Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Trigonometry 1

Section 1.1 Radian and Degree Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Section 1.2 Area and Arc Length of a Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Section 1.3 Linear and Angular Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Section 1.4 The Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Section 1.5 Right Triangle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 2 Trigonometric Functions and Identities 10

Section 2.1 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Section 2.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Section 2.3 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Section 2.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Section 2.5 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Chapter 3 Additional Topics in Trigonometry 19

Section 3.1 The Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Section 3.2 The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Section 3.3 Heron’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Section 3.4 Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter 4 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System 25

Section 4.1 Rectangular Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Section 4.2 The Distance Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Section 4.3 Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chapter 5 Vectors 27

Section 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Section 5.2 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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 Section 5.3 Angles Between Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Section 5.4 The Triangle Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Section 5.5 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Section 5.6 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 6 Trigonometry and Complex Numbers 38

Section 6.1 The Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Section 6.2 The Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Section 6.3 DeMoivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter 7 Lines 41

Chapter 8 Plane and Polar Curves 42

Section 8.1 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Section 8.2 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Section 8.3 Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter 9 Conic Sections Revisited 51

Section 9.1 Rotations of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Section 9.2 Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Section 9.3 Planetary Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 10 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 57

Section 10.1 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Section 10.2 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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 Chapter 1: Trigonometry

Section 1.1: Radian and Degree Measure

Note 1: Recall the following for a circle with radius r, diameter d, circumference C, and area A.
(i) d = 2r; (iii) C = πd = 2πr;
C
(ii) =π∼ = 3.141592654; (iv) A = πr2 .
d
Definition 2: In a circle with radius r, the central angle θ of a sector with arc length s has measure
C 2πr πr
(i) 1 radian if s = r; (ii) 1 degree if s = = = .
r 360 180
Note 3: A radian is illustrated below. (Why not a degree?)

Notation 4:

(i) The symbol ◦ is used to denote an angle measured in degrees. (e.g., 30◦ )
π
(ii) The symbol rad is used to denote an angle measured in radians. (e.g., rad)
6
Definition 5:
π
(i) An angle is acute if it measures less than rad.
2
π
(ii) An angle is obtuse if it measures less than rad.
2
π
(iii) An angle is right if it measures rad.
2
π
(iv) Two angles are complementary if the sum of their measurements is rad.
2
(v) Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their measurements if π rad.

1
Note 6: Some common angles are illustrated below.

(i) (Degree Measure)

(ii) (Radian Measure)

Note 7 (Degree and Radian Conversion):

180 ◦ π
(i) π rad = 180◦ ; (ii) 1 rad = ; (iii) 1◦ = rad.
π 180
Example 8: Convert the following from degrees to radians.
5π 5π
(a) 300◦ = rad; (b) −100◦ = − rad.
3 9
Example 9: Convert the following from radians to degrees.
7π
(a) rad = 210◦ ; (b) −4π = −720◦ .
6

2
 Section 1.2: Area and Arc Length of a Sector
Definition 10: A sector of a circle is the region bounded by two radii of the circle and their

intercepted arc.

Proposition 11: In a circle of radius r,

θ
(i) the length of the arc with central angle θ rad is s = 2πr · = rθ;
2π
θ 1
(ii) the area of the sector with central angle θ rad is A = πr2 · = r2 θ.
2π 2
Proposition 12: In a circle of radius r,
θ πrθ
(i) the length of the arc with central angle θ◦ is s = 2πr · = ;
360 180
θ 1
(ii) the area of the sector with central angle θ◦ is A = πr2 · = πr2 θ.
360 360
Example 13: A circle has radius 4 cm. For each of the following, find the area of the sector with

the given central angle.

π
(a) rad
3
π/3 8π
The area A is 16π · cm2 = cm2 .
2 3
(b) 100◦
100 40π
The area A is 16π · cm2 = cm2 .
360 9

Section 1.3: Linear and Angular Speed

Definition 14: Suppose that an object is traveling around a circle.

(i) The linear speed is the rate of change of the arc length;

(ii) The angular speed is the rate of change of the central angle.

Example 15: The blades of a wind turbine are 116 feet long. The propeller rotates at 15 revolutions

per minute.

(a) Find the angular speed of the propeller in radians per minute.

Because each revolution generates 2π radians, it follows that the propeller turns 15(2π) = 30π

radians per minute.

(b) Find the linear speed of the tips of the blades.

s rθ (116)(30π) ∼
The linear speed is given by = = = 10933 feet per minute.
t t 1

3
 Section 1.4: The Unit Circle
Definition 16: The unit circle is the circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 1.

Definition 17 (Trigonometric Values - Unit Circle): The trigonometric values of the angle

measure θ are given below.

y x
(a) sin θ = = y; (d) cot θ = ;
1 y
x 1
(b) cos θ = = x; (e) sec θ = ;
1 x
y 1
(c) tan θ = ; (f ) csc θ = .
x y

Note 18:

(i) For all θ ∈ R, (cos θ)2 + (sin θ)2 = x2 + y 2 = 1;

π
(ii) If θ = + nπ for any n ∈ Z, then cos θ = 0 and both tan θ and sec θ are undefined.
2
(iii) If θ = nπ for any n ∈ Z, then sin θ = 0 and both cot θ and csc θ are undefined.
11π
Example 19: Use the unit circle to find the six trigonometric values of .
6

4
 √
11π 1 11π 3 3 3 √
(a) sin =− ; (d) cot =√ = = 3;
6 √2 6 3 3
√
11π 3 11π 2 2 3
(b) cos = ; (e) sec =√ = ;
6 2 √ 6 3 3
11π 1 3 11π
(c) tan =√ = ; (f ) csc = −2.
6 3 3 6

Proposition 20: Let θ ∈ R.

(i) cos(−θ) = cos(θ);  π

(iv) cos(θ) = sin θ + ;
(ii) sin(−θ) = − sin(θ); 2
 π
(v) sin(θ) = cos θ − .
(iii) sin(π − θ) = sin(θ); 2

Proof: For (i)-(iii), see the figure below.

Note that cos(θ) = x = cos(−x), sin(−θ) = −y = − sin(θ), and sin(π − θ) = y.

For (iv) and (v), consider the figure below.

5
  π  π  π π
Note that cos(θ) = a = sin θ + and cos θ − = sin θ − + = sin(θ). ■
2 2 2 2

Section 1.5: Right Triangle Trigonometry

Definition 21 (Trigonometric Values - Right Triangle): Consider the right triangle below

with leg length o (opposite to θ) and a (adjacent to θ) and hypotenuse length h.

The trigonometric values, sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant

(sec), and cosecant (csc) of angle measure θ are defined as follows.

o opposite
(i) sin θ = = ; 1 a adjacent
h hypotenuse (iv) cot θ = = ;
a adjacent tan θ o opposite
(ii) cos θ = = ; 1 h hypotenuse
h hypotenuse (v) sec θ = = = ;
sin θ o opposite cos θ a adjacent
(iii) tan θ = = = ; 1 h hypotenuse
cos θ a adjacent (vi) csc θ = = = .
sin θ o opposite

6
Example 22: For the triangle below, find the six trigonometric values of θ.

By the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the hypotenuse is 10. Hence,

6 3 4
sin(θ) = = ; cot(θ) = ;
10 5 3
8 4 5
cos(θ) = = ; sec(θ) = ;
10 5 4
6 3 5
tan(θ) = = ; csc(θ) = .
8 4 3
π π π
Note 23: The six trigonometric values of rad, rad, and rad are derived below.
6 3 4
(i) Begin with the following triangle.

Drop a perpendicular, as depicted below.

7
By the Angle-Side-Angle congruence theorem, the two smaller triangles are congruent. So the length

of each base is 1. See the figure below.

√
By the Pythagorean Theorem, the height of the triangle is given by 3, as depicted below.

8
By the final diagram, we obtain the following. √
π 1 π 3
(a) sin = ; (g) sin = ;
6 2√ 3 2
π 3 π 1
(b) cos = ; (h) cos = ;
6 2 √ 3 2
π 1 3 π √
(c) tan = √ = ; (i) tan = 3;
6 3 3 3 √
π 3 √ π 1 3
(d) cot = √ = 3; (j) cot = √ = ;
6 3 3 3 3√
π π 2 2 3
(e) csc = 2; (k) csc = √ = ;
6 √ 3 3 3
π 2 2 3 π
(f ) sec = √ = ; (l) sec = 2.
6 3 3 3

(ii) Now consider the following triangle.

By the diagram above,

√ we obtain the following.
π 1 2
(a) sin = √ = ; π
4 2 2
√ (d) cot = 1;
4
π
(b) cos = √ =
1 2
; π √
(e) csc = 2;
4 2 2 4
π π √
(c) tan = 1; (f ) sec = 2.
4 4

9
 Chapter 2: Trigonometric Functions and Identities

Section 2.1: Periodic Functions

Definition 24: Let f be a function and p ∈ R. Then

(i) p is the period of f if it is the smallest positive real number such that f (x + p) = f (x) for every

x ∈ dom(f );

(ii) f is periodic if it has a period.

Example 25:

(a) Nonconstant polynomial functions are not periodic.

(b) The function x − ⌊x⌋ is periodic with periodic with period 1.

Section 2.2: Trigonometric Functions

Note 26: The graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) are below.

Theorem 27: Let a, b, c, d ∈ R with a ̸= 0 and b > 0. Also, suppose that f (x) = a sin(bx + c) + d

or f (x) = a cos(bx + c) + d. Then,

(i) the amplitude of f is |a|; |c|

(iii) the phase shift of f is ;
2π b
(ii) the period of f is ;
b (iv) the average value of f is d.

Proposition 28:

(i) The functions sin(x) and tan(x) are odd.

10
(ii) The function cos(x) is even.

Note 29: The graphs of the other four trigonometric functions are below.

11
Note 30: The periods of tan and cot are π. The periods of the other four trigonometric functions

are 2π.

Section 2.3: Trigonometric Identities

Theorem 31: For every θ ∈ R, sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1.

Proof: Use the Pythagorean Theorem. ■

Corollary 32:

(i) For every θ ∈ dom(tan) ∩ dom(sec), tan2 (θ) + 1 = sec2 (θ).

12
(ii) For every θ ∈ dom(csc) ∩ dom(cot), cot2 (θ) + 1 = csc2 (θ).

Proof:

For (i), divide both sides of sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1 by cos2 (θ).

For (ii), divide both sides of sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1 by sin2 (θ). ■

Proposition 33 (Cofunction Identities): For any acute angle θ,

π  π 
(i) sin − θ = cos(θ); (iv) cot − θ = tan(θ);
2π   π2 
(ii) cos − θ = sin(θ); (v) sec − θ = csc(θ);
2π  2π 
(iii) tan − θ = cot(θ); (vi) csc − θ = sec(θ).
2 2

Example 34: Simplify the expressions.

1 1
(c) −
(a) cos(θ) + tan(θ) sin(θ) 1 − sin(x) 1 + sin(x)
  1 + sin(x) − (1 − sin(x))
sin(θ) =
= cos(θ) + sin(θ) [1 − sin(x)][1 + sin(x)]
cos(θ) 2 sin(x)
cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) =
= 1 − sin2 (x)
cos(θ) 2 sin(x)
= sec(θ). =
cos2 (x)
sin(θ) cos(θ) = 2 tan(x) sec(x).
(b) +
cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ) cos(θ)
sin(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] + cos2 (θ) (d)
= 1 − sin(θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
sin2 (θ) + sin(θ) + cos2 (θ) = ·
= 1 − sin(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)]
1 + sin(θ) =
= 1 − sin2 (θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)]
1 =
= cos2 (θ)
cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
= sec(θ). =
cos(θ)
= sec(θ) + tan(θ).
Theorem 35: For s, t ∈ R,

(i) cos(s + t) = cos(s) cos(t) − sin(s) sin(t); (iii) cos(s − t) = cos(s) cos(t) + sin(s) sin(t);

(ii) sin(s + t) = sin(s) cos(t) + cos(s) sin(t); (iv) sin(s − t) = sin(s) cos(t) − cos(s) sin(t).
Proof: For (i), see the figure below.

13
In the figure, the distances t, s + t, and −s have been marked on the unit circle, starting at

P0 = (1, 0) and terminating at Q1 , P1 , and Q0 , respectively. The coordinates of these points

are P0 = (1, 0), P1 = (cos(s + t), sin(s + t)), Q0 = (cos(−s), sin(−s)) = (cos(s), − sin(s)), and

Q1 = (cos(t), sin(t)). Note that the distances between P0 and P1 and between Q0 and Q1 mea-

sured along the arc of the circle are equal. Since equal arcs are subtended by equal chords, it follows

that d(P0 , P1 ) = d(Q0 , Q1 ). Hence,

d(P0 , P1 ) = d(Q0 , Q1 )
p p
⇐⇒ [cos(s + t) − 1]2 + [sin(s + t) − 0]2 = [cos(t) − cos(s)]2 + [sin(t) + sin(s)]2

⇐⇒ cos2 (s + t) − 2 cos(s + t) + 1 + sin2 (s + t) = cos2 (t) − 2 cos(s) cos(t) + cos2 (s) + sin2 (t) +

2 sin(s) sin(t) + sin2 (s)

⇐⇒ 2 − 2 cos(s + t) = 2 − 2 cos(s) cos(t) + 2 sin(s) sin(t)

⇐⇒ cos(s + t) = cos(s) cos(t) − sin(s) sin(t).

For (ii), consider the following.

sin(s + t) h π i
h πi = cos(s) sin(t) − sin(s) − sin −t
= cos (s + t) − 2
2
h  π i = cos(s) sin(t) + sin(s) cos(−t)
= cos s + t −
 2π  π = cos(s) sin(t) + sin(s) cos(t).

= cos(s) cos t − − sin(s) sin t −
2 2

For (iii) and (iv), set t = −t and apply (i) and (ii). ■

Corollary 36 (Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas): For every x ∈ R,

(i) sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x);

(ii) cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x);

14
 1
(iii) sin2 (x) = (1 − cos(2x));
2
1
(iv) cos2 (x) = (1 + cos(2x)).
2
Proof: For (i) and (ii), set s = x and t = x and apply the theorem above. ■

Corollary 37: For s, t ∈ R,

tan(s) + tan(t) 2 tan(s)
(i) tan(s + t) = ; (iii) tan(2s) = .
1 − tan(s) tan(t) 1 − tan2 (s)
tan(s) − tan(t)
(ii) tan(s − t) = ;
1 + tan(s) tan(t)
sin(s + t) sin(s − t)
Proof: For (i) and (ii), recall that tan(s + t) = and tan(s − t) = and apply
cos(s + t) cos(s − t)
the corollary above.

For (iii), set s = θ and t = θ and apply part (i). ■

Section 2.4: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 38: The following functions are bijections, and hence invertible.
h π πi
(i) f : − , → [−1, 1] defined by f (y) = x if and only if sin(y) = x.
2 2
(ii) g : [0, π] → [−1, 1] defined by g(y) = x if and only if cos(y) = x.
h π πi
(iii) h : − , → (−∞, ∞) defined by h(y) = x if and only if tan(y) = x.
2 2
(iv) j : [0, π] → (−∞, ∞) defined by j(y) = x if and only if cot(y) = x.
h π   3π 
(v) k : 0, ∪ π, → (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) defined by k(y) = x if and only if sec(y) = x.
2 2
 π i  3π 
(vi) ℓ : 0, ∪ π, → (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) defined by ℓ(y) = x if and only if csc(y) = x.
2 2
Definition 39: Define functions f, g, h, j, k, ℓ as in the theorem above.

(i) f −1 is called the inverse sine (arcsine) function and is denoted by arcsin(x) or sin−1 (x).

(ii) g −1 is called the inverse cosine (arccosine) function and is denoted by arccos(x) or cos−1 (x).

(iii) h−1 is called the inverse tangent (arctangent) function and is denoted by arctan(x) or

tan−1 (x).

(iv) j −1 is called the inverse cotangent (arccotangent) function and is denoted by arccot(x)

or cot−1 (x).

(v) k −1 is called the inverse secant (arcsecant) function and is denoted by arcsec(x) or sec−1 (x).

(vi) ℓ−1 is called the inverse cosecant (arccosecant) function and is denoted by arccsc(x) or

csc−1 (x).

Note 40: The graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions are given below.

15
16
Example 41: Calculate each of the following.
h  π i π
(a) sin−1 sin = .
√ 2 2
(b) sec−1 ( 2)
√ 1 π
Set θ = sec−1 ( 2). Then cos(θ) = √ , which means that θ = .
2 4

17
   
1
(c) tan cos−1
2
 2 √
1 1 2 1 2 2 3 3
If x = , then + y = 1, which means that + y = 1, or y = , or y = . Now,
2 √ 2 4 4 2
3
y 2 √
tan(θ) = = = 3.
x 1
2
(d) cos[sin−1 (x)]
q √
Set θ = sin−1 (x). Then x = sin(θ), and so, cos[sin−1 (x)] = cos(θ) = 1 − sin2 (θ) = 1 − x2 .

(e) tan[sin−1 (x)]

sin(θ) x
Set θ = sin−1 (x). Then x = sin(θ), and so, tan[sin−1 (x)] = tan(θ) = =√ .
cos(θ) 1 − x2
(f ) sec2 [tan−1 (x)]

Set θ = tan−1 (x). Then tan(θ) = x, and so, sec2 (tan−1 (x)) = sec2 (θ) = tan2 (θ) + 1 = x2 + 1.

Section 2.5: Trigonometric Equations

Example 42: Solve the given equation.
1
(a) sin(θ) =
2
1
From the unit circle, note that sin(θ) = is in quadrants I and II. So, the solutions on the interval
2
π 5π
[0, 2π) are θ = and θ = . Since the sine function has period 2π, we obtain that the solutions
6 6
π 5π
to the equation are θ = + 2kπ and θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
√ 6 6
2
(b) cos(θ) = − .
2 √
2
From the unit circle, note that cos(θ) = − is in quadrants II and III. So, the solutions on the
2
3π 5π
interval [0, 2π) are θ = and θ = . Since the cosine function has period 2π, we obtain that the
4 4
3π 5π
solutions to the equation are θ = + 2kπ and θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
4 4
(c) tan2 (θ) − 3 = 0
√ π
Note that tan2 (θ) − 3 = 0 means tan2 (θ) = 3, and so, tan(θ) = ± 3, or θ = + kπ for k ∈ Z.
3
2
(d) 2 cos (θ) − 7 cos(θ) − 3 = 0.

Set u = cos(θ) and note the following.

0 = 2 cos2 (θ) − 7 cos(θ) − 3

= 2u2 − 7u − 3

= (2u − 1)(u − 3)

⇐⇒ 0 = 2u − 1 or 0 = u − 3
1
⇐⇒ u = or u = 3
2
1
⇐⇒ cos(θ) = or cos(θ) = 3
2

18
 π 5π
⇐⇒ θ = + 2kπ or θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
3 3
(e) cos(θ) + 1 = sin(θ) in the interval [0, 2π].

Consider the following.

cos(θ) + 1 = sin(θ)

⇐⇒ cos2 (θ) + 2 cos(θ) + 1 = sin2 (θ) = 1 − cos2 (θ)

⇐⇒ 2 cos2 (θ) + 2 cos(θ) = 0

⇐⇒ 2 cos(θ)[cos(θ) + 1] = 0

⇐⇒ cos(θ)[cos(θ) + 1] = 0

⇐⇒ cos(θ) = 0 or cos(θ) + 1 = 0
π 3π
⇐⇒ θ = or θ = or θ = −π
2 2
3π
Note that θ = is an extraneous solution.
2
(f ) 2 sin(3θ) − 1 = 0.

Consider the following.

2 sin(3θ) − 1 = 0
1
⇐⇒ sin(3θ) =
2
π 5π
⇐⇒ 3θ = + 2kπ or 3θ = + 2π for k ∈ Z
6 6
π 2 5π 2
⇐⇒ θ = + kπ or θ = + kπ for k ∈ Z.
18 3 18 3

Chapter 3: Additional Topics in Trigonometry

Section 3.1: The Law of Sines

Theorem 43 (Law of Sines): Suppose a triangle has sides of lengths a, b, c that are opposite
sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
angles of measures α, β, γ, respectively. Then = = .
a b c
Proof: Consider three cases.

Case 1: The triangle is an acute triangle.

Drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure β to the side of length b and set d to be the length

of the resulting line segment, as in the figure below.

19
 d sin(α) d d sin(γ) d
Then sin(α) = , which implies that = . Also, sin(γ) = , which means that = .
c a ac c c ac
sin(α) sin(γ)
Therefore, = . Now drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure α to the side of
a c
length a and set e to be the length of the perpendicular line segment, as in the figure below.

e sin(β) e e sin(γ) e
Then, sin(β) = , which means that = . Also, sin(γ) = , which means that = .
c b bc b c bc
sin(β) sin(γ) sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
Therefore, = , and hence, we obtain that = = .
b c a b c
Case 2: The triangle is a right triangle with a hypotenuse of length h.
π sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ) 1
In this case, one of α, β, or γ is , and so, = = = .
2 a b c h
Case 3: The triangle is an obtuse triangle.
π
Without loss of generality, suppose that γ > . Extend the line segment of length b and drop a
2
perpendicular from the angle of measure β to the extended line segment and set d to be the length

of the extension of the extended line segment and e to be the length of the line segment that is

perpendicular to the extension, as in the figure below.

20
 e sin(γ) e e
Recall that sin(γ) = sin(π − γ) = , which means that = . Also, sin(α) = , which means
a c ac c
sin(α) e sin(α) sin(γ)
that = . So, = . Now, drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure γ
a ac a c
to the side of length c and set d to be the length of the perpendicular line segment, as in the figure

below.

d sin(α) d d sin(β) d
Then, sin(α) = , which means that = . Also, sin(β) = , which means that = .
b a ab a b ab
sin(α) sin(β) sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
Therefore, = , and so, = = , as desired. ■
a b a b c
Example 44: A satellite orbiting the earth passes directly overhead at observation stations in

Phoenix and Los Angeles, 340 miles apart. At an instant when the satellite is between these two

stations, its angle of elevation is simultaneously observed to be 60◦ at Phoenix and 75◦ at Los An-

geles. How far is the satellite from Los Angeles?

Consider the figure below.

b a

75◦ 60◦
340

To solve the problem, we find the distance b. Since the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180◦ , the
sin 60◦ sin 45◦
angle C measures 180◦ − (75◦ + 60◦ ) = 45◦ . By the Law of Sines, = , which means
√ b 340
3 √
340 sin 60◦ 2 6 √
that b = = 340 · √ = 340 · = 170 6 ∼ = 416 miles.
sin 45◦ 2 2
2

Section 3.2: The Law of Cosines

Theorem 45 (Law of Cosines): Suppose a triangle has sides of lengths a, b and c that are opposite

angles of measures α, β, and γ, respectively. Then a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(γ) = c2 .

21
Proof: Exercise. ■

Example 46: A tunnel is to be built through a mountain. To estimate the length of the tunnel, a

surveyor makes the measurements shown in the figure below. Use the surveyor’s data to approximate

the length of the tunnel.

c ft

388 ft 212 ft

82.4◦

To approximate the length of the tunnel, we use the Law of Cosines.

c2 = 3882 + 2122 − 2(388)(212) cos(84.2◦ ) ∼

= 173730.2367
√
⇐⇒ c ∼= 173730.2367 ∼ = 416.8 feet.
Thus, the tunnel is approximately 417 feet long.

Corollary 47 (Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem): If the lengths of the sides of a triangle

are a, b, and c and a2 + b2 = c2 , then the triangle is a right triangle.

Proof: Set α, β, and γ to be the measures of the angles opposite the sides of lengths a, b, and c,

respectively. By the Law of Cosines, a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(γ) = c2 . Since a2 + b2 = c2 , 2ab cos(γ) = 0,

π
which means cos(γ) = 0. So, γ = . ■
2

Section 3.3: Heron’s Formula

a+b+c
Definition 48: The semiperimeter of a triangle with legs of length a, b, c is s = .
2
Theorem 49 (Heron’s Formula): The area A of the triangle with sides of length a, b, c is A =
p
s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.

Proof: Consider the figure below.

22
 E x B D

c a
h

A b C

b2 + c2 − a2
Claim 1: x = .
2b
Proof (Claim 1): Exercise. ■Claim 1
1 p 2
Claim 2: The area of the triangle ∆ABC = b c − x2 .
2
Proof (Claim 2): Apply the Pythagorean Theorem and the area formula for a triangle. ■Claim 2

Let K denote the area of the triangle ∆ABC and consider the following.
1 p
K = b c2 − x2
2
s
2 1p 2
= [b + 2bc + c2 − a2 ][−b2 + 2bc − c2 + a2 ]
 2
1 b + c2 − a2
= b c − 2 4
2 2b 1p
r = [(b + c)2 − a2 ][a2 − (b2 − 2bc + c2 )]
1 2 2 2 2
4b c − (b + c − a ) 2 2 4
= b 1p
2 p 4b2 = [(b + c)2 − a2 ][a2 − (b − c)2 ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
b 4b c − (b + c − a ) 1 p
= · = (b + c + a)(b + c − a)[a − (b − c)][a + (b − c)]
2 2b 4
1p 2 2 1 p
= 4b c − (b2 + c2 − a2 )2 = (b + c + a)(b + c − a)(a − b + c)(a + b − c).
4 4
1p
= [2bc + (b2 + c2 − a2 )][2bc − (b2 + c2 − a2 ]
4
a+b+c
Set s = . Then
2
1 p
K= 2s(2s − 2a)(2s − 2b)(2s − 2c)
4
1 p
= 16s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
4
p
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c). ■

Example 50: A businessperson wishes to buy a triangular lot in a busy downtown location. The

lot frontages on the three adjacent streets are 125, 280, and 315 feet. Find the area of the lot.
125 + 280 + 315
The semiperimeter of the lot is = 360. By Heron’s Formula, the area of the lot is
2 p √
360(360 − 125)(360 − 280)(360 − 315) = 360(235)(80)(45) = 304560000 ∼
p
= 17451.6. Thus, the
area is approximately 17452 square feet.

Corollary 51 (The Pythagorean Theorem): Suppose the legs of a right triangle have lengths

a, b and the hypotenuse has length c. Then a2 + b2 = c2 .

Proof: Exercise. ■

23
 Section 3.4: Harmonic Motion
Definition 52: An object is in simple harmonic motion if the equation describing its motion at

time t is y = a sin(ωt) or y = a cos(ωt).

Example 53: The displacement of a mass suspended by a spring is modeled by the function

y = 10 sin 4πt, where y is measured in inches and t in seconds. Find the amplitude, period, and

frequency of the motion of the mass.

2π 1 4π
The amplitude is |10| = 10 inches. The period is = . The frequency is = 2 cycles per
4π 2 2π
second.

Definition 54: A Hertz is one cycle per second and is denoted Hz.

Example 55: A mass is suspended from a spring. The spring is compressed a distance of 4

centimeters and then released. It is observed that the mass returns to the compressed position after
1
second. Find a function that models the displacement of the mass.
3
Note that the amplitude of the mass is |4| = 4 centimeters and that the amplitude is reached at
1 1 2π
time t = 0. Also, the period is p = , which means that = , and so ω = 6π. Therefore, the
3 3 ω
equation of the motion is y = 4 cos(6πt).

Definition 56: A star is variable if its brightness alternately increases and decreases.

Example 57: The time between periods of maximum brightness for the variable star Delta Cephei

is 5.4 days. The average brightness (magnitude) is 4 and its brightness varies by ±0.35. Find a

function that models the brightness of Delta Cephei as a function of time.

Note that the amplitude is the maximum variation from average brightness, so the amplitude is
2π ∼
0.35. Also, the period is 5.4 days, so ω = = 1.164. Since the brightness varies from an average
5.4
value of 4 magnitudes, the graph is shifted upward by 4 units. Hence, the equation is given by

y = 0.35 cos(1.16t) + 4.

Definition 58: An object is in damped harmonic motion if the equation describing its motion
2π
is y = ke−ct sin(ωt) or y = ke−ct cos(ωt), where c > 0 is called the damping constant, and is
ω
called the quasi-period.

Example 59: A mass-spring system experiences damped harmonic motion at 0.5 Hertz with an

initial maximum displacement at 10 centimeters and a damping constant of 0.5. Find a function to

model the motion.

At time t = 0, the displacement is 10 centimeters, and so f (0) = ke−c·0 cos(ω · 0) = k, which means

that k = 10. Also, ω = 2π(0.5) = π. Therefore, the equation of the motion is y = 10e−0.5t cos(πt).

Example 60: A stone is dropped in a calm lake, causing waves to form. The up-and-down motion

24
of a point on the surface of the water is modeled by damped harmonic motion. At some time the

amplitude of the wave is measured, and 20 seconds later it is found that the amplitude has dropped
1
to of this value. Find the damping constant.
10
The amplitude of the motion is determined by the coefficient ke−ct in the equation for damped

harmonic motion. So the amplitude at a given time t is ke−ct , and 20 seconds later, it is given by

ke−c(t+20) . So,
1 −ct
ke−c(t+20) = ke
10
1 −ct
⇐⇒ e−ct e−20c = e
10
1
⇐⇒ e−20c =
10
⇐⇒ e20c = 10

⇐⇒ 20c = ln 10
1
⇐⇒ c = ln 10 ∼
= 0.12.
20

Chapter 4: The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System

Section 4.1: Rectangular Coordinates

Definition 61: The set R3 = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z ∈ R} is called three-dimensional Euclidean

space.

Example 62: Plot the points.

(a) (3, 1, 4). (b) (3, 1, −4) (c) (−3, 1, −4)

Note 63: Let X denote the x-axis, Y denote the y-axis, and Z denote the z-axis. Then X ∩ Y ∩ Z =

{O}, where O is the point (0, 0, 0).

Definition 64: The regions the axes formed in R3 are called octants.

Note 65: There are eight octants.

Note 66: Points on an axis in R3 are not located in an octant.

Section 4.2: The Distance Formula

Theorem 67 (Distance Formula): If (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈ R3 , then the distance between the
p
points is given by (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .

25
Proof: Apply the Pythagorean Theorem twice. ■

Example 68: Find the distance between the points (1, −1, 3) and (−1, 6, 2).

Let d denote the distance between the points. By the previous theorem,
p p √ √
d = (1 − (−1))2 + (−1 − 6)2 + (3 − 2)2 = 22 + (−7)2 + 12 = 54 = 3 6.

Example 69: Let T denote the triangle with vertices (1, −2, 1), (−2, 1, 4), and (2, 1, 3).

(a) Find the perimeter of T .

Let d1 denote the distance between (1, −2, 1) and (−2, 1, 4), d2 denote the distance between (−2, 1, 4)

and (2, 1, 3), d3 denote the distance between (1, −2, 1) and (2, 1, 3), and P denote the perimeter of

T . Then,
√ √ √
d1 = 9 + 9 + 9 = 27 = 3 3
√ √
d2 = 16 + 1 = 17
√ √
d3 = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14
√ √ √
and P = 3 3 + 17 + 14.

(b) Is T a right triangle?

By the Pythagorean Theorem, 27 = 17 + 14 = 31, a contradiction. So T is not a right triangle.

Section 4.3: Spheres

Theorem 70 (Equation of a Sphere): The equation of the sphere with center (h, k, ℓ) and radius

r is (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − ℓ)2 = r2 .

Proof: Immediately follows from the distance formula. ■

Example 71: Find the equation of the sphere centered at the point (1, −2, 4) with the point

(2, 1, −3) on its surface.

p √
By the distance formula, the radius of the sphere is given by r = (−1)2 + (−3)2 + (1)2 = 11,

which means that r2 = 11. Thus, the equation of the sphere is given by (x−1)2 +(y +2)2 +(z −4)2 =

11.

Example 72: Find the center and radius of the sphere given by the equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x +

2y + 6z = −11.

By three applications of the completing the square lemma, we obtain the following.

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4x + 2y + 6z = −11

⇐⇒ (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z + 3)2 = −11 + 4 + 1 + 9 = 3.

√
By the above, the sphere is centered at (2, −1, −3) and has radius 3.

26
 Chapter 5: Vectors

Section 5.1: Introduction

⃗ is the directed line segment starting at A and
Definition 73: Let A, B ∈ Rn . The vector AB

terminating at B.

Notation 74: The set of vectors in Rn is denoted Vn .

⃗ corresponds to the displacement from A to B.
Note 75: Let A, B ∈ Rn . The vector AB

Definition 76: A vector whose initial point is the origin is called a position vector.

Notation 77: The position vector with terminal point (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) is usually written ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩.

Notation 78: Vectors are often denoted with a single variable such as ⃗v .

Definition 79: For a vector ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, the v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are called the components of ⃗v .

Note 80: Vectors are determined by their direction and length, but not their positions.

Example 81: The vector ⟨1, 4⟩ is illustrated below.

Definition 82: The zero vector is the vector with the same initial point as terminal point and is

denoted 0 or ⃗0.

Note 83: Since the initial point of the zero vector is also its terminal point, the zero vector has no

direction.
√
Note 84: By the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of a vector ⃗v = ⟨a, b⟩ ∈ V2 is a2 + b2 and the
√
⃗ = ⟨a, b, c⟩ ∈ V3 is a2 + b2 + c2 .
length of a vector w

Definition 85: Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.

Definition 86: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, w

⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩ ∈ Vn .

27
(i) The sum of ⃗v and w
⃗ is the vector ⃗v + w
⃗ = ⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn ⟩.

(ii) The difference of ⃗v and w

⃗ is the vector ⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨v1 − w1 , v2 − w2 , . . . , vn − wn ⟩.

Example 87: Set ⃗v = ⟨−1, 3⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨2, 7⟩.

(a) ⃗v + w
⃗ = ⟨1, 10⟩;

(b) ⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨−3, −4⟩.

Note 88: The geometric interpretation of vector addition in R2 is illustrated below.

Definition 89: For ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ ∈ Vn and a ∈ R, the scalar multiple is the vector

a⃗v = ⟨av1 , av2 , . . . , avn ⟩.

Notation 90: For ⃗v ∈ Vn , the vector (−1)⃗v is denoted −⃗v .

Example 91: If ⃗v = ⟨−1, 5⟩, then 4⃗v = ⟨−4, 20⟩.

Example 92: If ⃗v = ⟨4, 8, −3⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨−1, 3, 2⟩, then 2⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨9, 13, −8⟩.

Theorem 93: Let ⃗u, ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ Vn and a, b ∈ R. Then,

(i) ⃗v + w
⃗ =w
⃗ + ⃗v ;

(ii) (⃗u + ⃗v ) + w
⃗ = ⃗u + (⃗v + w);
⃗

(iii) ⃗v + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + ⃗v = ⃗v ;

(iv) 1⃗v = ⃗v ;

(v) ⃗v + (−⃗v ) = 0;

(vi) a(⃗v + w)
⃗ = a⃗v + aw;
⃗

(vii) (a + b)⃗v = a⃗v + b⃗v ;

(viii) (ab)⃗v = a(b⃗v ).

Proof: For (i),

⃗v + w
⃗

28
= ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ + ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩

= ⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn ⟩

= ⟨w1 + v1 , w2 + v2 , . . . , wn + vn ⟩

= ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩ + ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩

=w
⃗ + ⃗v .

The proof of (ii) is left as an exercise.

For (iii),

⃗v

= ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩

= ⟨v1 + 0, v2 + 0, . . . , vn + 0⟩

= ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ + ⟨0, 0, . . . , 0⟩;

= ⃗v + ⃗0.

Also,

⃗v

= ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩

= ⟨0 + v1 , 0 + v2 , . . . , 0 + vn ⟩

= ⟨0, 0, . . . , 0⟩ + ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩

= ⃗0 + ⃗v .

The proofs of (iv) and (v) are left as exercises.

For (vi),

a(⃗v + w)
⃗

= a(⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ + ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩)

= a(⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn ⟩)

= ⟨a(v1 + w1 ), a(v2 + w2 ), . . . , a(vn + wn )⟩

= ⟨av1 + aw1 , av2 + aw2 , . . . , avn + awn ⟩

= ⟨av1 , av2 , . . . , avn ⟩ + ⟨aw1 , aw2 , . . . , awn ⟩

= a⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ + a⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩

= a⃗v + aw.
⃗

The proofs of (vii) and (viii) are left as exercises. ■

Section 5.2: The Dot Product

Definition 94: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, w
⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩ ∈ Vn . The dot (inner/scalar)

product of ⃗v and w
⃗ is ⃗v · w
⃗ = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + . . . + vn wn .

29
Example 95: Set ⃗v = ⟨2, 0, −1⟩ and w
⃗ = ⟨1, −1, 4⟩. Then ⃗v · w
⃗ = 2 + 0 − 4 = −2.

Theorem 96: Let ⃗u, ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ Vn and a ∈ R. Then,

(i) ⃗v · w
⃗ =w
⃗ · ⃗v ;

(ii) ⃗u · (⃗v + w)
⃗ = (⃗u · ⃗v ) + (⃗u · w);
⃗

(iii) (a⃗v ) · w
⃗ = a(⃗v · w)
⃗ = ⃗v · (aw);
⃗

(iv) ⃗v · 0 = 0.

Proof: For (i),

⃗v · w
⃗

= ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ · ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩

= v1 w1 + v2 w2 + . . . + vn wn

= w1 v1 + w2 v2 + . . . + wn vn

=w
⃗ · ⃗v .

The remaining proofs are left as exercises. ■

Corollary 97: For each ⃗u, ⃗v , w,

⃗ ⃗x ∈ Vn , (⃗u + ⃗v ) · (w
⃗ + ⃗x) = (⃗u · w)
⃗ + (⃗u · ⃗x) + (⃗v · w)
⃗ + (⃗v · ⃗x).

Proof: Exercise. ■
√
Definition 98: The norm (length/magnitude) of a vector ⃗v ∈ Vn is v · v and is denoted ∥v∥.
√ √
Example 99: Set ⃗v = ⟨2, 0, −1⟩. Then ∥⃗v ∥ = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5.

Note 100: If ⃗v ∈ Vn , then ∥⃗v ∥ = 0 if and only if ⃗v = 0.

Definition 101: A unit vector is a vector with norm 1.

Definition 102: The standard basis vectors in Rn are the vectors

e⃗1 = ⟨1, 0, 0, . . . , 0⟩

e⃗2 = ⟨0, 1, 0, . . . , 0⟩

e⃗3 = ⟨0, 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0⟩
..
.

e⃗n = ⟨0, 0, 0, . . . , 0, 1⟩.

Notation 103: In R3 , e⃗1 , e⃗2 , e⃗3 are denoted ⃗i, ⃗j, ⃗k respectively.

Note 104:

(i) If i = j, then e⃗i · e⃗j = 1;

(ii) If i ̸= j, then e⃗i · e⃗j = 0;

(iii) ∥⃗
ei ∥ = 1 for every i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Proposition 105: If ⃗v ∈ Vn and c ∈ R, then ∥c⃗v ∥ = |c| · ∥⃗v ∥.

Proof:

∥c⃗v ∥

30
 p
= (c⃗v ) · (c⃗v )
p
= c2 (⃗v · ⃗v )
√
= |c| ⃗v · ⃗v

= |c| · ∥⃗v ∥. ■
1
Proposition 106: If ⃗v ∈ Vn \ {0}, then ⃗v is a unit vector in the same direction as ⃗v .
∥⃗v ∥
Proof: Exercise. ■

Example 107: For each of the following, find a unit vector in the same direction as the given

vector.

(a) ⃗v = ⟨6, 8⟩
 
1 3 4
Note that ∥⃗v ∥ = 10, and so, ⃗v = , is a unit vector in the same direction as ⃗v .
10 5 5
(b) w⃗ = ⟨−1, 4, 6⟩
√
 
1 −1 4 6
⃗ = 53, and so, √ w
Note that ∥w∥ ⃗ = √ ,√ ,√ is a unit vector in the same direction
53 53 53 53
as w.
⃗

Section 5.3: Angles Between Vectors

Definition 108: Two nonzero vectors in V2 or V3 are parallel if the angle between them is either

0 or π.

Note 109:

(i) The angle between two vectors in V2 or V3 is 0 if and only if the vectors have the same direction.

(ii) The angle between two vectors in V2 or V3 is π if and only if the vectors have the opposite

directions.
π
Definition 110: Two nonzero vectors in V2 or V3 are orthogonal if the angle between them is .
2
Theorem 111 (Cosine Formula): If ⃗v , w⃗ ∈ V2 or ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ V3 and θ is the angle between ⃗v and w,
⃗
⃗v · w
⃗
then cos(θ) = .
∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗
Proof: By the Law of Cosines and a previous corollary, we obtain the following.

∥⃗v ∥2 + ∥w∥
⃗ 2 − 2∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗ cos(θ)

⃗ 2
= ∥⃗v − w∥

= (⃗v − w)
⃗ · (⃗v − w)
⃗

= (⃗v · ⃗v ) − (⃗v · w)
⃗ − (w
⃗ · ⃗v ) + (w
⃗ · w)
⃗

= ∥⃗v ∥2 − 2⃗v · w ⃗ 2.
⃗ + ∥w∥
⃗v · w
⃗
So, −2∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗ cos(θ) = −2⃗v · w,
⃗ which means that cos(θ) = . ■
∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗
Corollary 112: Two vectors in Vn for n = 2, 3 are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is

zero.

31
Proof: Suppose that ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn for n = 2, 3 and let θ denote the angle between ⃗v and w.
⃗ Now note

the following.

⃗v and w ⃗ are orthogonal

π
⇐⇒ θ =
2
⇐⇒ cos(θ) = 0
⃗v · w
⃗
⇐⇒ =0
∥⃗v ∥∥w∥⃗
⇐⇒ ⃗v · w⃗ = 0. *√ √ + ■
4 4
 
1 2 2
Example 113: Find the angle between the vectors 0, , 0 and √ , 0, √ .
2 2 2
  *√4
√4
+
1 2 2
Since 0, , 0 · √ , 0, √ = 0, the vectors are orthogonal.
2 2 2
Example 114: Find a nonzero vector orthogonal to ⟨3, 2, 4⟩.

Listed below are two solutions.

(i) ⟨2, −3, 0⟩

(ii) ⟨0, −2, 1⟩

1
Theorem 115: If ⃗v ∈ Vn for n = 2, 3, then ⃗v is a unit vector in the same direction as ⃗v .
∥⃗v ∥
1 1
Proof: By a previous proposition, ⃗v is a unit vector. Let θ be the angle between ⃗v and ⃗v .
 ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥
1 1
⃗v · ⃗v (⃗v · ⃗v )
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥2
By the cosine formula, cos(θ) = = = = 1. Since cos(θ) = 1, θ = 0,
1 1 ∥⃗v ∥2
∥ ⃗v ∥∥⃗v ∥ · ∥⃗v ∥ · ∥⃗v ∥
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥
1
which means that ⃗v and ⃗v have the same direction. ■
∥⃗v ∥
Theorem 116: Two nonzero vectors in Vn for n = 2, 3 are parallel if and only if they are scalar

multiples of each other.

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that ⃗v , w

⃗ are nonzero vectors, α ∈ R, and ⃗v = αw
⃗ and let θ denote the angle

between ⃗v and ⃗v . By the cosine formula, we obtain the following.

(αw)
⃗ ·w⃗
cos(θ) =
∥αw∥⃗ · ∥w∥
⃗
α(w⃗ · w)
⃗
=
|α| · ∥w∥
⃗ · ∥w∥⃗
α∥w∥⃗ 2
=
⃗ 2
|α| · ∥w∥
α
=
|α|
= ±1.

Since cos(θ) = ±1, θ = 0 or θ = π, which means that the vectors ⃗v and w

⃗ are parallel.

(⇐=) Suppose that ⃗v and w ⃗ are nonzero parallel vectors. Then the directions of ⃗v and w ⃗ are either
∥w∥⃗
the same or opposite. If ⃗v and w⃗ have the same direction, then the vector ⃗v is a vector in the
∥⃗v ∥

32
 ∥w∥
⃗
same direction of ⃗v with the same norm as w,
⃗ which means that ⃗v = w.
⃗ Now suppose that ⃗v
∥⃗v ∥
∥w∥
⃗
and w
⃗ have opposite directions. Then − ⃗v is a vector in the opposite direction of ⃗v with the
∥⃗v ∥
∥w∥
⃗
same norm as w.
⃗ In other words, − ⃗v = w.
⃗ ■
∥⃗v ∥
Definition 117: The direction angles of a nonzero vector are the angles between 0 and π that a

vector makes with ⃗i, ⃗j, and ⃗k. These angles are denoted α, β, and γ, respectively, and the cosines of

these angles are called the direction cosines.

Note 118: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ ∈ V3 and suppose that α, β, and γ denote the direction angles of ⃗v .

Then
v1 v2 v3
(i) cos(α) = ; (ii) cos(β) = ; (iii) cos(γ) = .
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥
Hence,

cos2 (α) + cos2 (β) + cos2 (γ)

 2  2  2
v1 v2 v3
= + +
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥
1
= [(v1 ) + (v2 ) + (v3 )2 ]
2 2
∥⃗v ∥2
1
= (⃗v · ⃗v )
∥⃗v ∥2
∥⃗v ∥2
=
∥⃗v ∥2
= 1.

Also, note that ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ = ⟨∥⃗v ∥ cos(α), ∥⃗v ∥ cos(β), ∥⃗v ∥ cos(γ)⟩ = ∥⃗v ∥⟨cos(α), cos(β), cos(γ)⟩.
⃗v
Therefore, = ⟨cos(α), cos(β), cos(γ)⟩.
∥⃗v ∥

Section 5.4: The Triangle Inequality

Lemma 119: If ⃗v and w
⃗ ∈ Vn are unit vectors, then |⃗v · ⃗v | ≤ 1.

Proof: Note the following.

⃗ 2
0 ≤ ∥⃗v − w∥

= (⃗v − w)
⃗ · (⃗v − w)
⃗

= (⃗v · ⃗v ) − 2(⃗v · w) ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

= 2 − 2(⃗v · w).
⃗

Now, since 0 ≤ 2 − 2(⃗v · w),

⃗ we obtain that 0 ≤ 1 − (⃗v · w),
⃗ or (⃗v · w)
⃗ ≤ 1.

Also, by an argument similar to the one above, we obtain that −1 ≤ (⃗v · w).
⃗

Therefore,−1 ≤ (⃗v · w)
⃗ ≤ 1, and so, |⃗v · w|
⃗ ≤ 1, as desired. ■

Theorem 120 (Cauchy-Bunyakovsky-Schwarz Inequality): If ⃗v and w

⃗ ∈ Vn , then |⃗v · w|
⃗ ≤

∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥.
⃗

Proof: Exercise. ■

33
Corollary 121 (The Triangle Inequality): For each ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn , ∥⃗v + w∥
⃗ ≤ ∥⃗v ∥ + ∥w∥.
⃗

Proof: Let ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn . By applying a previous corollary and the Cauchy-Bunyakovsky-Schwarz

Inequality in the appropriate places below, we obtain the following.

⃗ 2 = (⃗v · w)
∥⃗v + w∥ ⃗ 2

= (⃗v · ⃗v ) + 2(⃗v · w)
⃗ + (w
⃗ · w)
⃗

= ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2(⃗v · w) ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

≤ ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2|⃗v · w| ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

≤ ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥ ⃗ 2

⃗ + ∥w∥

⃗ 2.
= (⃗v + w)

⃗ 2 ≤ (⃗v + w)
Now, since ∥⃗v + w∥ ⃗ 2 , we obtain that ∥⃗v + w∥
⃗ ≤ (⃗v + w),
⃗ as desired. ■

Definition 122: The Euclidean metric on Rn is the function d : Rn × Rn → [0, ∞) defined by

d(⃗x, ⃗y ) = ∥⃗x − ⃗y ∥.

Section 5.5: Projections

Definition 123: Let ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn .
⃗v · w
⃗
(i) The scalar projection of w
⃗ onto ⃗v (component of w ⃗ along ⃗v ) is comp⃗v (w) ⃗ = .
    ∥⃗v ∥
⃗v · w
⃗ ⃗v ⃗v · w⃗
(ii) The vector projection of w⃗ onto ⃗v is proj⃗v (w)
⃗ = = ⃗v .
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥2
Note 124: Consider the figures below.

We consider four cases.

34
  π
Case 1: θ ∈ 0,
2
In this case, proj⃗v (w)
⃗ has the same direction as ⃗v and comp⃗v (w)
⃗ = ∥proj⃗v (w)∥.
⃗
π 
Case 2: θ ∈ ,π
2
In this case, proj⃗v (w)
⃗ has the opposite direction as ⃗v and comp⃗v (w)
⃗ = −∥proj⃗v (w)∥.
⃗

Case 3: θ = 0 or θ = π

In this case, proj⃗v (w)

⃗ = w.
⃗
π
Case 4: θ =
2
In this case, proj⃗v (w)
⃗ = 0.

Theorem 125: Let ⃗v ∈ Vn \ {0} and w

⃗ ∈ Vn . Then there are unique vectors w⃗1 , w⃗2 ∈ Vn such

that w⃗1 is parallel to ⃗v , w⃗2 is orthogonal to ⃗v , and w

⃗ = w⃗1 + w⃗2 . Furthermore, w⃗1 = proj⃗v (w)
⃗ and

w⃗2 = w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w).
⃗

Proof: Note that proj⃗v (w)

⃗ + (w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w))
⃗ = w.
⃗ By theorem 44 and the definition of vector

projection, proj⃗v (w)

⃗ is parallel to ⃗v . To see that w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w)
⃗ is orthogonal to ⃗v , note the following.

(w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w))⃗ · ⃗v
   
⃗v · w⃗
= w ⃗− ⃗v · ⃗v
∥⃗v∥2 
⃗v · w⃗
= (w
⃗ · ⃗v ) − 2
(⃗v · ⃗v )
 ∥⃗v ∥ 
⃗v · w⃗
= (w
⃗ · ⃗v ) − ∥⃗v ∥2
∥⃗v ∥2
= (w
⃗ · ⃗v ) − (w ⃗ · ⃗v )

= 0.

It remains to show that proj⃗v (w)

⃗ and w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w)
⃗ is unique. So suppose that ⃗x, ⃗y ∈ Vn such that

⃗x + ⃗y = w,
⃗ ⃗x is parallel to ⃗v , and ⃗y is orthogonal to ⃗v . Since ⃗x and ⃗v are parallel, there is an α ∈ R

such that ⃗x = α⃗v . Since ⃗y is orthogonal to ⃗v , we obtain the following.

= ⃗y · ⃗v

= (w
⃗ · ⃗v ) − (⃗x · ⃗v )

⇐⇒ ⃗x · ⃗v = w
⃗ · ⃗v

⇐⇒ (α⃗v ) · ⃗v = w
⃗ · ⃗v

⇐⇒ α(⃗v · ⃗v ) = w
⃗ · ⃗v

⇐⇒ α∥⃗v ∥2 = w ⃗ · ⃗v
w
⃗ · ⃗v
⇐⇒ α = .
∥⃗v ∥2
So,

⃗x

35
= α⃗v
 
w⃗ · ⃗v
= ⃗v
∥⃗v ∥2
= proj⃗v (w)
⃗

and ⃗y = w
⃗ − ⃗x = w
⃗ − proj⃗v (w).
⃗ ■

Section 5.6: The Cross Product

Definition 126: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩, w
⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , w3 ⟩ ∈ V3 . The cross product of ⃗v and w
⃗ is the

vector ⃗v × w
⃗ = ⟨v2 w3 − v3 w2 , w3 v1 − v1 w3 , v1 w2 − v2 w1 ⟩.

Example 127: If ⃗v = ⟨1, −2, 1⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨−3, 0, 2⟩, then ⃗v × w
⃗ = ⟨−4, −5, −6⟩ and w
⃗ ×⃗v = ⟨4, 5, 6⟩.

Note 128: If ⃗u, ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ V3 , then it is not true in general that (⃗u × ⃗v ) × w
⃗ = ⃗u × (⃗v × w).
⃗

Theorem 129: Let ⃗u, ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ V3 and α ∈ R.

(i) ⃗u × ⃗v = −(⃗v × ⃗u); (vi) (⃗v + w)

⃗ × ⃗u = (⃗v × ⃗u) + (w
⃗ × ⃗u);

(ii) ⃗u × 0 = 0; (vii) ⃗u × (⃗v × w)

⃗ = (⃗u · w)⃗
⃗ v − (⃗u · ⃗v )w;
⃗

(iii) ⃗u × ⃗u = 0; (viii) (⃗u × ⃗v ) × w

⃗ = (⃗u · w)⃗
⃗ v − (⃗v · w)⃗
⃗ u;

(iv) α(⃗u × ⃗v ) = (α⃗u) × ⃗v = ⃗u × (α⃗v ); (ix) ⃗u · (⃗v × w)

⃗ = (⃗u × ⃗v ) · w;
⃗

(v) ⃗u × (⃗v + w)
⃗ = (⃗u × ⃗v ) + (⃗u × w);
⃗ (x) ∥⃗u × ⃗v ∥2 = (∥⃗u∥ · ∥⃗v ∥)2 − (⃗u · ⃗v )2 .
∥⃗v × w∥⃗
Corollary 130: If ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ V3 and θ is the angle between ⃗v and w,
⃗ then = sin(θ).
∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗
Proof: Note the following.

⃗ 2
∥⃗v × w∥

⃗ 2 − (⃗v · w)
= (∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥) ⃗ 2

⃗ 2 − (∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
= (∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥) ⃗ cos(θ))2

⃗ 2 [1 − cos2 (θ)]
= (∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥)

⃗ 2 sin2 (θ)
= (∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥)
∥⃗v × w∥⃗ 2
⇐⇒ = sin2 (θ)
⃗ 2
(∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥)
∥⃗v × w∥⃗
⇐⇒ = sin(θ). ■
(∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥)
⃗
Corollary 131: If ⃗v , w ⃗ ∈ V3 , then ⃗v and w ⃗ = ⃗0.
⃗ are parallel if and only if ⃗v × w

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that ⃗v and w

⃗ are parallel. Then there is an α ∈ R such that w
⃗ = α⃗v , and so

⃗ = ⃗v × (α⃗v ) = α(⃗v × ⃗v ) = ⃗0.

⃗v × w

⃗ = ⃗0. Then 0 = ∥⃗v × ⃗v ∥ = ∥⃗v ∥∥w∥

(⇐=) Suppose that ⃗v × w ⃗ sin θ, which means that either ∥⃗v ∥ = 0,

∥w∥
⃗ = 0, or sin θ = 0, which means that either ∥⃗v ∥ = 0, ∥w∥
⃗ = 0, θ = 0, or θ = π. In any case, the

vectors ⃗v and w
⃗ are parallel. ■

Theorem 132: The area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors ⃗v and w
⃗ is ∥⃗v × w∥.
⃗

36
 1
Corollary 133: The area of the triangle determined by the vectors ⃗v and w
⃗ is ∥⃗v × w∥.
⃗
2
Proof: Recall that the area of a triangle is half the area of a parallelogram. ■

Example 134:

(a) Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices (1, 4, 6), (−2, 5, −1), and (1, −1, 1).

Consider the vectors ⟨−3, 1, −7⟩ and ⟨0, −5, −5⟩. Then ⟨−3, 1, −7⟩ × ⟨0, −5, −5⟩ = ⟨−40, −15, 15⟩,
p
and so the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors above is (−40)2 + (−15)2 + (15)2 =
√
5 82.

(b) Find the area of the triangle with vertices (1, 4, 6), (−2, 5, −1), and (1, −1, 1).
5√
By the corollary above and part (a), the area of the triangle is 82.
2
Theorem 135: The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v , and w ⃗ is |⃗u·(⃗v ×w)|.
⃗

Example 136: Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors ⃗u = ⟨1, 2, −4⟩,

⃗v = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩, and w

⃗ = ⟨1, 8, 6⟩.

Note that ⃗v × w
⃗ = ⟨6, 0, −1⟩ and ⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = 10. So the volume is 10.

Theorem 137: For any two vectors ⃗v and w,

⃗ the vector ⃗v × w
⃗ is orthogonal to both ⃗v and w.
⃗

Proof: Let ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ V3 . Then

⃗v · (⃗v × w)
⃗

= v1 (v2 w3 − w2 v3 ) − v2 (v1 w3 − w1 v3 ) + v3 (v1 w2 − w1 v2 )

= v1 v2 w3 − v1 w2 v3 − v2 v1 w3 + v2 w1 v3 + v3 v1 w2 − v3 w1 v2

= 0.

Likewise, w
⃗ · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = 0. ■

Definition 138: The torque vector is the cross product of the position and force vectors.

37
Example 139:

(a) Suppose that a horizontal force of 20 pounds is applied to the handle of a gearshift lever as

shown in the figure below. Find the magnitude of the torque about the pivot point.

Note that the position vector from the point P to the handle is the vector ⃗r = ⟨1, 2⟩ and the
√
magnitude is 5 feet. Since the force vector F⃗ is parallel to the x-axis, the angle between ⃗r and F⃗ is
√
tan−1 (2) and the magnitude of the torque vector is ∥⃗τ ∥ = ∥⃗r∥ · ∥F⃗ ∥ · sin θ = 20 5 sin[tan−1 (2)] = 40

foot-pounds.

(b) Find the magnitude of the torque about P if the same force is applied at the elbow Q of the

lever.
√ π
In this case, ⃗r = ⟨0.6, 0.6⟩, which means that ∥⃗r∥ = 0.72 and θ = . So the magnitude of the
√ 4
√ 2 √
torque vector is 0.72 · 20 · = 10 1.44 = 12 foot-pounds.
2

Chapter 6: Trigonometry and Complex Numbers

Section 6.1: The Complex Plane

Note 140: Consider the complex plane.

(i) The horizontal axis is called the real axis;

(ii) The vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.

Example 141: Graph each of the following.

(a) 2 + 3i; (b) 2 − 3i; (c) −2 + 3i.

38
 Section 6.2: The Polar Form of a Complex Number
Definition 142: Let z = a + bi ∈ C.
√
(i) The modulus (absolute value) of z is |z| = a2 + b2 .

(ii) The trigonometric form of z is z = r(cos θ +i sin θ), where r = |z|, a = r cos θ, and b = r sin θ.

Note 143: In the definition above,

b
(i) tan θ = ; (ii) θ is called the argument.
a
Example 144: For each of the following, find the trigonometric form of the given complex number.
√
(a) z = 4 − 4 3i
√
 
−1 1 π
First, |z| = 16 + 48 = 8. Also, 4 = 8 cos θ, or θ = cos = . Therefore, the trigonometric
2 3
 π π
form of z is z = 8 cos + i sin .
3 3
(b) z = 12i
π
First, |z| = 12. Also, 0 = 12 cos θ, or θ = . Therefore, the trigonometric form of z is z =
2
 π π
12 cos + i sin .
2 2
Example 145: For each of the following, find the standard form of the given complex number.
√
 
5π 5π
(a) z = 8 cos + i sin
4 √ 4 √
5π 2 5π 2
Recall that cos =− and sin =− . So,
√ 4 √ ! 2 4 2
√ 2 2
z= 8 − −i
2 2
√ √
16 16
=− −i
2 2
= −2 − 2i.
 π π
(b) z = 8 cos + i sin .
2 2
π π
Recall that cos = 0 and sin = 1. So, z = 8[0 + 1(i)] = 8i.
2 2
Definition 146: Suppose z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) ∈ C. Then,

(i) z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )];

z1 r1
(ii) = [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )], provided z2 ̸= 0.
z2 r2
Example 147: Perform the indicated operation and leave the result in trigonometric form.
  
1 4
(a) (cos 100◦ + i sin 100◦ ) (cos 300◦ + i sin 300◦ )
2 5
2 ◦ ◦
= [cos(400 ) + i sin(400 )].
5
cos 120◦ + i sin 120◦
(b)
2(cos 40◦ + i sin 40◦ )
1
= (cos 80◦ + i sin 80◦ ).
2

39
 Section 6.3: DeMoivre’s Theorem
Theorem 148 (DeMoivre’s Theorem): If z = r[cos(θ) + i sin(θ)] ∈ C, then z n = rn [cos(nθ) +

i sin(nθ)] for any n ∈ N.

Proof: For each n ∈ N, let P (n) denote the statement “z n = rn [cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)].” Clearly, P (1)

is true. So suppose that P (k) is true for some k ∈ N. Then

z k+1

= zk z

= rk [cos(kθ) + i sin(kθ)] · r(cos θ + i sin θ)

= rk+1 [cos[(k + 1)θ] + i sin[(k + 1)θ].

Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and so the theorem is proved by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

■
√
Example 149: Calculate (−1 + i 3)12 .
√
Set z = −1 + i 3. Then

√
z = −1 + i 3  

2π 2π
 12(2π) 12(2π)
= 2 cos + i sin = 212 cos + i sin
3 3 3 3
 
2π 2π
12 = 4096(cos 8π + i sin 8π)
12
⇐⇒ z = 2 cos + i sin
3 3 = 4096.

40
 Chapter 7: Lines
Definition 150: The inclination of a line is the positive angle of measure less than π from the

x-axis to the line.

Theorem 151: If the inclination of a line with slope m is θ, then m = tan θ.

Proof: If m = 0, then the line is horizontal and θ = 0, and so tan θ = 0. So suppose that m ̸= 0.

Then either m > 0 or m < 0.

Case 1: m > 0.

Suppose that the line intersects the x-axis at the point (x1 , 0). If the point (x2 , y2 ) is on the line,
y2 y2
then the slope of the line is m = and by right triangle trigonometry, tan θ = .
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
Case 2: m < 0.

Similar. ■

Example 152: Find the inclination of the line 2x + 3y = 6.

2
Note that the slope of the line is − . So the inclination of the line is given by the equation
3  
2 π  2
tan θ = − . Since θ ∈ , π , θ = π + tan−1 − .
3 2 3
Corollary 153: If two non-perpendicular lines have slopes m1 and m2 , then the angle θ between
 
−1 m2 − m1
the lines is tan .
1 + m1 m2
Proof: Suppose that two non-perpendicular lines have slopes m1 and m2 and inclinations θ1 and θ2 ,
π
respectively, such that θ1 < θ2 and θ2 −θ1 < . Then the angle between the lines is θ = θ2 −θ1 . This
2
tan θ2 − tan θ1 m2 − m1
implies that tan θ = tan(θ2 − θ1 ) = . By the theorem above, tan θ = ,
1 + tan θ1 tan θ2 1 + m1 m2
m2 − m1
which means that θ = tan−1 , as desired. ■
1 + m1 m2
Example 154: Find the angle between the lines 2x − y = 4 and 3x + 4y = 12.
3
The lines have slopes m1 = 2 and m2 = − . Hence, the tangent of the angle θ between the lines is
4  
m2 − m1 −11/4 11 −1 11
given by tan θ = = = . Therefore, θ = tan .
1 + m1 m2 −2/4 2 2
|ax1 + by1 + c|
Theorem 155: The distance between the point (x1 , y1 ) and the line ax+by+c = 0 is √ .
a2 + b2
Proof: Suppose that the point (x2 , y2 ) is on the line. If the line is horizontal, then the distance

between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is |y2 −y1 |. If the line is vertical, then the distance between (x1 , y1 ) and

(x2 , y2 ) is |x2 − x1 |. So suppose that the line is neither vertical nor horizontal. Then ax + by + c = 0
a c a
implies that y = − x − , which means that the slope of the line is − . Hence, the slope of
b b b
b
the line perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0 containing the point (x1 , y1 ) is , and so its
a
b
equation is given by y − y1 = (x − x1 ). Note that the two lines intersect at the point (x2 , y2 ) =
 a 
b(bx1 − ay1 ) − ac a(−bx1 + ay1 ) − bc
, . Therefore, the distance between the points (x1 , y1 ) and
a2 + b2 a2 + b2

41
(x2 , s
y2 ) is
 2  2
a(−bx1 + ay1 ) − bc b(bx1 − ay1 ) − ac
d= − y1 + − x1
a2 + b2 a 2 + b2
s 2  2 2
b2 x1 − aby1 − ac a y1 − abx1 − bc
= − x1 + − y1
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
s
a2 (ax1 + by1 + c)2 + b2 (ax1 + by1 + c)2
=
(a2 + b2 )2
|ax1 + by1 + c|
= √ . ■
a2 + b2
Example 156: Find the distance between the point (4, 1) and the line y = 2x + 1.

The general equation of the line is given by −2x + y − 1 = 0, and so, the distance is given by
| − 2(4) + 1(1) + (−1)| 8
p =√ .
2
(−2) + (1) 2 5

Chapter 8: Plane and Polar Curves

Section 8.1: Parametric Equations

Definition 157: Let I ⊆ R be a (possibly infinite) interval and suppose f, g : I → R are continuous.

(i) A set C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = f (t), y = g(t), t ∈ I} is called a plane curve;

(ii) x = f (t) and y = g(t) are called parametric equations for C ;

(iii) c(t) = (f (t), g(t)) is called a parametrization;

(iv) t is called a parameter.

Example 158: For each of the following, eliminate the parameter to find a Cartesian equation of

the curve and sketch the curve.

√ t
(a) x = t − 2 and y = − 7, t ≥ 0
2
Note the following.
√
x= t−2

⇐⇒ t = (x + 2)2
1
⇐⇒ y = (x + 2)2 − 7
2
1
= x2 + 2x − 5.
2
The curve is sketched below.

42
 √
(b) x = t, y = 2 ln t, t > 0

Note the following.

√
x= t

⇐⇒ x2 = t

⇐⇒ y = 2 ln(x2 ) = 4 ln(x).

The curve is sketched below.

π
(c) x = sin(t), y = cos2 (t), 0 ≤ t ≤
2
Note the following.

1 = cos2 (t) + sin(t) = y + x2

⇐⇒ y = 1 − x2 .

Start at (0, 1) and end at (1, 0). The curve is sketched below.

43
 Section 8.2: Polar Coordinates
Note 159:

In the figure above, note the following.

(i) r is the distance from the origin to the point (x, y);

(ii) θ is the angle made by the x-axis and the line segment of length r.

Definition 160: In the figure above,

(i) The ordered pair (r, θ) in the figure above is a polar coordinate representation of a point

(x, y);

(ii) r is called the radial coordinate;

44
(iii) θ is called the angular coordinate.

Note 161:

(i) Polar coordinate representations of a point (x, y) are not unique.

(ii) We may choose to specify unique polar coordinates for points other than the origin by placing

restrictions on r and θ;

(iii) The origin does not have a well-defined polar coordinate representation.

(iv) When plotting points in polar coordinates, the x-axis is called the pole or the polar axis;

(v) We usually do not include a y-axis when plotting points in polar coordinates.

Proposition 162: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 and suppose (r, θ) is a corresponding polar coordinate represen-

tation for (x, y).

(i) x = r cos(θ); (iii) x2 + y 2 = r2 ;

y
(ii) y = r sin(θ); (iv) tan(θ) = , provided x ̸= 0.
x
Proof:

For (iii), use the Pythagorean Theorem.

y r sin(θ)
For (iv), note that = = tan(θ). ■
x r cos(θ)
Example 163: Plot the given points.
 π
(a) 2,
4

 π
(b) 3,
3

45
  π
(c) 2, −
2

 π
(d) 0,
6

46
(e) (0, 4)

Note 164: If r < 0, then (r, θ) and (−r, θ + π) give the same polar coordinate representation of a

given point.

Example 165: Plot the following points.

 π
(a) −3,
6

47
  
5π
(b) −2, −
6

Example 166:

(a) Give a polar coordinate representation for the point (1, 1).
√ π  π
First, note that r2 = 2, which means r = 2 and that θ = tan−1 (1) = . Thus, the point 2,
4 4
is a polar coordinate representation for (1, 1).
 
5π
(b) Find a rectangular coordinate representation of the point 3, .
6
  √ √ !
5π 3 π 3 3 3 3
Note that x = 3 cos = −3 and y = 3 sin = . Thus, the point − , is a
6 2 6 2 2 2
 
5π
rectangular coordinate representation of the point 3, .
6

48
 Section 8.3: Polar Curves
Definition 167:

(i) A polar equation is an equation that describes a curve using polar coordinates.

(ii) The graph of a polar equation is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ), and r = f (θ)}.

(iii) The graph of a polar equation is called a polar curve.

Example 168: Find a polar equation for the curve described by the given Cartesian equation.

x2
(b) y =.
(a) y = 5 4
Consider the following.
Consider the following. x2
y=
y=5 4
r2 cos2 θ
⇐⇒ r sin θ =
⇐⇒ r sin θ = 5 4
5 1 cos2 θ
⇐⇒ r = = 5 csc θ. ⇐⇒ =
sin θ r 4 sin θ
4 sin θ
⇐⇒ r = = 4 tan θ sec θ.
cos2 θ
Example 169: Find a Cartesian equation for the curve described by the given polar equation and

sketch a graph.
√
(a) r = 5 2
√
This is a circle of radius 5 2 centered at the point (0, 0). The graph is sketched below.

(b) r2 cos(2θ) = 1.

Note the following.

r2 cos(2θ) = 1

49
⇐⇒ r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 1

⇐⇒ r2 cos2 θ − r2 sin2 θ = 1

⇐⇒ x2 − y 2 = 1.

This is a hyperbola. The curve is sketched below.

(c) Determine the curve given by the polar equation r = θ for θ ≥ 0.

As θ increases, r also increases. Thus, the polar curve is a spiral, called an Archimedian spiral,

and is sketched below.

105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 200 400 600

180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

50
 Chapter 9: Conic Sections Revisited

Section 9.1: Rotations of Axes

Theorem 170: Suppose that the x- and y-axes in R2 are rotated by an acute angle ϕ to produces

axes u and v. Then the coordinates of the point (x, y) ∈ R2 in the xy-plane and (u, v) ∈ R2 in the

uv-plane are related as follows.

(i) x = u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ; (iii) u = x cos ϕ + y sin ϕ;

(ii) y = u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ; (iv) v = −x sin ϕ + y cos ϕ.

π
Example 171: If the x- and y-axes in R2 are rotated by rad, find the new coordinates of the
6
point (2, −4).
π
Set x = 2, y = −4, and ϕ = . Then,
6
π π π π
u = 2 cos − 4 sin v = −2 sin − 4 cos
√ 6 6 6√ 6
3 1 1 3
=2· −4· = −2 · − 4 ·
√ 2 2 2√ 2
= 3−2 = −1 − 2 3.
√ √
Hence, the new point is ( 3 − 2, −1 − 2 3).

Theorem 172: Consider a conic Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, where A, B, C, D, E, F ∈ R.

A−C
To eliminate the xy-term, it suffices to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ such that cot 2ϕ = .
B
Proof: We apply the theorem above to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ to create the uv-plane

as follows.

(i) x = u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ;

(ii) y = u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ.

Now,

0 = Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F

= A(u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ)2 + B(u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ)(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ) + C(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ)2 + D(u cos ϕ −

v sin ϕ) + E(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ) + F

= (A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)u2 + [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]uv

+ (A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ)v 2 + (D cos ϕ + E sin ϕ)u + (−D sin ϕ + E cos ϕ)v + F .

To eliminate the xy-term, we choose ϕ such that [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)] = 0. In

other words,

0 = [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]

51
= (C − A) sin 2ϕ + B cos 2ϕ

⇐⇒ B cos 2ϕ = (A − C) sin 2ϕ
A−C
⇐⇒ cot 2ϕ = . ■
B √ √ √
Example 173: Eliminate the xy-term in the equation 6 3x2 + 6xy + 4 3y 2 = 21 3.

By the theorem above, we define the uv-axes by rotating the xy-axes

√ √as follows.
√
6 3−4 3 3
Rotate the xy-axes by an acute angle ϕ such that cot 2ϕ = = . This implies that
6 3
π
ϕ = . Now,
6 √ !  
3 1
(i) x = u −v ;
2 2
  √ !
1 3
(ii) y = u +v .
2 2
This implies the following.
√
21 3
√ √
= 6 3x2 + 6xy + 4 3y 2
" √ !  #2 " √ !  # "   √ !# "   √ !#2
√ 3 1 3 1 1 3 √ 1 3
=6 3 u −v +6 u −v u +v +4 3 u +v
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √
= 7 3u2 + 3 3v 2
u2 v2
⇐⇒ + = 1.
3 7
Note 174: The graph of the equation Ax2 +Bxy+Cy 2 +Dx+Ey+F = 0, where A, B, C, D, E, F ∈ R

with A, C not being both zero, is

(i) a parabola if one of A or C is zero.

(ii) a circle if A = C.

(iii) an ellipse if A and C have the same sign.

(iv) a hyperbola if A and C have opposite signs.

Definition 175: A conic section is

(i) degenerate if the graph of the equation is either a pair of lines, a single line, or a single point.

(ii) non-degenerate if it is not degenerate.

Theorem 176: The graph of the equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is a conic. In the

non-degenerate cases, the graph is

(i) a parabola if B 2 − 4AC = 0;

(ii) an ellipse if B 2 − 4AC < 0;

(iii) a hyperbola if B 2 − 4AC > 0.

Proof: We proceed as in the proof of the theorem above to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ. A

straightforward calculation, which is left to the reader, shows that

52
[2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]2 − 4(A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)

(A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ) = B 2 − 4AC.

This implies that the quantity B 2 − 4AC remains unchanged for any rotation. So, without loss of

generality, rotate the axes so that the xy term of the conic is eliminated. In other words, choose an

angle ϕ such that the equation below is satisfied.

(A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)u2 + (A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ)v 2

+ (D cos ϕ + E sin ϕ)u + (−D sin ϕ + E cos ϕ)v + F = 0.

This implies that B 2 −4AC = −4(A cos2 ϕ+B sin ϕ cos ϕ+C sin2 ϕ)(A sin2 ϕ−B sin ϕ cos ϕ+C cos2 ϕ).

To complete the proof, we consider three cases.

Case 1: Either A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ = 0 or A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ = 0.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC = 0 and the graph of the equation is a parabola.

Case 2: The quantities A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ and A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ have

the same sign.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC < 0 and the graph of the equation is an ellipse.

Case 3: The quantities A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ and A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ have

opposite signs.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC > 0 and the graph of the equation is a hyperbola. ■

Section 9.2: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates

 
d(P, F )
Theorem 177: Let F ∈ R2 , ℓ ⊆ R2 be a line, and e ∈ R+ . Then the set P ∈ R2 | =e
d(P, ℓ)
is a conic.

Proof: If e = 1, then d(P, F ) = d(P, ℓ), which defines a parabola. So suppose that e ̸= 1. Set

F = (0, 0) and suppose ℓ is a line parallel to the y-axis d units to the right. In other words, set ℓ to

be the vertical line x = d, where d > 0. If the point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then d(P, F ) = r

and d(P, ℓ) = d − r cos θ. Now,

d(P, F )
=e ⇐⇒ x2 + y 2 = e2 (d − x)2
d(P, ℓ)
⇐⇒ d(P, F ) = e · d(P, ℓ) ⇐⇒ (1 − e2 )x2 + 2de2 x + y 2 = e2 d2
2
e2 d y2 e2 d2

⇐⇒ r = e(d − r cos θ) ⇐⇒ x + + = .
1−e 2 1−e 2 (1 − e2 )2
Consider two cases.

Case 1: e < 1

Note the following.

53
 2
e2 d y2 e2 d2

x+ 2
+ 2
=
1 − e 1 − e (1 − e2 )2
e2 d
x+
1 − e2 y2
⇐⇒ 2 2 + 2 2 = 1.
e d e d
(1 − e ) 2 2 1 − e2
e2 d ed ed
Set h = − 2
,a= 2
, and b = √ .
1−e 1−e 1 − e2
Then,
e2 d
 
x+
1 − e2 y2
+ =1
e2 d2 e2 d2
(1 − e2 )2 1 − e2
2 2
(x − h) y
⇐⇒ + 2 = 1.
a2 b
This is an equation for an ellipse with center (h, 0). Now,
e4 d2
c2 = a2 − b2 = = −h2
(1 − e2 )2
⇐⇒ c = −h.
c
This implies that the point c, the origin, is a focus of a conic section. It also follows that e = .
a
Case 2: e > 1

An argument similar to the one in case 1 shows that the graph of the equation is a hyperbola with
c
e = , where c2 = a2 + b2 . ■
a
Definition 178: In the theorem above, the constant e is called the eccentricity of the conic.
ed ed
Theorem 179: A polar equation of the form r = or r = represents a conic
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± sin θ
with one focus at the origin and with eccentricity e.

(i) If e = 1, then the conic section is a parabola.

(ii) If e < 1, then the conic section is an ellipse.

(iii) If e > 1, then the conic section is a hyperbola.

Example 180:
10
(a) Show that the conic given by the equation r = is an ellipse.
3 − 2 cos θ
Proof: Consider the following.
10 10/3
r= = .
3 − 2 cos θ 1 − 2/3 cos θ
2
Since < 1, the equation represents an ellipse. ■
3
The curve is sketched below.

54
 105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 5 10
180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

55
 π
(b) Rotate the ellipse by an angle rad about the origin. Find a polar equation for the resulting
4
ellipse.
π 10
Replace θ with θ − . So the new equation is r =  π.
4 3 − 2 cos θ −
4
105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 5 10
180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

56
 Section 9.3: Planetary Motion
Theorem 181 (Kepler’s Laws):

(i) A planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus.

(ii) The line joining the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

(iii) The square of the period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the length of

the major axis of its orbit.

Definition 182: The position of a planet that is the closest to the sun is called the perihelion of

the planet.

Definition 183: The position of a planet that is the furthest from the sun is called the aphelion

of the planet.

Lemma 184: The polar equation of an ellipse with focus at the origin, semimajor axis a, eccentricity
a(1 − e2 )
e, and directrix x = d can be written as r = .
1 + e cos θ
Theorem 185: The perihelion distance from a planet to the sun is a(1 − e) and the aphelion

distance is a(1 + e).

Example 186: Find a polar equation for the elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun (at one

focus) given that the eccentricity is about 0.017 and the length of the major axis is about 2.99 × 108

kilometers.

Note that 2a = 2.99 × 108 , which means that a = 1.495 × 108 . Hence, the earth’s orbit is described
(1.495 × 108 )[1 − (0.017)2 ] 43205.5
by the equation r = = .
1 + 0.017 cos θ 1 + 0.017 cos θ
Example 187: Find the perihelion and aphelion distances of the earth.

In this case, a = 1.495 × 108 and e = 0.017. So, the perihelion distance from the earth to the

sun is a(1 − e) = (1.495 × 108 )(1 − 0.017) = 146, 958, 500 kilometers, and the aphelion distance is

a(1 + e) = (1.495 × 108 )(1 + 0.017) = 152, 041, 500 kilometers.

Chapter 10: Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

Section 10.1: Cylindrical Coordinates

Definition 188: Let (x, y, z) ∈ R3 denote the rectangular coordinate representation of a point.

The cylindrical coordinate representation of (x, y, z) is (r, θ, z), where (r, θ) denotes the polar

coordinate representation of (x, y).

Example 189: Convert each of the following points from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates.

57
 √ √
(a) ( 2, 2, 3)
π
Note that tan(θ) = 1, which means θ = , and r2 = 4, which means r = 2. Hence,
π √ 4
x = 2 cos = 2
 π4 √
y = 2 sin = 2
4
z = 3.
√ √
Therefore, the cylindrical coordinate representation is given by ( 2, 2, 3).

(b) (0, 1, −5)

π
Note that tan(θ) is undefined, which means θ = , and r = 1. Hence,
π 2
x = cos =0
 π2
y = sin =1
2
z = −5.

Therefore, the cylindrical coordinate representation is given by (0, 1, −5).

Example 190: Convert each of the following points from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates.
 π 
(a) 3, , 1
3 √
π π 3 π 3 3
Note that θ = and r = 3. This means that x = 3 cos = and y = 3 sin = .
3 3 2 √ ! 3 2
3 3 3
Therefore, the rectangular coordinate representation of the point is , ,1 .
2 2
 π 
(b) −2, , 6
4 √ √
π π π
Note that θ = and r = −2. This means that x = −2 cos = − 2 and y = −2 sin = − 2.
4 4 √ √ 4
Therefore, the rectangular coordinate representation of the point is (− 2, − 2, 6).

Example 191: Convert each of the following rectangular equations to cylindrical equations.

(a) y = x
(b) x2 + y 2 = 9
Note the following. (c) x2 + y 2 = z
Note the following.
y=x Note the following.
x2 + y 2 = 9
⇐⇒ r sin(θ) = r cos(θ) x2 + y 2 = z
2
⇐⇒ r = 9
⇐⇒ sin(θ) = cos(θ) ⇐⇒ r2 = z.
π ⇐⇒ r = 3.
⇐⇒ θ = .
4

Example 192: Convert each of the following cylindrical equations to rectangular equations.
π
(a) θ =
6
Note the following.
π
θ=
6
 π  √3
⇐⇒ x = r cos = r
6 2

58
 2
⇐⇒ r = √ x.
3
Also,
π r
y = r sin =
6 2
⇐⇒ r = 2y
2
⇐⇒ 2y = √ x
3
1
⇐⇒ y = √ x.
3
Finally,
y π 1
= tan(θ) = tan =√
x 6 3
1
⇐⇒ y = √ x.
3
(b) r = 5

Note the following.

r=5

⇐⇒ r2 = 25

⇐⇒ x2 + y 2 = 25

(c) z = r2

Note that z = r2 = x2 + y 2 .

Section 10.2: Spherical Coordinates

Definition 193: Let (x, y, z) ∈ R3 denote the rectangular coordinate representation of a point and

(r, θ, z) denote its cylindrical coordinate representation. The spherical coordinate representa-

tion of the point is (ρ, θ, ϕ) where ρ is the distance the point is from the point (0, 0, 0) and ϕ is the

angle between the positive z-axis and the segment joining the point (0, 0, 0) to the point (x, y, z).

Note 194: Figure.

Proposition 195:

(i) x = r cos(θ) = ρ sin(ϕ) cos(θ);

(ii) y = r sin(θ) = ρ sin(ϕ) sin(θ);

(iii) z = ρ sin(ϕ);

(iv) ρ2 = r2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

Example 196: For each of the following, give the coordinates of the point in the other two coordi-

nate systems.
√
(a) Rectangular: (2, 2 3, 4)

First note that r2 = x2 + y 2 = 4 + 12 = 16, which means r = 4. Next,

x = r cos(θ)

59
⇐⇒ 2 = 4 cos(θ)
1
⇐⇒ cos(θ) =
2
π
⇐⇒ θ = .
3
Also,
p √ √
ρ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 32 = 4 2.

Finally,

r = ρ sin(ϕ)
√
⇐⇒ 4 = 4 2 sin(ϕ)
1
⇐⇒ sin(ϕ) = √
2
π
⇐⇒ ϕ = .
4
π
Thus, the cylindrical coordinate representation is given by (4, , 4) and the spherical coordinate
 √ π π 3
representation is given by 4 2, , .
3 4
π
(b) Cylindrical: (3, , 4)
4 √ √
π 3 2 π 3 2
First, note that x = r cos(θ) = 3 cos = , y = r sin(θ) = 3 sin = , and ρ =
√ 4 2 4 2
√
r2 + z 2 = 9 + 16 = 5.

Now,

3 = ρ sin(ϕ) = 5 sin(ϕ)
3
⇐⇒ sin(ϕ) =
5 
−1 3
⇐⇒ ϕ = sin .
5
√ √ !
3 2 3 2
Therefore, the rectangular coordinate representation is given by , , 4 and the spherical
2 2
  
π 3
coordinate representation is given by 5, , sin−1 .
 π π 4 5
(c) Spherical: 2, ,
4 6
First,

x = ρ sin(ϕ) cos(θ)
π π
= 2 sin cos
6
√ 4
1 2
=2· ·
√2 2
2
=
2
and

y = ρ sin(ϕ) sin(θ)
π π
= 2 sin sin
6
√ 4
1 2
=2· ·
2 2

60
 √
2
= .
2
Next,

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = ρ2
1 1
⇐⇒ + + z 2 = 4
2 2
⇐⇒ z 2 = 3
√
⇐⇒ z = 3 = ρ cos(ϕ).

Finally,
1
r = ρ sin(ϕ) = 2 · = 1.
2 √ √ !
2 2
Therefore, the rectangular coordinate representation is given by , , 3 and the cylindrical
2 2
1 √
 
coordinate representation is given by 1, , 3 .
4

61