the socio –
cultural attitude which favor education of male siblings.
2. Differences in performance
Recent studies in national examination show that except in languages, girls’ achievement
is comparatively lower than that of boys particularly in mathematics and sciences.
This disparity can be attributed to the previous system which tended to offer pure
sciences to boy schools but general science to girl schools.
These factors can discourage girls from competing with boys.
3. School attainments
This is the length of time that one remains in school and the level of education that one
attains.
Low school attainment has often been reported among girls than boys.
The reasons are:
i. Early pregnancy
i. Gender and friendly environment
i. Early marriages
A girl is kept at home rather than a boy when there are limited resources.
4. Sex stereotypes
Gender stereotyping occurs in official curriculum, teaching materials like books and
organization of subject choices.
5. Under representation
Women are underrepresented in decision making in education although they make up the

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majority of the teaching force especially in primary schools.

Girls are under exposed and protected from the environment within which their personal
expression can be cultivated (encouraged)
In classroom participation, boys tend to dominate due to their socialization.
6. Socialization process
Gender identity begins in the family where parents treat male and female differently.
Boys are encouraged to show braveness and curiosity while girls are encouraged to be
obedient, kind, submissive and cheerful.
This kind of socialization process is reinforced by schools.
The Role of Education in gender issues
Schools are useful vehicles through which gender inequality can be tackled. This can be
through the following:
(a). Modification of attitude
Schools can be used to bring change in attitude in learners on sex roles.
This can be achieved through discussion on issues such as sex roles and stereotyping.
Retrogressive customs that hinder advancement of female can be analyzed and better
alternatives suggested.
Schools can be used to bring change in attitude in learners on sex roles.
This can be achieved through discussion on issues such as sex roles and stereotyping.
Retrogressive customs that hinder advancement of female can be analyzed and better
alternatives suggested.
(b). Revision of text books
School text books particularly set books should be reversed to change the female image.
They should prepare both boys and girls for challenges ahead of them. Women and girls
should be portrayed positively.
(c). Encouragement of girls in science based subjects
Deliberate efforts should be made to encourage girls to take science oriented subjects.
Boys should also be taught subjects like home science.
(d). Sensitization on education for the girl child
The public should be sensitized to take the girl child to school. Girls should be allowed to
go back to schools after delivery depending on the circumstances. No child should be
denied education simply because the child is a female.
(e). Government support
Whenever boys’ education is given preference, girls’ education should receive deliberate
support through scholarships and bursaries.
The government should take a stun measures against members of the society who
contributes to their daughters’ drop out cases from schools through retrogressive action
such as circumcisions, early marriages, deliberate refusal to pay school fees.
(f). Establishment of girls’ schools
More schools for girls especially boarding schools should be established particularly in
crime prone areas such as North –Eastern province or where cultural practices such as
circumcision and early marriages are rampant.

Challenges of gender in education

1 Although education is the strongest empowerment tool that would enable women
to improve their lives as well as their children’s lives, it remains difficult to
achieve millions of women in Kenya.
1 While women’s achievement in higher education particularly in information
technology has improved, many female children have no access to primary
education even when it’s free.

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1 Illiteracy is higher for female than male especially in rural areas.

1 Efforts to promote gender equity in education are obstructed by challenges such
as:
i. Poverty
i. Misconceptions regarding education as well as the predictable approach to
issues of gender equity in education
1 Female are less likely to pursue professional and dictatorial degrees
1 Male still dominate the sciences, engineering, business and other fields which
ensure entrance into higher paying careers
1 Women tend to concentrate on the social sciences, humanities that lead to low
income careers (low paying jobs)

TOPIC VI: GENDER AND EMPLOYMENT

Concept of Gender and employment
Women comprise over 57% of the total population and over a ½ of labor force. Most
women are still engaged in subsistence and small holder agricultural production and the
care economy. However, their labor is not adequately captured or recognized in the
system national accounts nor rewarded.
This also applies to women household chores/work such as cooking, fetching firewood,
collecting water and care of other family members including the reproductive roles.
Gender stereotyping in employment
Some of the gender stereotyping in employment are as follows:-
1. Women are more concerned with households, subsistence needs than with a cash
income
1. Women are seen as less intelligent than men and so some jobs are denied them.
There is a belief that women are unable to perform some tasks because they are
not strong or brave
1. There is a belief that women are inferior to men and that is what can lead to
harassment and ridicules at work
1. There is a stereotype that women are not influential or active on public affairs
1. There is a belief that women are not progressive in dealing with innovation
1. Men are better in heavy work than women
1. There is a belief that women are incompetent whereas men are competent
1. There is also a belief that women cannot keep secrets and so cannot be trusted
with secret matters
1. Women are subordinate whereas men are bosses
Legislation on Gender and Employment
a).Act of equal pay
Based on this act, an individual has a right to the same contractual pay and benefits
irrespective of the sex where the work is rated as equivalent i.e. men and women who are
doing the same job should be paid the same amount.
b). Sex Discrimination Act
Based on this Act,
1 It is enforced in many countries
1 It also prohibits sex or gender determination and provision of goods, facilities and
services.
1 It also prohibits discrimination against married people and employment
c). Protection from harassment Act
In most countries, this Act makes harassment criminal. It allows individuals who are
harassed to claim damages from continuing the harassment.
d). Men and women are equal before the law. The law treats people equally irrespective

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of sex or gender.
e). Human Rights Act
It protects the rights of individuals both male and female of citizens and looks at the
welfare of citizens as a whole.
Gender harassment at work place
Harassment means to annoy or worry somebody by putting pressure on them or saying or
doing unpleasant things to them.
Gender harassment therefore means annoying or doing unpleasant things to women and
men because of their gender.
It may involve intimidation, manipulation or name calling
Sexual harassment
It involves direct or indirect request for sexual intercourse, sexual contact or other forma
of sexual activities that contained implied or expressed motives.
a) Promised of special treatment in employment
a) Threat or bad treatment on employment
a) Threat about the present or future employment status of employee
a) Usage of language of sexual nature
a) It may show physical behavior of a sexual nature which subjects the employee to
behavior that is unwelcome or offensive to the employee or affect employee’s
employment, job performance or satisfaction.
How to handle the case of harassment
1 Seek counseling
1 Report to the superior
1 Report to the authority
1 Be assertive and talk to the harasser
1 Sue the harasser

TOPIC VII: GENDER AND POLITICS

Over the years, the Kenyan women have been under represented in both political and
other leadership positions. Men occupy positions of leadership and authority dictating who
get what. They dominate politics with low women participation.
We also find that men occupy most leadership position in every sector of the Kenyan
economy. There is gender imbalance in governmental bodies and committees.
Development agencies, executive management, strategic decision making positions and
political activities.
There are few women members of parliament compared to men yet they are the majority
voters both in parliamentary and civic election.
Fewer women are appointed cabinet ministers and most of them are given assistant
minister posts in low ranking ministries.
Women’s representation has remained low in local authority that is, chairmen to local
authorities are always men.
We also have few women councilors.
The level of employment is an indicator of women’s participation in decision making in the
country administration.
More women are concentrated in lower jobs in civil service therefore the representation of
women in decision making decreases in the upper job groups.
The presence of women in top key areas like defence, economics, policy and political
affairs are made negligible.

Factors that influence gender participation in politics and management positions

1. Traditional, culture and customs

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1. Beliefs that women are less intelligent

1. Belief that women cannot keep the secrets
1. Belief that women cannot handle jobs such as engineering
1. Gender socialization process i.e. kind of playing tools for both boys and girls, roles
designed etc.
1. High cost of monitoring election campaigns
1. Lack of campaign and leadership skills
1. Lack of information
1. Gender stereotypes i.e. men would disclosed a lot of things about who opt to vie
for a particular position
1. Gender violence (men attacking women who indulge in politics by buying thugs to
beat and frustrate them.
1. Male dominance in high positions
1. Lack of solidarity among women
1. Social attitudes or belief towards women e.g. women cannot lead or leadership is
the preserve of men
Impact of Gender representation in management and politics
Politics and management positions continue to be dominated by men and show they
continue dictating what is to be done.
2.Inequality in politics and management position
3.Women continue to be subordinate to men who control means of production
4.The majority of policy makers are men so they cannot articulate issues affecting women
5.Discrimination at work place i.e. women being harassed thus experiencing stress at work
place.
Impacts of gender representation in management and politics
1. Men’s continuous dominating the field of politics and they dictate what they want
and how they want it to be done
1. There is increased inequality in politics and management positions on men and
women
1. Women continuously be subordinates to men who control means of production
1. Men are the majority policy makers thus they make policies that favour them
1. There is continued discrimination at work place women being harassed by men e.g.
through sexual harassment, promotion on cooperation, employment on cooperation
and even the job being retained on cooperation that you do exactly what boss have
decided.

TOPIC VIII: GENDER AND HEALTH

Concept of gender and health
Women and men’s concern about health differ for biological reasons, different life styles
and for social and cultural reasons.
Women’s state of health is more directly linked to social and cultural practice as well as
their role as mothers.
Women tend to receive less care from childhood.
Gender health issues
1. Child mortality:
poor health facility, poor nutrition, inability to attend health care
1. Maternal mortality:
lack of proper during pregnancy, at the time of giving birth, after giving birth etc.
1. Non involvement of men in family planning programmes:
for men family planning is useless, women knows the burden of raising the children
1. HIV/AIDS:

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(who spreads it who)

1. Nutrition :
lack of proper feeding, contribute to health diseases
1. Teenage pregnancy and its consequences:
on the health of women and children
1. Caring for the sick,
the elderly and disabled
1. Cost sharing:
most women rely on men for treatment money thus they get it difficult to attend
hospitals when ill
1. Drug and substance abuse:
men are affected more than women

Gender health vulnerability

Factors that contribute to vulnerability
1. Poor nutrition and anaemia makes women’s body more vulnerable to infections
1. Female subordination (female depending on men) women always rely on men for
money for treatment
1. Wife inheritance makes women vulnerable to HIV/AIDS
1. Gender bias regarding issue of sexual violence and rape
1. Poverty and economic dependence on men
1. Limited access to information and exposure
1. Polygamy
1. Separation of women from their husbands can lead them to STIs and HIV/AIDS
1. Social construction of gender and socialization process determine how both sexes
believe
Challenges faced on health and gender vulnerabilities
1. Women are unable to exercise their sexual rights-lack of decision making on health
related issues
1. Women are economically dependent on men
2. Social and cultural expectation make it difficult for women to set terms of sexual
encounter
1. Double standard in male and female behavior
1. Women are expected to be faithful but multiple sexual relationship are accepted
and even encouraged for men
1. Women are not free to negotiate the use of condom
1. Willing submission is part of the gender construction of being a woman
1. Women are seen as objects of reproduction
1. Ignorance about sex is viewed as a sign of purity (women are not supposed to
discuss sex related issues)
1. Understaffing and poor quality of health services i.e. doctors, gynaecologist)
1. Social economic disparities between the male and the female
1. Inadequate reproductive health care for the female

Measures to correct the challenges faced by health and vulnerability

1. Women economic empowerment i.e. by education
1. Awareness creation on women’s right and sexual rights
1. Awareness creation on health issues
1. Availability of skilled staff and adequate facilities and health services
1. Women should also be amongst the field staff
1. Behavior change communication whereby we encourage people to change their

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cultural beliefs and traditions that are not promoting good health for both the
genders
1. Need for the provision of proper adequate reproductive health care for both girls
and women

TOPIC IX: GENDER AND VIOLENCE

Meaning of gender and violence
Gender based violence entails;
all acts that inflicts physical, mental and sexual harm or suffering, threats of such acts or
force.
It is violence either against the females or males
Gender violence is more widespread among women and girls
Violence against women derives from their unequal status in the society
Forms of Gender violence
(i) Battering: takes place in both genders, women are the most affected
(i) Rape / defilement / incest
(i) Forced marriages
(i) Wife inheritance (many inherited against their will)
(i) Female genital mutilation (FGM)
(i) Intimidation / molestation i.e. at the place of work or at the family or college or
in school
(i) Psychological abuse – what affect the mind or emotions i.e. the way you are
treated or the words
(i) Harassment at work place, school, college etc.
Gender vulnerability in violence (what makes both male and female vulnerable to
violence)
1. Cultural attitude and practices e.g. wife inheritance, FGM, forced marriages
1. Stresses of life can make someone more prone to violence
1. Poor socio-economic conditions creating dependency on men i.e. being bar maids,
prostitutes etc.
1. Supremacy of men always make them see themselves in higher position and women
in lower position
1. Patriarchal domination, men sees right to beat women
1. Traditional beliefs that sees women inferior
1. Gender socialization process: men who grew up knowing that women should be
beaten always tend to do so
Impact of Gender violence in the society
1. Can lead to family separation or divorce
1. Can lead to death
1. Leads to unwanted pregnancy
1. Can lead to trauma
1. Leads to high rates of school drop outs
1. Leads to desertion of work place due to psychological torture
1. May lead to infertility due to disease infection
1. Lead to physical injury and destruction of physical facilities or property
1. Can lead to stigma and discrimination
1. It violates and impairs or nullifies the enjoyment by women off their human rights
Emerging issues in gender violence
1.male battering
2.girls also inherit property

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3.emergence of activism at the rights of women

4.F.G.M and V.M.M.C

TOPIC X: GENDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Link between gender and human rights
The Kenyan constitution in its chapter 5 guarantees fundamental rights and freedom to all
irrespective of race, tribe, place of origin, residence or other local connections, political
opinions, colour, creed or sex.
However, persisted cultural and customary practices have continued to deny women some
of their rights.
The legal and social-cultural issues that need to be addressed to further improve status of
women are in the areas of family law, divorce and maintenance, matrimonial property,
succession, education, training, employment and reproduction rights.
The following are some of the human rights according to Kenyans constitution
1. Right to life; every person has the right to life
1. Equality; every person is equal before the law and has the rights to equal
protection and equal benefit of the law.
1. Gender; women and men have the right to equal treatment including the right to
equal opportunities in political, economic, cultural and social activities. Women
and men have equal rights to inherit, have access to and manage property.
1. Human dignity; every person has inherence dignity and the right to have that
dignity respected and protected.
1. Freedom and security of a person; every person has the right to freedom and
security
1. Privacy; every person has the right to privacy
1. Freedom of religion, belief and opinion; every person has the right to freedom of
concise, religion, thought, belief and opinion.
1. Freedom of expression; every person has the right to freedom of expression.
1. Access to information; every person has the right to have access to information.
1. Right to freedom of association; right to assemble, demonstrate and to present
petitions to public authorities.
1. Political rights; there is right to be a member of any political party.
1. Right to freedom of movement
1. Right to choose a trade, occupation or profession
1. Right to acquire and own property in nay part in Kenya
1. Right to fair labor practices
1. Right to social responsibility
1. Right to health
1. Right to education
1. Right to affordable and adequate housing
1. Right to be free from hunger and to adequate food of reasonable quality
1. Right to water in adequate quantities and of reasonable quality
1. Right to reasonable standard of sanitation
1. Right to an environment that is safe for life and health
1. Right to use language and participate in cultural life of that persons choice
1. The consumers’ rights

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a)Rights to goods and services of reasonable quality

a)Right to information concerning goods and services
a)Right to protection of their health
a)Safety and economic interest
a)Compensation for loose or injury arising from defects in goods or services
1. Right to administrative action that is expeditious (speedy), efficient, lawful,
reasonable and fair
a) Right of access to court
a) Right of arrested person
a) Right to fair trials
a) Rights of person held in custody

TOPIC XI: GENDER AND RESOURCES

Productive, reproductive and community work all require the use of resources.
Access to resources
It refers the opportunity to make use of the resources.
Women have less access then men to resources like economic, political or time as a
resource.
They also have less access to the returns and benefits of these resources.
This limits women’s ability to participate in and benefit from project activities.
Control of resources
Control refers to the ability to define its use and impose that definition on others.
Women have less control over resources than men.
They also have less access to land but no control over its long term use.
They may have access to food but no control over its allocation within the household.
They may have access to income through the food or craft production but no control on
how it can be spent
Women may have some access to local process but little or no control over the nature or
issues to be addressed and final decisions.
Ownership of resources
Ownership of resources means having access to resources, control over those resources to
use as you wish and having access to and control over benefit derived from the resources.
Most of the resources such as land are owned by men.
Gender disparities in resource ownership
(Differences in resource ownership between female and male especially associated with
unfairness)
1. Land
1. Equipment or tools e.g. use of plough, tractors, computers, laptops etc.
1. Employment opportunities (male get more opportunities than female)
1. Skill development
1. Leadership
1. Education and information
1. Time as a resource (activities that a woman have to do from morning to dusk)
1. Self confidence and credibility (male are more self confident than female)
1. Credit / cash
1. Public sphere / being exposed in public affairs i.e. they are flexible to movement
thus they can develop more changes faster than women
Causes of disparities in resource ownership
(i) Cultural attitudes and beliefs
(i) Gender stereotypes
(i) Gender socialization process

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(i) Gender biases

(i) Reinforcement of differences between men and women by religion, ethnicity or
social class
(i) Confusion about women intelligence
Impact of gender disparities on resources
1. Women and men have different impacts on project both must be involved in
identifying problems and solutions if the interest of the community as a whole is to
be taken into account
1. Different needs and interest of women and men have different effects on
development. It may mean changing established procedures and ways of working
1. Gender differences in access to and control over resources affects the ability and
incentive to participate in development projects
1. Inefficient use of available resources leads to less development
1. Mena re better placed than women to exploit the opportunities because of the
resources at their disposal
1. Gender disparity can affect project sustainability

TOPIC XII: FEMINISM MOVEMENTS

Origin and development of feminism movement
Feminism is the belief that women are equal to men and should have equal rights and
opportunities.
Feminism has along history in the United States. The feminist or advocate of feminism
begun by working for women’s rights
The early women’s movement emerged during a rapid period of social change in the later
19trh century.
Feminism seemed to disappear in the early 20th century after women won the right to vote
but resurfaced in the 1960s another period of social up heaven.
After a period of more or less steady victories, in the 1970s, the movement encountered
organized government backed opposition in the 1980s.
To a large degree, the women’s movement has become institutionalist; women’s issues
have gained a respected place on the national agenda.
Factors that have contributed to the development of feminism
1. Climate of social change
It was launched by civil right movement and emerged in the anti war movement. They
raised the expectation of social equality for all.
2. Emergence of a sense of collective injustice
People begun to see their problem as collective concern and not private troubles, thus
they were able to participate in collective action.
3. Organization
The protest movement had created communication network among politically concise
young women. The appointment of women commissions art the federal and state levels
brought together women who were active in mainstream politics, leading to the creation
of the national organization for women.
Organization is critical in mobilizing people and resources for collective action.
4. Structural change
There was increase in the number of women working and pursuing higher education and
careers as the average family size decreases. (Women could now plan for all the activities
they were to do)
Approaches to feminism movement (theories)

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1. Liberal feminist
They used such tactics as lawsuit, boycotts and demonstrations to press fro equal rights
under the law.
2. Radical feminism
They believed that true equality was not possible in a patriarchal women hating
(despising) society and that fundamental social change was required.
They concentrated in developing women health clinics, day care centres, shelters for
victims of rape and intimate violence, feminist book stores and theatres and college
courses in women studies.
Contributions of feminism movements (achievements)
1. They focus on national attention on social injustice
1. Female educational and career opportunities increased
1. The women obtained voting and abortion rights
1. There was institutionalization of women’s movement leading to lobbying and
protection of women’s rights.
1. Radical feminism is still active in academic, the Act of Health and social services.
1. There was improvement in the status of women
1. Better mobilization and organization for women
1. There was better legislation
Women empowerment Framework
This is the most recent approach articulated by third world women. It s purpose is to
empower women through greater self reliance.
Women’s subordination is expressed because of male oppression and colonial and neo
colonial oppression. It recognizes the triple role of women. Most women in any society find
it difficult to speak or express their views in the presence of men.
It is important to device ways of enabling women’s voices to be heard.
The idea here is that development of women should give them power to make meaningful
choices and changes in their lines. Women empowerment is the process of increasing the
capacity of women to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions
and outcomes.
It refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social or economic strength of women. It
involved the empowered women developing confidence in their own capacities to change
their lives and the lives of others.
Marginalized women who have no opportunities to become self sufficient become
dependent on charity handouts and are immersed in a view cycle of luck and deprivation.
They lose their self confidence because they cannot be fully self supporting.
Effective women empowerment is one that provides strategies that cause change,
reducing need on going dependence on handouts.
It is a process that challenges women’s assumption about the way things are and can be.
Women empowerment seeks to change the use and employment of abilities in a way that
lead to sustained growth and productivity.
Women empowerment is also a process of obtaining and availing skills, resources and
opportunities to women so that they are able to improve their quality of life.
It is a process that helps women to gain control over their lines and their communities as a
result of impartation of power.
The empowerment of women is a long term process that requires changes in the behaviour
and attitudes of women and men and in the set of ideas that societies hold in gender.
It needs not to wait until basic needs are addressed.
Women empowerment involves creating a conducive environment for women to
participate in their change and growth.
Levels of women empowerment

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1. Welfare (zero level)

Welfare can be defined as the lowest level at which development intervention may hope
to close agenda gap.
It is the improvement in social economic status such as improved nutritional status,
shelter or income.
This is the level where women are given hand outs rather than producing or acquiring such
benefits for themselves.
This is therefore the zero level of empowerment where women are the perceived
receptionists of benefits that are given from on high (who ever the donor is)

2. Access
It is defined as the first level of empowerment since women improve their won status
relating to men by their own work and organizations arising from increase access to
resources e.g. women farmers may improve their production and general welfare by
increase access to water, land, to the market, to skills training and to information.
3. Conscientization
This is the process by which women realize their lack of status and welfare to men is not
due to their own lack of ability, organization or effort. (It involves the realization that
women’s relative lack in access to resources actually arises from discriminatory practices
and rules that give priority, access and control to men.
Conscientization therefore is concerned with collecting urge to take action to remove one
or more of the discriminatory practices that prevent women’s access to resources that is
the women have to understand the underlying causes of their problems and to identify
strategies for action.
4. Mobilization
Mobilization is the action level which complement. It involves coming together fro the
recognition and analysis of the problems, the identification of strategies to overcome
discriminatory practices and collective action to remove these practices.
Here communication is concerned with the mobilization of the group and to connect up
with the larger women’s movement to learn from the successes of women’s similar
strategic action elsewhere and to link up with the wider struggle for equal rights for
women.
Leadership is important here in building the mobilization process providing the
organization’s space, adapting and redirecting the existing women organizations and
taking the lead in connecting with the wider sisterhood. (Other movements engaged in
similar struggles).
5. Control
Control is the level that is reached when women have taken action so that there is gender
equality in decision making over access to resources so that women achieve direct control
over their access to resources.
They have taken what is rightfully theirs and no longer wait to be given resources at the
discretion of men.
Here the role of information and communication is to spread the words on the
development of successful strategies.
Conclusion
These five levels are not really a linear progression as written/discussed, but rather
cycler. The achievement of women increased control leads to better access into resources
and therefore improved socio economic status.

TOPIC XIII: GENDER ANALYSIS

Gender analysis is defined as a systematic attempt to document and understand

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differences in roles and opportunities between women and men within a given context.
Key issues include:-
1. The division of labor for both reproductive and productive activities.
1. Access to and control over resources and benefits
1. Decision making capacities
1. Constraints and opportunities which influence the key issues we have stated.
Gender analysis is a participatory planning tool with objective to assist programmes /
project planners, institutions and target groups in:-
a) Identification of gender differences in the target group in the area of project
intervention
a) Identification of gender specific constraints and opportunities for women’s and
men’s participation in development projects and possible strategies and measures
to overcome the constraints
a) Recognition of different effects or impacts of the development interventions on
women and men of the target group
A number of profiles are developed to facilitate the compilation and analysis of the
collected information as well as the assessment of possible effects of the planned project
intervention on gender relations.
The profiles or tools are:
1. Activity profile (productive, reproductive and community)
1. Access and control profile (resources and benefits)
1. Social cultural and political profiles
1. Constraints and opportunity profiles

1. Activity profile (analyzes activities carried out in a day)

1. The key question is who does what?
2. Where is the work done?
3. How much time is required to do each activity?
4. How much time is the said activity happen?
Productive activities
These are activities that directly bring in an income e.g. wage employment, cash crop
production, herding the animals.
Reproductive activities
These are activities carried out fro the care and maintenance of human life and
household e.g. fetching water, firewood, cooking, children care, washing clothes and
utensils etc.

Community activities
These are those activities undertaken for the maintenance of the community. The work is
mostly voluntary and takes s place outside the home and involves the community e.g.
building a school, constructing a rural access road, burial or wedding ceremonies etc.
2. Access and control profile
They key issues in these profiles are resources and benefits.
The key questions on resources are:-
a) What resources do women and men have for their work?
a) Who has access to these resources?
a) Who has control over the resources?
a) How will this access to and control over resources be affected by project
intervention

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Resources and benefit access may be defined as the right to use freedom, availability of
means of reach and utilize a resource.
Resources ad benefit control may be defined as the right to use and disposal or benefit of
resources.
Examples of resources
1. Land
1. Capital
1. Time
1. Information
1. Education and training
1. Credit and technology
Key questions on benefits are:-
a) What benefits do women and men obtain from their work?
a) Are these benefits consumerate with the input
a) Who controls the benefits?
Examples of benefits
1. Income
1. Asset ownership
1. Basic education
1. Knowledge and skills
1. Political power
1. Leadership etc.
3. Socio-cultural and political profile
The key issues:
1. Decision making
1. Organizational capacity
1. Self image
Key questions are:
a) What is women’s participation in decision making compared to men at the various
levels i.e. family, community
a) What is women’s self confidence and self image in society compared to men
a) What is women’s organizational capacity compared to men’s
a) To what extent with those socio-cultural and political aspects affect and be
affected by project intervention
4. Constraints and opportunity profile
Is also known as a determinant profile. This is an analysis of factors influencing the
activities access and control profiles.
These determinants / factors are usually the causes of gender disparities.
The factors may include:-
Culture and tradition
Environment
Education
Economy
Government policy etc.
The analysis helps one to identify those factors that one can do something about to
minimize their influence. It also allows one to be responsive and adjust or adopt
accordingly.
Project cycle analysis
With all the above data collected and analyzed, analysis can be done at any point to
re-plan or evaluate the activities in order to improve the project; these include
1.project identification,

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2.project planning,
3.project monitoring
4.project evaluation.

TOPIC IV: EMERGING ISSUES ON GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Conflict between the statutes and norms
The Kenyan constitution in section 82 (reserves the right to discriminate in matters of
marriage. inheritance, burial, divorce and other matters of the law.) They also
discriminate in the application of customary law in the case of other members of a
particular race or tribe.
2. The right to own property
Under the constitution, women can acquire, dispose property as they wish however, under
the customary settings women do not own property such as land in any event; the
constitution allows the discrimination and application of customary law and this can be
used to deny women right to own property.
3. Succession and inheritance
The law does not distinguish between the male and the female heirs or married and
unmarried heirs. However, culturally, women do not inherit from their fathers and more
so married women where a husband dies, his brother and parents in most cases will
disinherit the widow (take all the property)
Many cases are pending in the courts where in-laws have lied to the courts that their sons
had no wives or children.
4. Marriage laws
Marriage law are several and complex. It is difficult to know who is a wife and what laws
or rights apply to one or to the particular wife.
There is need for a uniform law and for assistance under which all marriages are
regulated.
5. Child support and maintenance
A child can be maintained up to 16 years of age. This is unrealistic with the challenges of
ever rising poverty.
Children complete secondary school at the age of 18 years and university at the age of 23
years or even more. If the law does not compel to further to education of the children
then the burden becomes to the mothers.
5. Violence
The constitution dis-allows violence. However, there is a lot of violence against women
and girls in our country today; including battery, defilement and rape.
The law that flows from the constitution are wanting in their enforcement mechanism e.g.
there is no offence known as
a) Spouse battery
a) Culturally wife beating was allowed
a) Many law enforcement officers are still insensitive to gender issues
a) Evidence required is cumbersome

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