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Organisms and Populations | 179

ØRGÅÑÏSMS ÅÑD
PØPÜLÅTÏØÑS
Organisms and Populations | 185

Adaptations of mammals:
 Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to reduce
heat loss. (This is called Allen’s Rule).
 Aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below
their skin that acts as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
Physiological and bio-chemical adaptations:
 Archaebacteria are found in hot springs & deep sea hydrothermal
vents where temperature is >100°C. Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters
(temperature is below 0°C).
 Many marine invertebrates & fishes live at great depths in the ocean
where the pressure is >100 times the normal atmospheric pressure.
 At a high-altitude place (>3,500 m) we feel altitude sickness. Its symptoms
are nausea, heart palpitations & fatigue. This is due to low atmospheric
pressure. So the body does not get enough O2. Gradually, we acclimatize
to the situation and the body compensates low O2 availability by
increasing RBCs & breathing rate and decreasing the binding capacity
of hemoglobin. (AIPMT 2012)
Behavioural adaptations:
 Desert lizards bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body
temperature is low, but move into shade when the ambient temperature
starts increasing. (AIPMT 2011)
 Some species burrow into the soil to hide and escape from the above-
ground heat.

PØPÜLÅTÏØÑS

1
A population is a group of individuals of same species that live in a
given geographical area, share or compete for similar resources and
potentially reproduce. (AIPMT 2007)

E.g. All the cormorants Population ecology

2 3
in a wetland, rats in an is an important area
abandoned dwelling, of ecology as it links
teakwood trees in a forest ecology to population
tract, bacteria in a culture genetics & evolution.
plate and lotus plants in a
pond, etc.
186 | A Handbook of Biology

Population Attributes:

Birth rates: Refer to per capita births. E.g. In a pond, there were 20 lotus plants last
year and through reproduction 8 new plants are added.
Therefore, the current population = 28.
Hence, the birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year

Death rates: Refer to per capita deaths. E.g. 4 individuals in a laboratory

population of 40 fruit lies died during a week.
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.

Sex ratio: An individual is either a male or a female but a population has a sex
ratio. E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% males.

Age pyramid: It is the structure obtained when the age distribution (% individuals
of a given age or age group) is plotted for the population. For human population,
age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in a combined
diagram.

Post-reproductive

Reproductive
Pre-reproductive
Expanding Stable Declining

Figure: Representation of age pyramids for human population

The shape of pyramid reflects the growth status of the population.
 Growing/expanding ® Triangular shaped
 Stable/stationary ® Bell shaped
 Decline/decreasing ® Urn shaped

Population size or population density (N):

 It is the number of individuals of a species per unit area or volume. E.g.
Population density of Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands in any year
is <10. It is millions for Chlamydomonas in a pond.
 Population size also called population density is measured in percentage
cover or biomass. E.g. In an area, if there are 200 Parthenium plants
but only a single huge banyan tree with a large canopy, stating that
the population density of banyan is low relative to that of carrot grass
amounts to underestimating the enormous role of the Banyan in that
community. In such cases, measuring percentage cover or biomass is
Organisms and Populations | 187

meaningful to show importance of banyan tree. Total number is difficult

measure for a huge population. In such cases, relative population density
(without knowing absolute population density) is used. E.g. Number of
fish caught per trap indicates its total population density in the lake.
 In some cases, indirect estimation of population sizes is performed. E.g.
Tiger census in national parks & tiger reserves based on pug marks &
fecal pellets.

PØPÜLÅTÏØÑ GRØWTH
 The population size changes depending on factors like food availability,
predation pressure & weather.
 Changes in population density give some idea about the population –
whether it is flourishing or declining.
4 basic processes that fluctuate the population density:

Natality (B):
Mortality (D):
It is the number of births in a
population during a given period. It is the number of deaths in a
(NEET 2018). population during a given period.

Immigration (I): Emigration (E):

It is the number of individuals of It is the number of individuals of

the same species that have come the population who have left the
into the habitat from elsewhere habitat and gone elsewhere during
during a given time period. a given time period.

 Natality & immigration increase the population density.

 Mortality & emigration decrease the population density.
Immigration
(I)

Natality Population Mortality

(B) Density (D)
(N)

Emigration
(E)

Fig. 13.3.2 Population dynamics

 If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is

Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)],Population density increases if B+I is more
than D+E. Otherwise it will decrease. (NEET 2013)
188 | A Handbook of Biology

 Under normal conditions, births & deaths are important factors

influencing population density. Other 2 factors have importance only
under special conditions.
 E.g. for a new colonizing habitat, immigration may be more significant
to population growth than birth rates.

GRØWTH MØDËLS:
a. Exponential growth

Resources (food & space) are essential for unimpeded population growth.

If resources are unlimited, each species shows its full innate potential to grow in number.
Then the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.

If population size N, birth rates (per capita births) The r (intrinsic rate of
represented as b and death rates (per capita deaths) natural increase) is an
represented as d, then the increase or decrease in N important parameter
during a unit time period t (dN/dt) will be for assessing impacts
dN/dt = (b – d) x N of any biotic or abiotic
factor on population
Let (b–d) = r, then
growth.
dN/dt = rN

The r value for the Norway rat = 0.015, r value for the flour beetle = 0.12,
r value for human population in India (1981) = 0.0205
The integral form of the exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert (AIPMT 2011)

Where,
dN
Population density (N)

Nt = Population density after time t a dt

= rN
K
N0 = Population density at time zero
dN
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
b = rN K–N
dt K

e = The base of natural logarithms (2.71828)

Time (t)

Figure: Population growth curve, a is when resources are not limiting the
growth, plot is exponential, b is when resources are limiting the growth, plot
is logistic, K is carrying capacity.

b. Logistic growth
 There is no population in nature having unlimited resources for
exponential growth. This leads to competition among individuals for
limited resources.
Organisms and Populations | 189

 Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individuals survive and reproduce.

 In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a maximum
possible number, beyond which no further growth is possible. It is called
carrying capacity (K).
 A population with limited resources shows initially a lag phase, phases
of acceleration & deceleration and finally an asymptote. This type of
population growth is called Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth (NEET 2017).
It is described by following equation:

Where N = Population density at time t

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity (NEET 2016)
 Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite the
logistic growth model is more realistic one.

LÏFË HÏSTØRÝ VÅRÏÅTÏØÑ

 Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness or Darwinian
fitness (high r value). Under a particular set of selection pressures,
organisms evolve towards the most efficient reproductive strategy.
 Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific salmon fish,
bamboo) while others breed many times (most birds and mammals).
 Some produce a large number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic
fishes) while others produce a small number of large-sized offspring
(birds, mammals).
 These facts indicate that life history traits of organisms have evolved
due to limited abiotic and biotic components of the habitat.

PØPÜLÅTÏØÑ ÏÑTËRÅÇTÏØÑS
Species A Species B Name of Interaction  Organisms interact in various
+ + Mutualism
ways to form a biological
community.
– – Competition
+ – Predation  Interaction between two
+ – Parasitism (NEET II 2016) species is called Interspecific
+ 0 Amensalism interaction. They include
– 0 Commensalism (NEET II 2018) predation, parasitism
& commensalisms, the
interacting species live closely
together.
190 | A Handbook of Biology

Å. PRËDÅTÏØÑ
 In a broad ecological context, all carnivores, herbivores, etc. are
predators. About 25 % insects are phytophagous.
 If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct.
It results in the extinction of predator. Therefore, predators in nature are
‘prudent’.
Importance of predators:
 Predators control prey populations. When certain exotic species are
introduced into a geographical area, they spread fast due to the
absence of its natural predators in the invaded land.
 E.g., the prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920’s
caused havoc by spreading. Finally, the invasive cactus was brought
under control only after a cactus-feeding predator (a moth) was
introduced into the country.
 Biological control methods are based on the ability of the predator
to regulate prey population. Predators maintain species diversity in a
community, by reducing the intensity of competition among competing
prey species.
 E.g., The starfish Pisaster is a predator in the rocky intertidal communities
of the American Pacific Coast. In an experiment, when all the starfishes
were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species
of invertebrates became extinct within a year, due to interspecific
competition.
Defenses of prey species to lessen impact of predation:

 Camouflage (cryptic coloration) of some

insects & frogs.
 Some are poisonous and so avoided by
the predators. Monarch butterfly is highly
distasteful to its predator bird.

It is due to a special chemical in its body

acquired during its caterpillar stage by
feeding on a poisonous weed.
Organisms and Populations | 191

Thorns (Acacia, Cactus, etc.) are the most common

morphological means of defense in plants. Many plants
produce chemicals that make the herbivore sick, inhibit
feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction or kill it.
E.g. Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac
glycosides. Therefore, cattle or goats do not eat it.
Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc. are
defenses against grazers and browsers.

b. Competition
 It is an interaction where fitness of one species (r value) is significantly
lower in presence of another species.
 Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
 Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same
limited resources.
 Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g. Flamingoes &
fishes in some shallow South American lakes compete for zooplankton.
 Competition occurs in abundant resources also. E.g. In interference
competition, the feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the
interfering and inhibitory presence of other species, even if resources
are abundant.
Evidences for competition:

The Abingdon tortoise of Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade

after goats were introduced on the island, due to greater browsing efficiency of
the goats.

Competitive release: A species, restricted to a small geographical area (due to the

presence of competitively superior species), expands its distributional range when
the competing species is experimentally removed. Connell’s field experiments
showed that on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, the larger & competitively
superior barnacle Balanus dominates intertidal area, and excludes the smaller
barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.

GÅÜSË’S ’ÇØMPËTÏTÏVË ËXÇLÜSÏØÑ PRÏÑÇÏPLË’:

 It states that two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one
will be eliminated eventually. (NEET 2016) This may be true in limited
resources, but not otherwise.
192 | A Handbook of Biology

 Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms that promote

co-existence rather than exclusion. E.g. ‘resource partitioning’. (Odisha
NEET 2019)
 Resource partitioning: If two species compete for the same resource,
they could avoid competition by choosing different times for feeding
or different foraging patterns. E.g. MacArthur showed that five closely
related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid
competition and co-exist due to behavioral differences in their foraging
activities.

c. Parasitism:

Life cycles of parasites are

 Many parasites are host-
often complex. E.g.
specific (they can parasitise
only a single host species).  Human liver fluke
They tend to co-evolve. i.e., depends on 2
if the host evolves special intermediate hosts (a
mechanisms against the snail & a fish) to complete
parasite, the parasite has its life cycle.
to evolve mechanisms to  Malarial parasite needs
counteract them, in order to mosquito to spread to
be successful with the same other hosts.
host species.
 Adaptations of parasites:
Loss of sense organs,  Parasites harm the host.
presence of adhesive They may reduce the
organs or suckers to survival, population density,
cling on to the host, loss growth and reproduction
of digestive system, high of the host. They may make
reproductive capacity, etc. the host physically weak
and more vulnerable than
predation.

TÝPËS ØF PÅRÅSÏTËS:
1) Ectoparasites
 Parasites that feed on the external surface of host. E.g. Lice on humans,
ticks on dogs, ectoparasitic copepods on many marine fishes, Cuscuta
plant on hedge plants. (AIPMT 2011)
 Cuscuta has no chlorophyll and leaves. It derives its nutrition from the
host plant. (AIPMT 2012)
Organisms and Populations | 193

 Female mosquito is not considered a parasite, because it needs our

blood only for reproduction, not as food.

2) Endoparasites
 Parasites that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney,
lungs, RBCs, etc).
 The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex.
 Human liver fluke depends on to intermediate hosts (snails and fishes)
to complete its life cycle.
 They have simple morphological & anatomical features and high
reproductive potential.

Brood parasitism in birds:

During the course of evolution,

the eggs of the parasitic bird
Here, the parasitic
have evolved to resemble the
E.g. Brood
birds lay eggs in
host’s egg in size and colour
the nest of its host parasitism between
to reduce the chances of the
and lets the host cuckoo and crow.
host bird detecting the foreign
incubate them.
eggs and ejecting them from
the nest.

d. Commensalism:

Examples:
 Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango branch (0). (Odisha NEET 2019)
 Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
 Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0). The egrets forage close to where the
cattle are grazing. As the cattle move, the vegetation insects come out.
Otherwise it is difficult for the egrets to find and catch the insects.
 Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+). Stinging tentacles of sea anemone
give protection to fish from predators. (NEET 2013)

e. Mutualism:
Examples:
 Lichen: It is a mutualistic relationship between a fungus &
photosynthesizing algae or cyanobacteria.
194 | A Handbook of Biology

 Mycorrhizae: Associations between fungi & the roots of higher plants.

The fungi help the plant in the absorption of essential nutrients from the
soil while the plant provides the fungi with carbohydrates. (NEET 2017)

Mutualism between plant & animal through pollination and seed

dispersion:

Fig trees & wasps. The fig species is pollinated only by its ‘partner’

01
wasp species and no other species. The female wasp pollinates the fig
inflorescence while searching for suitable egg-laying sites in fruits. The
fig offers the wasp some developing seeds, as food for the wasp larvae.

02
Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They can attract the right
pollinator insect (bees & bumblebees) to ensure pollination. Not all
orchids offer rewards.

‘Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (Mediterranean orchid). One petal of its

03 flower resembles female bee in size, colour & markings. So male bee
‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower and is dusted with pollen. When this
bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another flower, it transfers pollen to it.

If the female bee’s colour patterns change slightly during evolution,

pollination success will be reduced unless the orchid flower co-evolves to
maintain the resemblance of its petal to the female bee.

Figure: Mutual relationship

between fig tree and wasp: Fig
flower is pollinated by wasp.

Figure: Showing bee-a

pollinator on orchid
flower