OPTICAL MINERALOGY II (GTP 411)

OPTICAL MINERALOGY: The study of the interaction of light with minerals, most commonly
limited to visible light and usually further limited to the non-opaque minerals. Opaque minerals
are more commonly studied in reflected light and that study is generally called ore microscopy -
alluding to the fact many opaque minerals are also ore minerals. The most general application of
optical mineralogy is to aid in the identification of minerals, either in rock thin sections or
individual mineral grains. Another application occurs because the optical properties of minerals
are related to the crystal chemistry of the mineral-for example, the mineral's chemical composition,
crystal structure, order/disorder. Thus, relationships exist, and correlations are possible between
them and some optical property. This often allows a simple optical measurement with the
petrographic microscope (a polarizing microscope) that may yield important information about
some crystal chemical aspect of the mineral under study.

GLOSSARY
Anisotropic mineral: A mineral with more than one principal refractive index.
Birefringence: The mathematical difference between the largest and smallest refractive index for
an anisotropic mineral.
Biaxial mineral: A mineral with three principal refractive indices and two optic axes. Its indicatrix
is a triaxial ellipsoid.
Dispersion: Change of any optical property with wavelength.
Indicatrix: The three-dimensional surface describing the variation in refractive index with
relationship to vibration direction of incident light.
Isotropic mineral: A mineral with the same refractive index regardless of vibration direction. Its
indicatrix is a sphere.
Optical class: One of five possible classes (different indicatrices) to which a mineral can belong:
isotropic, uniaxial +/-, or biaxial +/-.
Optical orientation: The relationship between a mineral's crystallographic axes and optical
indicatrix.
Pleochroism: The property of exhibiting different colors as a function of the vibration direction.
Refractive index: For isotropic minerals -n, for uniaxial minerals - e and w, for biaxial minerals -
a, b, and g.
Uniaxial mineral: A mineral with two principal refractive indices and one optic axis. Its indicatrix
is a prolate or oblate ellipsoid.
Relief: refers to the degree to which a mineral stands out from its surrounding medium (such as
another mineral or the mounting medium) when viewed under a microscope. It is a function of the
difference in refractive index (RI) between the mineral and its surroundings.

Theory of light
Light can be thought of both as a wave phenomenon (electromagnetic theory) or a particle
phenomenon (quantum theory), depending upon the physical process under study. In optical
mineralogy both forms of light are employed to fully explain the interaction of light with minerals.
The range and colors of visible light are defined in terms of wavelength: violet (390-446 nm),
indigo (446-464 nm), blue (464-500 nm), green (500-578 nm), yellow (578-592 nm), orange (592-
620 nm), red (620-770 nm). Visible light commonly is referred to as 400-700 nm. This range is
somewhat arbitrary based upon the variation in an individual's eye sensitivity. The wave theory of
light describes light as a longitudinal wave, with the direction of propagation and the direction of
energy transfer being perpendicular. In optical mineralogy the direction of propagation is referred
to as the ray path and the energy transfer direction as the vibration direction. The geometrical
relationships between ray path, vibration direction, and a mineral constitute one major portion of
the optical study of minerals, basically a geometrical optical phenomenon. Results from wave
theory are used to explain how light is refracted by a mineral. Several techniques for the
measurement of optical properties of minerals use observation of light refraction. The particle
theory describes light as composed of photons of different energies with these energies related to
the wavelength in the electromagnetic theory. A description of the interaction of photons with the
bonding electrons in minerals can be used to explain such phenomena as refractive index, color,
and pleochroism, and to interpret most spectroscopic studies.

Polarized light

The electromagnetic theory of light is used to explain polarization phenomena. There are four
types of polarized light: random, plane, circular, and elliptical. Plane polarized is the most
important form for the study of minerals. However, circular and elliptical forms become important
in more advanced studies. Recall that the direction of energy transfer is perpendicular to the
propagation for a light ray. In plane polarized light the energy transfer directions (vibration
directions) are restricted to a plane parallel to and coincident with the ray path. Plane polarized
light is used to study anisotropic crystals because the vibration direction of the light can be made
parallel to specific directions within the crystal.

• Light entering a crystal may be absorbed, refracted, or reflected.

• Optical mineralogy involves studying rocks and minerals by studying their optical
properties.
• Today, most optical mineralogy involves examining thin sections with a petrographic
microscope.
 • Petrographic microscopes have polarized light sources that illuminate a thin section.
• We examine thin sections in two modes: using plane-polarized light or using cross-
polarized light.
• In plane-polarized light we can distinguish opaque and nonopaque minerals; we can see
crystal shape, habit, cleavage, color and pleochroism, and relief.
• In cross-polarized light, we distinguish anisotropic from isotropic minerals, we see
interference colors related to birefringence, and we can see twinning and related features.
• We use cross-polarized light to learn a crystal’s optic class and optic sign, to measure
extinction angles and sign of elongation, and to measure 2V.
• A combination of optical properties allows us to identify minerals in thin section and to
interpret geologic histories.

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL CLASSES

Minerals are classified based on their symmetry into six crystallographic systems: cubic,
hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. They are also classified based on
their optical behavior into isotropic and anisotropic minerals. Anisotropic minerals are further
divided into uniaxial and biaxial categories.

Isotropic vs. Anisotropic Minerals

• Isotropic Minerals: These belong to the cubic crystal system and have the same refractive
index in all directions. When light passes through an isotropic mineral, it remains
unpolarized.
• Anisotropic Minerals: These belong to hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic,
or triclinic systems and split light into two perpendicular polarized rays. Their refractive
index varies depending on the direction of light.

Indicatrix Theory

The indicatrix is a geometrical model representing the variation of refractive indices in a

mineral. It helps visualize how light interacts with minerals.

Isotropic Indicatrix

• Represents isotropic minerals.

• It is a sphere because the refractive index is the same in all directions.

Uniaxial Indicatrix

• Represents uniaxial minerals (hexagonal and tetragonal systems).

• It is an ellipsoid with two principal refractive indices: e (extraordinary) and w (ordinary).
• If e > w, the mineral is uniaxial positive; if e < w, it is uniaxial negative.

Biaxial Indicatrix
 • Represents biaxial minerals (orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic systems).
• It has three mutually perpendicular refractive indices: a, b, and g, with a < b < g.

Retardation and Birefringence

• Birefringence is the difference between two refractive indices of an anisotropic mineral

(e.g., e - w in uniaxial minerals).
• Retardation is the optical path difference between two polarized light rays traveling at
different speeds.

MODES OF MINERAL EXAMINATION UNDER THE PETROLOGICAL

MICROSCOPE

1. In Ordinary Light (Transmitted Light, Unpolarized)

o Setup: No polarizers are used; light passes through the sample without
polarization.
o Observations:
▪ Color: Natural mineral color (not influenced by pleochroism).
▪ Morphology: Crystal shape, habit, and grain boundaries.
▪ Inclusions/Texture: Visible impurities, fractures, or zoning.
▪ Opacity: Degree of transparency or translucency.
o Limitations: No polarization effects (e.g., pleochroism, birefringence) are visible.
2. Under Polarized Light (Plane-Polarized Light, PPL)
o Setup: Lower polarizer is inserted; light is polarized in one direction (analyzer
removed).
o Observations:
▪ Pleochroism: Color changes as the stage rotates due to differential light
absorption.
▪ Relief: Contrast between mineral and mounting medium based on
refractive index (e.g., high relief = strong contrast).
▪ Cleavage/Fractures: Visibility enhanced by relief and light reflection.
▪ Twinning/Inclusions: Internal structures become apparent.
3. Under Crossed Nicols (Cross-Polarized Light, XPL)
o Setup: Both polarizers (lower polarizer and upper analyzer) are inserted and
crossed at 90°.
o Observations:
▪ Birefringence: Interference colors (using the Michel-Lévy chart) indicate
mineral retardation.
▪ Extinction: Minerals go dark (extinct) at specific orientations during stage
rotation.
▪ Twinkling: Isotropic minerals (e.g., garnet) remain dark; anisotropic
minerals display colors.
 ▪ Extinction Angle: Measured to identify mineral types (e.g., plagioclase
vs. pyroxene).
4. Under Convergent Light (Conoscopic Illumination)
o Setup: High-magnification objective, condenser lens (to focus light conically),
and Bertrand lens (to view interference figures).
o Observations:
▪ Interference Figures: Patterns (e.g., uniaxial, biaxial) reveal optical
properties.
▪ Optic Sign: Determined using a gypsum plate (e.g., positive vs. negative
elongation).
▪ Optic Axis Orientation: Identifies crystal symmetry (e.g., uniaxial quartz
vs. biaxial mica).
o Applications: Critical for determining mineral group and crystallographic
orientation.

Key Notes:

• Ordinary light (unpolarized) is rarely used in standard petrological microscopes, which

typically default to PPL.
• Crossed nicols (XPL) and convergent light are advanced techniques for analyzing
optical properties.
• Each mode provides complementary data, enabling comprehensive mineral identification
and characterization

Common Minerals & Their Optical Properties

Mineral PPL Properties XPL Properties

Quartz Colorless, low relief 1st order gray, undulose extinction
Feldspar Colorless, cleavage Twinning (Carlsbad, Albite, Pericline)
Biotite Brown/Green, pleochroic 2nd order colors, Bird's eye extinction
Muscovite Colorless, high relief 2nd order colors, perfect cleavage
Olivine High relief, no cleavage 3rd order birefringence, parallel extinction

Conclusion

• By systematically analyzing minerals using PPL and XPL, you can determine their
identity and geological significance.
• Optical properties help in mineral classification, petrogenesis, and identifying potential
economic deposits.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY

• The refractive index of a mineral is related to electron density.

• Factors like element substitution, bonding type, pressure, and temperature affect
refractive index.
 • Examples:
o Diamond (highly covalent, n ≈ 2.4) vs. Fluorite (ionic, n ≈ 1.4).
o Olivine series: Refractive index increases from forsterite (Mg-rich) to fayalite
(Fe-rich).
o Silicate minerals: Chain silicates are optically positive, while sheet silicates (e.g.,
mica) are optically negative.

Fig.1: Petrographic Microscope

Fig.2: Petrographic Microscope

THIN SECTION

What is a Thin Section?

• A thin slice of rock or mineral, ground to a thickness of ~30 micrometers (0.03 mm),
mounted on a glass slide, and covered with a glass cover slip.
• The thinness ensures minerals are transparent to transmitted light, allowing observation
of their optical properties.

Parts of thin section

• Glass slide
• Main epoxy layer
• Rock slice
• Top epoxy layer
• Cover slip

Preparation of a Thin Section

 1. Sample Collection: A small rock sample is cut into a chip.
2. Mounting: The chip is glued to a glass slide with epoxy resin.
3. Grinding & Polishing: The sample is ground to 30 µm thickness (critical for
standardized interference colors) using abrasives like diamond paste.
4. Cover Slip: A thin glass cover is often added to protect the surface.

Fig.3: Rock saws showing different blade sizes

Fig.4: Glass slide and Rock slide

Fig.5: Diamond saw

Fig.6: Thin sections

Fig.7: Petrographic microscope showing thin section on stage

Fig.8: Standard Thin Section

Why Use Thin Sections?

• Transparency: Minerals become translucent, allowing light to pass through for analysis.
• Optical Properties: Enables study of color, pleochroism, birefringence, extinction, and
other key diagnostic features.
• Textural Analysis: Reveals mineral relationships, grain boundaries, and microstructures
(e.g., twinning, zoning, deformation).

Key Observations in Optical Mineralogy

1. Mineralogy:
o Identify minerals by their color, relief, cleavage, and crystal habit (e.g.,
hexagonal quartz vs. tabular feldspar).
2. Texture:
o Study grain size, shape, and arrangement (e.g., interlocking crystals in granite vs.
foliation in schist).
3. Optical Properties:
o Pleochroism (color change under plane-polarized light).
o Birefringence (interference colors under crossed polarizers).
o Extinction Angle (angle at which a mineral goes dark during stage rotation).
o Twinning/Zoning (e.g., plagioclase’s striped appearance).

Applications of Thin Sections

1. Mineral Identification:
o Distinguish similar minerals (e.g., quartz vs. calcite using birefringence).
2. Rock Classification:
 oDetermine rock type (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) based on mineralogy
and texture.
3. Deformation History:
o Analyze strain features like undulose extinction in quartz or kink bands in micas.
4. Metamorphic Grade:
o Identify mineral assemblages (e.g., chlorite vs. garnet indicating different
pressure/temperature conditions).
5. Industrial Uses:
o Study concrete, ceramics, or archaeological materials.

Limitations

• 2D View: Thin sections provide a 2D slice; 3D interpretation requires multiple sections.

• Opaque Minerals: Minerals like magnetite or pyrite remain dark and require reflected
light microscopy.
• Artifacts: Grinding/polishing can introduce cracks or alter grain boundaries.

Advanced Techniques with Thin Sections

• Staining: Chemically treat sections to highlight specific minerals (e.g., potassium

feldspar).
• Cathodoluminescence (CL): Study zoning or growth patterns using electron beams.
• SEM/EDS: Combine with scanning electron microscopy for chemical analysis.

Key Takeaway

A thin section is the gateway to unlocking the composition, history, and formation
conditions of rocks and minerals. By analyzing how light interacts with minerals at microscopic
scales, geologists can decode Earth’s geological processes
Fig.9: Appearance of minerals under plane polarized light

Fig.10: Appearance of minerals under cross polarized light

INTERFERENCE IN OPTICAL MINERALOGY

Interference and Interference Figures

Light waves can interfere, producing different colors when observed under a microscope.
Besides wavelength (λ) and frequency (ν), all waves have an amplitude and a phase. Amplitude
(A) refers to the wave height, while phase indicates whether a wave is moving up or down at a
particular time. If two waves move up and down together, they are in phase; otherwise, they are
out of phase.

When two waves with the same wavelength travel in the same direction, they interfere with each
other. Their amplitudes may add (constructive interference), cancel (destructive interference), or
produce an intermediate effect depending on their wavelengths, amplitudes, and phases. Light
waves passing through crystals experience variations due to atomic structures, leading to
interference phenomena that give minerals distinctive optical properties.

• Constructive Interference: Occurs when in-phase waves combine, resulting in increased

intensity.
• Destructive Interference: Occurs when out-of-phase waves cancel out, reducing
intensity.

These interference effects are visible under a microscope and help in identifying minerals.
Interference figures aid in determining mineral optical properties and orientations. They are
observed using conoscopic illumination with a high numerical aperture lens and crossed
polarizers.

Interference Figures and Optical Sign Determination

What Are Interference Figures?

Interference figures help us identify minerals under a polarizing microscope in conoscopic mode
(high magnification with the Bertrand lens). They appear when light interacts with minerals in a
specific way, showing patterns of dark bands (isogyres) and colored rings (isochromes).
Interference Figures for Different Types of Minerals

1. Uniaxial Minerals (e.g., quartz, calcite)

• Finding the Right Grain: Rotate the stage until a mineral grain stays dark (extinct). This
means its c-axis is vertical.
• What You See: A dark cross (isogyres) in the center, with colored rings around it
(isochromes) if the mineral has birefringence (splitting of light into two rays).

2. Biaxial Minerals (e.g., feldspar, mica)

• Finding the Right Grain: Look for a grain showing the acute bisectrix (Bxa) or an optic
axis figure.
• What You See:
o If the mineral has a small 2V angle, you’ll see two small dark spots (melatopes).
o If the mineral has a large 2V angle, you’ll see a single dark band (isogyre).
o The number of isochromes (colored rings) depends on birefringence.

Determining Optical Sign

We use a compensator plate (e.g., gypsum plate with a wavelength of 550 nm) to determine
whether a mineral is optically positive or negative.

For Uniaxial Minerals:

1. Insert the compensator in the microscope.

2. Look at the NE/SW quadrants of the interference figure:
o Uniaxial Positive (ε > ω): Quadrants turn blue (light waves add up).
o Uniaxial Negative (ε < ω): Quadrants turn yellow (light waves cancel out).

The symbol (ε > ω) is used in optical mineralogy to describe the optical properties of uniaxial
minerals.

Here’s what it means:

• ε (epsilon) = Extraordinary refractive index (light traveling along the optic axis behaves
differently).
• ω (omega) = Ordinary refractive index (light traveling perpendicular to the optic axis).

(ε > ω) – Uniaxial Positive Mineral

• When ε is greater than ω, the mineral is uniaxial positive (+).

• This means that light traveling along the extraordinary path is slowed down more than
light traveling along the ordinary path.

(ε < ω) – Uniaxial Negative Mineral

 • When ε is less than ω, the mineral is uniaxial negative (−).
• This means that light along the extraordinary path moves faster than along the ordinary
path.

Example Minerals

• Uniaxial Positive (ε > ω): Quartz, Zircon

• Uniaxial Negative (ε < ω): Calcite, Tourmaline

For Biaxial Minerals:

1. Make sure the Bxa (acute bisectrix) is centered.

2. Insert the compensator and look between the melatopes.
3. Observe the color change:
o Biaxial Positive (Z = Bxa): Turns blue (Z is the slowest axis).
o Biaxial Negative (X = Bxa): Turns yellow (X is the fastest axis).
4. Alternative Method: Rotate the stage and watch the isogyres:
o If they curve toward the melatopes → Positive.
o If they curve away from the melatopes → Negative.

In biaxial minerals, there are three principal refractive indices corresponding to the three
crystallographic axes:

• X = Fastest axis (lowest refractive index)

• Y = Intermediate axis
• Z = Slowest axis (highest refractive index)

These minerals have two optic axes and a 2V angle, which is the angle between the two optic
axes. The Acute Bisectrix (Bxa) is the axis that bisects this 2V angle.

Biaxial Positive (Z = Bxa)

• Z (the slowest axis) aligns with the acute bisectrix (Bxa).

• When a compensator is inserted, the area between the melatopes (optic axis exit points)
turns blue.
• This indicates that the mineral has a positive optical sign.

Biaxial Negative (X = Bxa)

• X (the fastest axis) aligns with the acute bisectrix (Bxa).

• When a compensator is inserted, the area between the melatopes turns yellow.
• This indicates that the mineral has a negative optical sign.

Key Takeaway:

• Biaxial Positive (Z = Bxa) → Blue (Z is slowest).

 • Biaxial Negative (X = Bxa) → Yellow (X is fastest).
• The compensator helps determine optical sign by shifting colors based on the alignment of
slow/fast axes.

Key Terms to Remember

• Isogyres – Dark bands that show extinction directions.

• Isochromes – Colored rings that show birefringence (higher birefringence = more rings).
• Compensator – A tool that helps determine optical sign by changing colors in specific
ways.

Common Mistakes & Tips

• Incorrect mineral orientation – Make sure the grain is properly aligned.

• Mixing up isogyres and isochromes – Isogyres are dark, isochromes are colored.
• Misinterpreting colors – Use a color reference chart to confirm.

Conclusion

By carefully aligning the mineral, observing interference figures, and using a compensator, we can
determine whether a mineral is uniaxial or biaxial and whether it is positive or negative. It takes
practice to master, so keep experimenting with different mineral grains!

Extinction

In optical mineralogy, extinction refers to the complete loss of light transmission through a
mineral when viewed under crossed polarizers in a polarizing microscope. This occurs when
the vibration directions of polarized light align with the crystal’s optical axes, causing no
birefringence and making the mineral appear dark.

Types of Extinction

1. Parallel Extinction – When the mineral goes dark when its cleavage or elongation
direction is aligned with the crosshairs of the microscope.
2. Inclined Extinction – When extinction occurs at an angle (not parallel) to cleavage or
elongation.
3. Symmetrical Extinction – When two cleavage directions show the same extinction
angle.
4. Undulose Extinction – Occurs in minerals with internal strain, causing wavy or uneven
darkening.

Why Is Extinction Important?

• Helps identify minerals based on extinction angles.

 • Indicates internal stress, deformation, or twinning.
• Useful in determining optical orientation and crystallographic properties.

ORE MICROSCOPE

In optical mineralogy, an ore microscope (also known as a polarizing

microscope or petrographic microscope) is a specialized instrument used to study the optical
properties of minerals in thin sections or polished ore samples. Identifying its components and
accessories is critical for proper operation and analysis. Below is a structured guide to its key
parts:

1. Main Components of an Ore Microscope

A. Illumination System
1. Light Source:
o Located at the base, typically a halogen or LED lamp.
o Provides transmitted or reflected light (for opaque minerals).
o Includes a field diaphragm to control light intensity and focus.
2. Condenser Lens System:
o Focuses light onto the sample.
o May have a swing-out lens for switching between low- and high-magnification
objectives.
3. Polarizer:
o A fixed polarizing filter below the stage.
o Oriented E-W (east-west) to polarize incoming light.

B. Stage
1. Rotating Mechanical Stage:
o Holds the thin section or polished sample.
o Rotates 360° (marked with angular graduations) to observe extinction angles.
o Equipped with centering screws to align the sample.
2. Stage Clips:
o Secure the sample slide in place.

C. Objective Lenses
• Multiple objectives (e.g., 4x, 10x, 20x, 40x, 100x) for varying magnifications.
• Strain-free (marked with "POL" or "Plan") to avoid interference with polarized light.
• Numerical aperture (NA) determines resolution and light-gathering ability.

D. Analyzer
• A second polarizing filter above the objectives, oriented N-S (north-south).
• Can be inserted/removed using a slider or lever.
• Crossed with the polarizer (analyzer in) to observe interference colors and extinction.
E. Bertrand Lens
• A small lens inserted into the light path (above the analyzer).
• Used to view interference figures (conoscopic illumination) for determining optical
properties.

F. Oculars (Eyepieces)
• Typically 10x magnification.
• May include a crosshair or reticle for sample alignment.
• Some models have a phototube for attaching cameras.

2. Essential Accessories

A. Compensators
• Inserted into a slot between the objectives and analyzer to measure retardation and optical
sign.
o Quartz Wedge: Determines birefringence and mineral thickness.
o Gypsum Plate (λ plate): Identifies fast/slow directions and optical sign (e.g.,
uniaxial vs. biaxial).
o Mica Plate (1/4 λ plate): Used for sensitive tint observations.

B. Centering Telescope (Converging Lens)

• Aligns the microscope’s optical axis (critical for interference figures).
• Replaces the eyepiece during alignment.

C. Micrometer
• Stage Micrometer: Calibrates measurements on the eyepiece reticle.
• Eyepiece Graticule: Measures grain sizes in thin sections.

D. Reflected Light Attachment

• For studying opaque minerals (e.g., sulfides, oxides).
• Includes a vertical illuminator and objective-specific mirrors.

E. Immersion Oil
• Used with high-magnification (100x) oil-immersion objectives to reduce light scattering.

F. Sample Preparation Tools

• Thin Section Holders: Secure slides during analysis.
• Polishing Kits: For preparing polished ore samples.

3. Key Considerations for Use

1. Alignment (Köhler Illumination):

o Adjust the condenser, diaphragm, and focus for uniform illumination.
2. Polarizer-Analyzer Crossed Position:
o Ensures proper extinction and interference color observations.
 3. Switching Between Modes:
o Orthoscopic View (analyzer out, low magnification): Observes grain
morphology.
o Conoscopic View (analyzer in, Bertrand lens): Analyzes interference figures.

4. Common Pitfalls

• Using non-strain-free objectives, which introduce unwanted birefringence.

• Misaligning the Bertrand lens or condenser.
• Forgetting to remove compensators before switching objectives.

Conclusion

Mastering the components and accessories of an ore microscope ensures accurate mineral
identification through properties like pleochroism, birefringence, extinction angles, and optical
sign. Familiarity with compensators, polarizers, and conoscopic techniques is essential for
advanced optical mineralogy

The optical properties of transparent minerals observed in thin sections versus polished
specimens differ fundamentally due to the methods of illumination and the physical preparation
of the samples. Here's a structured explanation:

1. Illumination Method:

• Thin Sections (Transmitted Light):

o Transmitted Light Microscopy: Light passes through the mineral, allowing
observation of internal structures and interactions with polarized light.
o Key Properties:
▪ Birefringence: Splitting of light into two rays, leading to interference
colors (e.g., quartz showing first-order gray).
▪ Pleochroism: Color variation when the mineral is rotated under plane-
polarized light (e.g., biotite).
▪ Extinction Angle: The angle at which a mineral becomes dark under
cross-polarized light due to crystal orientation.
▪ Interference Colors: Result from retardation of light waves, dependent
on mineral thickness and birefringence.
• Polished Specimens (Reflected Light):
o Reflected Light Microscopy: Light reflects off the polished surface, typically
used for opaque minerals but applicable to transparent ones in certain contexts.
o Key Properties:
▪ Reflectivity: Measure of light reflected relative to a standard (e.g., quartz
has lower reflectivity than sulfides).
▪ Anisotropy: Variation in reflectivity or color when the specimen is
rotated under cross-polarized light (e.g., pyrite shows bright colors).
 ▪ Internal Reflections: Transparent minerals may exhibit scattered light
from internal features or inclusions.

2. Sample Preparation:

• Thin Sections: Ground to ~30 μm thickness, mounted on glass. Uniform thickness

ensures consistent interference colors.
• Polished Specimens: Thick blocks polished to a flat surface, often embedded in resin.
Surface smoothness affects reflectivity measurements.

3. Observed Features:

• Thin Sections:
o Internal structures (twinning, zoning, inclusions).
o Interaction with polarized light (extinction, interference figures).
• Polished Specimens:
o Surface textures (polishing relief, scratches, oxidation).
o Reflectivity and anisotropy, with potential internal reflections in transparent
minerals.

4. Contextual Differences:

• Mineral Suitability: Thin sections are ideal for transparent/translucent minerals;

polished specimens are typically for opaque minerals but can include transparent ones for
specific studies.
• Instrumentation: Petrographic microscopes (transmitted) vs. ore microscopes
(reflected).

5. Examples:

• Quartz in Thin Section: Low birefringence, first-order gray interference colors, no

pleochroism.
• Quartz in Polished Specimen: Low reflectivity, potential internal reflections, isotropic
under cross-polars.

Summary:

The primary distinction lies in the interaction of light with the mineral—transmitted light in
thin sections reveals bulk optical properties (birefringence, pleochroism), while reflected
light in polished specimens emphasizes surface and reflectivity properties (anisotropy,
reflectivity). Preparation methods and observational contexts further differentiate the two
techniques.

Testing Hardness
In polished sections, hardness is assessed qualitatively by observing polishing relief, scratch
marks, and mineral interactions:

• Polishing Relief:
o Principle: Harder minerals resist abrasion during polishing, standing in higher
relief (appear raised) compared to softer minerals. Softer minerals may develop
pits or scratches.
o Example: Pyrite (hard, Mohs 6–6.5) shows minimal relief, while chalcopyrite
(softer, Mohs 3.5–4) may appear recessed.
• Scratch Comparison:
o Observe boundaries between adjacent minerals. A harder mineral may scratch a
softer one during polishing, leaving visible grooves.
o Example: Magnetite (Mohs 6) may scratch sphalerite (Mohs 3.5–4) at their
contact.
• Microhardness Testing (Advanced):
o Use a micro-indentation tester (Vickers/Knoop) to measure hardness
quantitatively on polished surfaces. A diamond-tipped indenter creates tiny
marks, and hardness is calculated from the indentation size.

2. Assessing Tenacity

Tenacity refers to a mineral’s resistance to breaking, bending, or deformation. In polished

sections, it is inferred from textural features:

• Brittle Minerals:
o Show angular fractures, cracks, or splintery edges (e.g., quartz, pyrite).
o May exhibit conchoidal fractures if broken during preparation.
• Malleable/Sectile Minerals:
o Display smooth, rounded edges or ductile deformation (e.g., native copper, gold).
o Sectile minerals (e.g., gypsum) may show cut marks if sliced during polishing.
• Elastic Minerals:
o Rarely observed in polished sections, but minerals like mica might show slight
bending at edges.

Key Observations Under Reflected Light:

• Hardness Indicators:
o Surface texture (smooth vs. pitted).
o Relief relative to neighboring minerals.
o Scratch marks or polishing artifacts.
• Tenacity Indicators:
o Fracture patterns (jagged vs. smooth).
o Deformation features (e.g., bent crystal edges).
o Ductile vs. brittle textures.
Limitations:

• Hardness: Results are qualitative unless micro-indentation is used.

• Tenacity: Relies on pre-existing fractures or prior knowledge of mineral behavior, as
polished specimens are not actively stressed during observation.

Example Workflow:

1. Observe relief: Identify harder minerals (e.g., cassiterite) standing proud of softer ones
(e.g., galena).
2. Check boundaries: Look for scratches or grooves indicating hardness contrast.
3. Analyze fractures: Brittle minerals (e.g., hematite) show sharp fractures; malleable
minerals (e.g., silver) lack them.

Summary:

• Hardness in polished samples is inferred from polishing relief and scratch

relationships.
• Tenacity is deduced from fracture patterns and textural deformation.
• Both require careful comparison with known mineral properties and contextual
observations.

Key Optical Criteria for Alteration

A. Reflectivity and Color Changes

• Primary vs. Altered Zones:
o Altered areas often show lower reflectivity (darker appearance) compared to the
unaltered mineral.
o Color shifts under plane-polarized light (e.g., pyrite [creamy white] altering to
goethite [gray-brown]).
• Example: Magnetite (bright white) altering to hematite (slightly grayish with bluish
internal reflections).

B. Anisotropy and Bireflectance

• Anisotropic Effects:
o Altered minerals may exhibit bireflectance (color shifts when rotating the stage)
or anisotropic rotation tints under crossed polars.
o Example: Covellite (blue anisotropy) replacing chalcopyrite (isotropic yellow).

C. Internal Reflections
• Some alteration products (e.g., hematite, goethite) display internal reflections (subtle
glows) due to partial translucency, unlike most opaque minerals.

2. Textural and Structural Indicators

A. Replacement Textures
• Pseudomorphs: Alteration preserves the original mineral’s shape (e.g., hematite
replacing pyrite cubes).
• Boxwork Structures: Residual frameworks of the original mineral filled with alteration
products (common in oxidized sulfides).

B. Fractures and Veining

• Alteration often follows cracks or grain boundaries, forming veins or reaction rims (e.g.,
chalcocite replacing bornite along fractures).

C. Zoning
• Color Zoning: Gradual or abrupt transitions from unaltered cores to altered rims (e.g., a
pyrite grain with a goethite rim).

3. Mineral Associations

• Altered minerals are often spatially linked to secondary phases:

o Oxidation: Sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite) associated with iron oxides (hematite,
limonite) or sulfates (gypsum).
o Hydrothermal Alteration: Sulfides replaced by clay minerals, carbonates, or
silica.

4. Common Alteration Pairs

Primary Mineral Alteration Product Optical Clues

Pyrite (FeS₂) Goethite (FeO(OH)) Lower reflectivity, brownish color

Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂) Covellite (CuS) Blue anisotropy, lower reflectivity

Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) Hematite (Fe₂O₃) Grayish color, reddish internal reflections

Bornite (Cu₅FeS₄) Chalcocite (Cu₂S) Purple-blue tarnish, higher reflectivity

5. Workflow for Identification

1. Initial Survey:
o Scan the sample under plane-polarized light for reflectivity contrasts and color
zoning.
2. Crossed Polars:
o Check for anisotropy or internal reflections in suspected altered zones.
3. High-Magnification Study:
o Examine textures (replacement, fractures) and mineral associations.
4. Reference Comparison:
 o Compare with known alteration pairs and geological context (e.g., oxidation in
near-surface samples).

6. Limitations and Tips

• Polishing Artifacts: Scratches or relief can mimic alteration; ensure a well-prepared

sample.
• Microscale Alteration: Submicron alteration may require SEM-EDS or EMPA for
confirmation.
• Context Matters: Alteration styles depend on geological setting (e.g., hydrothermal vs.
supergene environments).

Summary

Alteration in opaque minerals is identified through:

• Optical contrasts (reflectivity, color, anisotropy).

• Textural clues (replacement, fractures, zoning).
• Mineral associations (e.g., oxides with sulfides).
Combining these observations with geological context allows reliable identification of
alteration processes

Etching tests in optical mineralogy involve applying chemical reagents to polished mineral
surfaces to reveal crystallographic, compositional, or structural features. These tests are critical
for identifying minerals, studying deformation, and understanding growth histories. Below is a
detailed explanation of the types of etching and the features developed by structural etching:

1. Types of Etching Tests

A. Determinative Etching
• Purpose: To identify minerals based on their differential reactivity to specific etchants.
• Method: Apply a chemical reagent (e.g., HNO₃, HCl, KOH) to a polished surface.
Minerals react uniquely, producing surface textures or color changes.
• Examples:
o Pyrite (FeS₂): Etched with HNO₃ to produce a brown stain or pitting.
o Magnetite (Fe₃O₄): Etched with HCl to reveal octahedral growth patterns.

B. Structural Etching
• Purpose: To expose crystallographic features such as twins, dislocations, zoning, or
deformation structures.
• Method: Use controlled etching (e.g., weak acids, bases, or oxidizing agents) to dissolve
specific crystal planes or defects.
• Key Features Revealed:
o Twin boundaries.
o Slip planes and dislocations.
o Growth zoning (e.g., oscillatory zoning in sulfides).
 o Sub-grain boundaries in deformed minerals.

C. Light Etching
• Purpose: To subtly highlight surface features without significant material removal.
• Method: Use dilute reagents or short exposure times to create faint textures (e.g., grain
boundaries, micro-fractures).
• Example: Light HF etching of quartz to expose sub-grain structures.

2. Features Developed by Structural Etching

Under reflected light microscopy, structural etching reveals crystallographically controlled

patterns that reflect a mineral’s internal architecture. Key features include:

A. Etch Pits
• Description: Small, geometrically shaped pits formed where dislocations or defects
intersect the surface.
• Shape: Aligns with crystallographic directions (e.g., triangular pits in cubic minerals like
galena).
• Significance: Indicates deformation history or growth defects.

B. Twin Boundaries
• Description: Linear or angular patterns marking the interface between twinned crystals.
• Example: Polished and etched chalcopyrite may show {111} twin lamellae as parallel
lines.

C. Growth Zoning
• Description: Concentric or oscillatory bands reflecting variations in composition or
growth conditions.
• Example: Etched sphalerite (ZnS) may reveal oscillatory zoning due to trace element
fluctuations.

D. Slip Planes and Deformation Features

• Description: Parallel lines or bands indicating plastic deformation (e.g., glide planes in
deformed pyrite).
• Example: Etching hematite (Fe₂O₃) can expose slip bands from tectonic stress.

E. Grain Boundaries and Sub-grains

• Description: Networks of lines separating individual crystallites or sub-grains.
• Example: Etched magnetite may show sub-grain boundaries due to recrystallization.

3. Workflow for Structural Etching

1. Sample Preparation:
o Polish the specimen to a mirror finish (eliminate scratches).
o Clean with alcohol to remove grease.
2. Etching:
 Apply the etchant (e.g., 10% HNO₃ for sulfides) for seconds to minutes.
o
o
Rinse immediately with water or ethanol to stop the reaction.
3. Microscopic Observation:
o Use reflected light microscopy to observe:
▪ Etch pits, twin boundaries, or zoning.
▪ Contrast between altered and unaltered regions.

4. Examples of Structural Etching in Minerals

Mineral Etchant Revealed Features

Pyrite HNO₃ (conc.) Cubic etch pits, twin boundaries

Chalcopyrite KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄ Lamellar twins, zoning

Magnetite HCl (dilute) Octahedral growth zones, sub-grain boundaries

Sphalerite HCl + FeCl₃ Oscillatory zoning, cleavage traces

5. Importance in Optical Mineralogy

• Mineral Identification: Etching responses help distinguish visually similar minerals

(e.g., pyrite vs. marcasite).
• Deformation Analysis: Reveals slip systems, dislocation densities, and tectonic history.
• Genetic Studies: Growth zoning and twinning provide insights into crystallization
conditions (e.g., hydrothermal vs. metamorphic).

6. Limitations

• Over-etching: Can destroy delicate features or create artifacts.

• Ambiguity: Similar etching patterns may occur in different minerals.
• Safety: Strong acids (e.g., HNO₃, HF) require careful handling.

Summary

• Structural etching selectively dissolves mineral surfaces to expose crystallographic

features like twins, dislocations, and growth zoning.
• These features, observed under reflected light microscopy, provide critical insights into a
mineral’s formation, deformation, and alteration history.
• Proper etchant selection and timing are essential to avoid misinterpretation

Microchemical tests in optical mineralogy involve applying specific chemical reagents to

polished sections or mineral grains to induce visible reactions (e.g., color changes, effervescence,
precipitation) that help identify minerals. These tests are particularly useful for distinguishing
visually similar opaque or translucent minerals. Below is a general procedure for conducting
microchemical tests, followed by examples for specific minerals:

General Procedure for Microchemical Tests

1. Safety Precautions
• Wear gloves, goggles, and a lab coat.
• Work in a fume hood if using volatile or toxic reagents (e.g., HNO₃, HCl, HF).
• Dispose of waste according to laboratory safety protocols.

2. Sample Preparation
• Polished Section: Use a well-polished, resin-mounted specimen.
• Grain Mount: Crush the mineral to a fine powder and mount on a glass slide with epoxy
(for translucent minerals) or as loose grains (for opaque minerals).

3. Equipment and Reagents

• Microscope: Reflected or transmitted light microscope.
• Microtools: Droppers, needles, or fine brushes to apply reagents.
• Common Reagents:
o HNO₃ (nitric acid), HCl (hydrochloric acid), KOH (potassium hydroxide).
o H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide), KI (potassium iodide), FeCl₃ (iron chloride).
o Stains: Alizarin Red S (for carbonates), sodium cobaltinitrite (for K-feldspar).

4. Conducting the Test

1. Clean the Sample:
o Wipe the polished surface with ethanol to remove grease or debris.
2. Apply the Reagent:
o Use a dropper or brush to place a small drop of reagent on the mineral surface.
o For grain mounts, apply reagent directly to the grain.
3. Observe Reactions:
o Use a microscope to monitor changes in real time:
▪ Effervescence (bubbling): Indicates reaction with carbonates or sulfides.
▪ Color Change: Formation of stains or precipitates.
▪ Etching: Surface pitting or texture alteration.
4. Rinse and Document:
o Rinse the sample with distilled water or ethanol to halt the reaction.
o Blot dry with filter paper.
o Document results (notes, photos) for reference.

5. Cleanup
• Neutralize acidic/basic residues before disposal.
• Clean tools and work area thoroughly.
Examples of Microchemical Tests for Specific Minerals

1. Carbonates (Calcite vs. Dolomite)

• Reagent: Dilute HCl (5–10%).
• Reaction:
o Calcite (CaCO₃): Immediate effervescence.
o Dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂): Effervesces only if powdered or with hot HCl.

2. Sulfides (Pyrite vs. Chalcopyrite)

• Reagent: HNO₃ (concentrated).
• Reaction:
o Pyrite (FeS₂): Turns brown (forms Fe(OH)₃) with no sulfur smell.
o Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂): Releases sulfur gas (rotten egg smell) and leaves a green
Cu-rich residue.

3. Uranium Minerals (Autunite vs. Carnotite)

• Reagent: KOH (10% solution).
• Reaction:
o Autunite (Ca(UO₂)₂(PO₄)₂·10H₂O): Dissolves, releasing yellow fluorescence.
o Carnotite (K₂(UO₂)₂(VO₄)₂·3H₂O): Turns bright yellow and forms a precipitate.

4. Potassium Feldspar (K-spar)

• Reagent: Sodium cobaltinitrite.
• Reaction:
o K-feldspar: Yellow precipitate (K₂NaCo(NO₂)₆·H₂O) forms on the surface.

5. Manganese Oxides (Pyrolusite vs. Psilomelane)

• Reagent: H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide).
• Reaction:
o Pyrolusite (MnO₂): Vigorous effervescence (O₂ release).
o Psilomelane (Ba,H₂O)₂Mn₅O₁₀): Slower reaction with weak bubbling.

Key Observations Under the Microscope

• Staining: Distinctive colors (e.g., pink for calcite with Alizarin Red S).
• Precipitates: Secondary minerals formed on the surface (e.g., yellow uranium
compounds).
• Etching Patterns: Crystallographically controlled pits or grooves.

Limitations and Tips

• False Positives: Some reagents react similarly with multiple minerals (e.g., HCl reacts
with all carbonates).
 • Sample Damage: Tests are destructive; use sparingly on rare samples.
• Confirmatory Testing: Pair with other methods (e.g., XRD, SEM-EDS) for definitive
identification.

Summary

Microchemical tests are a rapid, low-cost way to identify minerals in optical mineralogy. By
observing reagent-induced reactions (effervescence, staining, etching), you can distinguish
minerals with overlapping optical properties. Always prioritize safety and corroborate results
with complementary analytical techniques.

Photomicrography in Petrography: Definition and Purpose

Photomicrography is the process of capturing high-resolution images through a microscope to
document microscopic features of materials. In petrography, it is used to study and record the
mineralogy, textures, and structures of rocks and minerals in thin sections (transmitted light) and
polished sections (reflected light). Applications include:

• Research (e.g., analyzing mineral reactions or deformation).

• Education (visual aids for teaching).
• Industrial use (e.g., ore characterization in mining).

Steps to Carry Out Photomicrography

1. Equipment Setup
• Microscope: Use a petrographic microscope for thin sections (transmitted light) or an ore
microscope for polished sections (reflected light).
• Camera: Attach a digital camera (DSLR or dedicated microscope camera) to the
trinocular port.
• Software: Use image-capture software (e.g., Olympus cellSens, Nikon NIS-Elements)
for focus stacking, stitching, and annotations.
• Lighting:
o Thin sections: Transmitted light with polarizers (plane-polarized or cross-
polarized light).
o Polished sections: Episcopic (reflected) illumination, often with adjustable
aperture and field diaphragms.

2. Sample Preparation
• Thin sections: Ensure the sample is 30 µm thick, clean, and free of scratches.
• Polished sections: Polish to a mirror finish; remove dust with ethanol or compressed air.

3. Selecting Features
• Thin sections:
o Use low magnification (4x–10x) to locate features (e.g., mineral zoning, twinning,
or fractures).
o Switch to higher magnification (20x–100x) for detailed textures (e.g., exsolution
lamellae in feldspars).
 • Polished sections:
o Identify ore minerals (e.g., pyrite, chalcopyrite) under reflected light.
o Highlight surface features (e.g., oxidation rims, polishing relief).

4. Adjusting Microscope Settings

• Focus: Use fine-focus knobs to sharpen details. For deep features, employ focus
stacking (combining multiple images at different focal planes).
• Lighting:
o Transmitted light: Adjust condenser aperture for contrast (e.g., Köhler
illumination).
o Reflected light: Optimize oblique lighting to reduce glare on polished surfaces.
• Polarizers: For thin sections, rotate the stage to capture interference colors (cross-
polarized light) or pleochroism (plane-polarized light).

5. Capturing the Image

• Exposure: Use manual settings to avoid over/underexposure. For cross-polarized light,
increase exposure time for dark-field features.
• Calibration: Include a scale bar (calibrated using a stage micrometer) for accurate size
reference.
• Avoid vibrations: Use a remote shutter or timer to minimize blur.

6. Post-Processing
• Software adjustments: Enhance contrast, brightness, or sharpness (avoid over-
processing).
• Annotations: Label features (e.g., "quartz," "biotite") using software tools.
• File formats: Save as TIFF for publication (lossless quality) or JPEG for presentations.

Examples of Features to Photograph

Section Type Key Features Lighting Technique

Thin section Twinning in plagioclase Cross-polarized light

Quartz undulose extinction Cross-polarized light

Polished section Pyrite cubic crystals Reflected light with oblique angle

Chalcopyrite replacing bornite Reflected light + oil immersion

Best Practices

• Clean lenses and samples to avoid artifacts.

• Document settings (magnification, lighting, polarizer angles) for reproducibility.
• Use immersion oil for high-magnification polished sections to reduce reflection loss.
Common Pitfalls

• Glare in polished sections: Reduce by adjusting the aperture diaphragm or using

polarized reflected light.
• Overexposure in cross-polarized light: Compensate by lowering light intensity.
• Dust particles: Clean slides meticulously before imaging.

Summary
Photomicrography in petrography combines precise microscopy techniques with imaging
technology to document geological features. By following systematic steps—equipment setup,
sample preparation, lighting optimization, and post-processing—researchers can produce clear,
scientifically valuable images for analysis and communication

Prepared by:
ISAH, AG
Department of Geological Technology