Computer Network

 Computer network involves establishing communication between two or

more computing devices for the purpose of sharing data or information.
 The electronic devices which can be used to send data are called nodes or
workstations.
Data communication is exchange of data between two or more computers with
the help of communication medium.
Components of Data Communication
 Sender: The node or workstation that sends or transmit the data.
 Receiver: The node or workstation that receives the data.
 Message: Message is the information or meaningful data that is sent over
the communication channel.
 Channel: Channel is the communication medium through which the
message is transmitted.
Methods of Data Communication
There are three types of computer network:
 Simplex: In simplex, the information is transferred only one direction and
it is uni-directional mode of communication. The data transmitted through
fiber optics and satellite communication is simplex.
 Half-Duplex: The information is transmitted in both directions between
two nodes but only one node can transmit the data at a time and it is also
called bi-direction mode of communication. For example, walkie talkie.
 Full-duplex: In full duplex mode of transmission both nodes can send and
receive at the same time. For example, landline telephone service.

Advantages of Computer Networking

 Sharing of resources: We can share both the hardware and software in
computer network. We can share files, data and software in less cost and
time across long distances. All the resources such as printers, modems,
scanners and fax machines can be shared by all systems in a computer
network.
  Working on remote databases: A well connected network can be fruitful
for accessing a database that is at a remote location. We can book an
airline ticket or railway ticket online.
 Better connectivity and communications: A computer network allows all
the users or computers at different locations to communicate easily.
Example is email, video conferencing etc.
Requirements of Network
 Server and client workstation: The server is a master system which stores
the data and provides the processing service.
 A client is a user system which accesses the data from the server and can
perform processing on its own system or in the server system.
 Network operating system: Software like Microsoft Windows NT or Unix
or Linux.

Networking Terminology:
Node: A node is a physical device or a computer within a network that is
able to send, receive or forward information.
Server: A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data,
service, or programs to the client over network. There is a two type of
server
 Dedicated Server: A dedicated server is a reserved exclusively for an
application, organization or individual.
 Non-Dedicated server: Any server that hosts multiple accounts is a
non-dedicated server. This server shared resources among several
clients. A non-dedicated server can be many type: shared server,
virtual server private server or cloud server.
Network Interface Unit (NIU): NIU is an interpreter used to establish the
communication between the server and the client or nodes. It is also
known as Terminal Access Point (TAP) or Network Interface Card (NIC).
Each NIC card has unique address called MAC (Media Access Control)
address.
Important Terms
ARPANET: Advanced Research Project Agency Network.
DoD: Department of Defense
 TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
IAB: Internet Architecture Board.
IRTF: Internet Research Task Force.
ISP: Internet Service Provider
ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.

Transmission Medium

 Transmission media broadly classified into two groups

 Guided or Wired Media:In this media signals are confined to a specific path
using wires or cables.
 For example, Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, Optical Fibers
 Unguided or Wireless Media: In this media transmission takes place
though air.
 For example Microwave, radio wave, Infrared, Satellite, Laser, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi etc.
Transmission Factors
Bandwidth: Data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. If the
bandwidth is high than its data rate will also be high.
Radiation: The leakage of signal or loss of data from the medium due
to its electrical property.
Noise absorption: The weakness of the media to external electrical
noise that can cause distortion of the data signal.
Attenuation (Reduction): Loss of energy as the signal propagates
outwards. The amount of energy lost depends on frequency.
Network Types
The types of communication network are classified based upon the
size, the area they cover and their physical architecture.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a group of interconnected computers within a small area
(room, building, campus)
Two or more computers can form a LAN to share files, folders,
printers, applications and other devices.
Coaxial cable are normally used for connections
Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum.
Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 Mbps.
Example: A computer lab in a school.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
It is designed to extend over a large area like over a city.
Connecting a number of LAN to form a larger network, so that
resources can be shared.
Network can be up to 5 km to 50 km.
Owned by some organization or individual.
Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city,
e.g. A bank with many branches in a city.
Another example is Cable television network.
3. Wide area Network (WAN)
WAN is a country and worldwide network.
Contains multiple LANs and MANs.
Uses satellites and microwave relays.
Data transfer rate is depends upon the ISP.
Example, Internet
4. Personal Area Network (PAN):
PAN is the interconnection of devices within the range of
individual person within a range of 10 meters.
 Example: Personal hotspot, Bluetooth

Network Topology
 The physical or logical arrangement of nodes or network devices
in a network is known as Network Topology.
Broadcasting Topology:
 In this types of topology all the nodes share the same physical link
in the communication channel.All the nodes receive the data at
the same time. The problem of collision occurs when more than
one node transmits data at the same time.
 Example: Bus and Ring Topology

Point to Point topology:

 A pair of nodes is connected through a wire or any other
dedicated medium. Example: Star and Mesh topology.

Bus Topology:
This topology is normally used LAN.
All nodes connected through a single cable know as Backbone.
Usually Ethernet cable is used in bus topology.
Data is transmitted only one direction.
The node that transmits data is known as Host.
Advantages of Bus Topology:
It is easy to install and maintain.
It requires less cabling as compared to other topologies.
It is easy to implement for small networks.
Very cost effective.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Whole network fails if any damage is caused to cable.
Performance of the network decrease when increase in the traffic.
It is difficult to detect and isolate the faults in the network.

Star Topology
In this topology every node connects to central network device, like
hub, switch.
The central network device like acts as a server and peripheral devices
act as client.
This topology a coaxial or RJ-45 network cable is used.
Advantages of Star Topology
It is easy to install and maintain.
The management of the network can be centralized with the help of
central computer, hub.
Easy to add another computer to the network.
If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues
to function normally.
It is easy to detect and isolate the faults in the network.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
The coast of implement is high.
If the central computer hub or switch fails, the entire network goes
down and all computers are disconnected from the network.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, all the nodes are connected to its neighboring nodes
using a cable in the form of ring.
The data in ring topology can be uni-directional or bi-directional.
The data flow is based on the Token Passing Technology.
Advantages of Ring Topology

Data flow one direction which reduce the chance of packet collision.
There is no need for the server to control all nodes.
It is easy to install, manage and expand.
Speed of data transfer is high.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

If one workstation shuts down, it affects the whole network or the
entire network goes down.
It is slower performance as compared to bus topology.
If any device is added to or removed from the ring, the ring is broken
and the segment fails.
In order to communicate with each other, all computers must be
turned on.
Total dependence is on one cable.

Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each node is connected to every other node in the
network.
Every node features a point to point connection to the opposite node.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Failure during a single device does not break the network.
Network traffic can be easily handled as there is a dedicated poit to
point links for every computer.
Easy to add a new device without disturbing data transmission.
A mesh doesn’t have centralized authority to control the network.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
It is more costly as compared to other topologies.
Installation is extremely difficult.
Power requirement is more.
Maintenance needs are challenging with mesh.

Tree topology
In this topology, a tree structure is created where all the computers are
connected like branches of a tree.
Tree topology is combination of a bus and star topology.
Ethernet protocol is used in this topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology:
It provides high scalability, as leaf nodes can add more nodes in the
hierarchical chain.
If one of their nodes get damaged, the other nodes in a network
remain unaffected.
It provides easy maintenance and fault identification.
Disadvantages of tree Topology

Large cabling is required as compared to star and bus topology.

If the backbone is damaged, then the entire network is disrupted.
It is more difficult to configure than other network topologies.

MAC Address:
MAC address is the hardware identification number or physical
address.
MAC stands for Media Access Control.
This MAC address is unique universally.
The MAC address usually written format
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
The first half (MM:MM:MM) of a MAC address coantains the ID
number of the adapter manufacturer.
The second half (SS:SS:SS) represents the serial number assigned to the
adapter(NIC) by its manufacturer.
MAC address is represented I hexadecimal format on each device, for
example, 00:0a:95:9d:56:12
IP Address:
All computers on the internet are identified by a unique 32-bit address
known as IP address.
Each IP address is written in four parts.Each part is separated by Dot
known Period. Each part is known as Octect.
Example, 205.128.55.8
Domain Name

An Internet physical IP address is linked to an easy-to-remember name known as a domain name, which is frequently just
referred to as a domain. It is the distinctive name that follows the @ symbol in email addresses and the www. prefix in web
addresses.

Names and Country-Specific Domain Names. For example

Generic Domain Names:
·com – commercial business
·edu – Educational institutions
·gov – Government agencies
·mil – Military
·net – Network organizations
·org – Organizations (nonprofit)

Country Specific Domain Names:

.in – India
·au – Australia
·ca – Canada
.ch – China
.nz – New Zealand
.pk – Pakistan
.jp – Japan
.us – United States of America

Domain Name Resolution

The process of turning a domain name into an IP address is known as domain name resolution. Since one IP address can
correlate to many domain names and one domain name to one IP address, multiple domain names can simultaneously be
resolved to the same IP address.

Internet and its Terminology

Digital literacy

The capacity to use reading, writing, technological expertise, and critical thinking to navigate our digital world is known as
digital literacy. It involves using technology to find, assess, and transmit information, including devices like a smartphone,
PC, e-reader, and more.

Internet Services

Network services are programmes that are hosted by servers on a computer network and offer functionality
to network users. The Internet has several uses, including e-mail, file sharing, remote login, and the World
Wide Web (WWW).

 Electronic Mail (E-Mail) – A multimedia attachment, such as text, audio, an image, or a video, may be
included with an email in addition to being a textual message. The email may be sent to one or more
intended recipients by the sender.
 File Transfer – FTP is used to transfer files from one computer to another using a TCP-based network (File
Transfer Protocol). Client-server architecture is the foundation of File Transfer Protocol.
Local hosts (clients) can download or upload files to distant hosts using FTP (server).
 Remote Login (TELNET) –The acronym for this network is TELNET. It is a client-server programme that
enables users to connect to remote systems while logged in to one system.
 World Wide Web (WWW) – The World Wide Web (WWW), also referred to as the “web,” is a collection of
connected information stored on devices that are dispersed across the Internet.
NETWORK DEVICES

(a) Repeater: Repeaters are network devices that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal

before re-transmitting it. It amplifies the weakened signal and then re-transmits it, but

it cannot connect dissimilar networks.

Port 1

Marow vegs Repeater

Port 2 Repeater

Fig. 2.1 Repeater

Fig. 2.2 Hub

(b) Hub: It is a small networking device that joins multiple computers together. A hub

transmits the data to each device connected to it, i.e., it broadcasts the data.

(c) Bridge: A bridge is a networking device for connecting two

sections of a network and transmits data between them.

Bridges connect two or more LANs that have a similar

protocol and provide communication between the devices

(nodes) in them.

D-Link

(d) Switch: A network switch is a computer networking

Fig. 2.3 Bridge

device that connects various devices together on a single computer network. It works

with fixed bandwidth and allows you to create a virtual LAN. Switch is also known as

intelligent hub as it sends the data to the intended node in the network for which it

is meant.

Fig. 2.4 Switch

Fig. 2.5 Router

(e) Router: A router is attached to two or more networks and forwards packets from one

network to another. They are small physical devices that join multiple networks together

but use the same address space.

(f) Gateway: A network gateway is an inter-

networking system that is capable of joining

together two dissimilar networks that use

different base protocols.

(g) Modem: In communication systems,

Fig. 2.6 Gateway

computers are used for sending and receiving

data. Since the computers work with digital

signals and the communication channels

normally use analog signals, we require a

device that can send data from computers

across the communication channel. The

encoder and decoder are used in communication systems to

convert signals from one form to another. The device which

works as encoder and decoder is called modem. Modem

converts the digital signal from sender's computer into analog

signals so that it can be transmitted over the communication

channel and then at the receiver's computer, it again converts

the analog signal coming from the channel to the digital signal.

(h) RJ-45: A registered jack (RJ-45) is a standardized network

interface for connecting telecommunication devices. It is the most

common twisted-pair connector which has 8-position, 8-contact

(8P8C) modular plug and jack that is known as RJ-45. It is used

to connect the device into Ethernet based local area network.

(i) Wi-Fi Card: Wi-Fi cards are small portable cards that are used on

the desktop or laptop computer for connecting the device to the Fig. 2.8. RJ-45

internet through a wireless network. It is usually connected to a wireless radio-based

computer network that uses radio waves for transmission. A wireless network requires

a router which has antennae that enable connectivity. The antennae transmit the radio

signals which are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such as computers and cell phones having

Wi-Fi cards. These devices have to be located within the range of a Wi-Fi network to

receive the signals. The Wi-Fi card then reads the signals and produces a wireless internet

connection. These days many new computers and mobile devices are already built in

with wireless networking capability, so they do not require any Wi-Fi card.
Internet

223

Web server

Workstation

Workstation

Fig. 2.7. Modem

2.5

NETWORK PROTOCOL

TCP/IP: TCP/IP is the basic communication protocol of the internet.

two or more devices on a network.

Protocol: Network protocols is a special set of rules that defines communication between

The higher layer, Transmission Control Protocol divides the message or file into smaller

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a two-layer program.

packets that are transmitted over the internet at the source and later the packets are received

by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the original message at the destination.

1. How TCP/IP Works

TCP/IP that stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP can

also be used as a communications protocol in a private network (an intranet or an extranet).

TCP/IP is the basic communication protocol of the internet.

IP (Internet Protocol) handles the address part of each packet so that it gets to the right

destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see where to forward

the message. All packets may or may not follow the same route but reassembling is done only

when all the packets reach the destination.

Some other common protocols are SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP3 (Post

Office Protocol), IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol), etc.

2. Point-to-point

One of the most common protocols for point-to-point access is the Point-to-Point Protocol

(PPP). Now-a-days, millions of internet users who need to connect their home computers to the

server of an internet service provider use PPP. Point-to-point protocol was basically designed to

help communication between two systems through telephone lines as it supports transmission of

network packets over a serial point-to-point link. PPP defines how two devices can authenticate
each other. It also provides network address configuration which is particularly useful when a

home user needs a temporary network address to connect to the internet.

3. HTTP

HTTP is Hypertext Transfer Protocol. HTTP offers a set of rules and standards which govern

the transmission of information on the World Wide Web. HTTP provides standard rules for web

browsers and servers to communicate. Similarly, HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

Secure. It is a highly advanced and secure version of HTTP. It allows secure transactions by

encrypting the entire communication with SSL.

4. FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard internet protocol for transmitting files between

computers on the internet. FTP is a client-server protocol where a client will ask for a file from

the local or remote server who in turn will provide it to the client.

5. SMTP

It stands for "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol." This is the protocol used for sending e-mails

over the internet. The e-mail client uses SMTP to send a message to the mail server, and the

mail server uses SMTP to relay that message to the correct receiving mail server.

Internet Protocol Suite

Protocol is set of rule, The common network model and communication protocol stack used on the Internet
and in the majority of other computer networks is known as the Internet Protocol Suite (IP suite). The IP
suite is largely the global standard for computer-to-computer communication, despite the existence of
alternate networking paradigms.

These sub-tasks or functions are performed by different layers of TCP/IP mode

Application layer

Data or a message is formed at the sending end and reviewed and processed at the receiving end. The
message that will be sent with the header must likewise be enclosed by this layer. On this layer, a number of
protocols like HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) and POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) operate.

Transport layer

The message is sent from the application layer to the transport layer, which appends the source and
destination ports of the processes at the two ends. At this layer, two end-to-end protocols—TCP and UDP—
are in use. When timely and error-free data transport is crucial, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a
dependable connection-oriented protocol that is required.

Internet Layer

The Internet layer receives the segments from the transport layer and adds the source and destination
machine network addresses (also termed IP address). IP, or Internet Protocol, is utilised at the Internet layer.
The format of packets sent over the Internet is specified by IP.
Link layer

Host to Internet layer is another name for link layer. The header containing the sender and receiver physical
addresses must be included by this layer to the packet that was received from the Internet layer.

Cyber Threats and Cyber Security

Malwares

Malicious software (programmes) created with the purpose of interfering with system performance by
harming the system, gaining unauthorised access to the system, or preventing legitimate users from using
computing resources are referred to as malware. Malware includes viruses, worms, and Trojan horses.

Virus – A virus is a software code that may harm your system by overwriting or corrupting the system files.

Worm – A worm is often received via network, and it automatically keeps on creating several copies of
itself on the hard disk thereby flooding the hard disk. When a worm is received as an email attachment, it is
automatically forwarded to the recipients leading to network congestion.

Trojan Horse – Trojan Horse is a code that appears to be desirable and useful but ends up harming the
system. Trojan horse can attach itself with a safe application. For example, it may be attached to any game
downloaded over the Internet. Such an application when executed creates a backdoor in the system through
which a hacker can access the system.

Eavesdropping

The act of surreptitiously or covertly listening to another person’s private discussion or communications
without that person’s agreement is known as eavesdropping. Telephone lines, cellphone networks, email,
and instant messaging are all used for eavesdropping.

Denial of Service

A cyberattack known as a denial-of-service (DoS) attack renders a system or network resource inaccessible
to its users by temporarily or permanently interrupting services.

Phishing

The practise of stealing a user’s personal information through fraudulent mail is known as phishing.
These emails either include embedded forms that request personal information from you or include links to
web pages that might ask you for it.

Cyber Crime

Cybercrimes are crimes including theft, fraud, and forgery that involve the improper use of computers or the
Internet. According to the IT Act, cybercrime is any illegal activity in which a computer is either a tool, a
target, or both. These crimes include some of those listed below –

1. Cyber bullying – Harassment or bullying inflicted through the use of electronic or communication devices
such as computer, mobile phone, laptop, etc.
2. Cyber stalking – Use of electronic communication by a person to follow a person or attempts to contact a
person to foster personal interaction repeatedly despite a clear indication of disinterest by such person.
3. Online Job Fraud – An attempt to defraud people who need employment by giving them a false hope/
promise of better employment with higher wages.
 4. Vishing – To seek personal information like Customer ID, Net Banking password, ATM PIN, OTP, Card expiry
date, CVV etc. through a phone call.
5. SMSing – Use of mobile phone text messages to lure victims into calling back on a fraudulent phone
number, visiting fraudulent websites or downloading malicious content via phone or web.
6. SIM Swap Scam – Getting a new SIM card against a registered mobile number
7. Credit card (or debit card) fraud – An unauthorized use of another’s credit or debit card information for the
purpose of purchases or withdrawing funds from it.
8. Identity theft – Dishonestly making use of the electronic signature, password or any other unique
identification feature of any other person.
9. Spamming – Persuading a recipient to buy a product or service, or visit a website via email, SMS, MMS
where he can make purchases.
10. Ransomware – The victim is asked to pay the demanded ransom to get his device decrypts.
Network Security Tools and Services

Network layer security

TCP/IP protocols may be secured with cryptographic methods and security protocol like Secure Sockets
Layer (SSL).

Firewalls

An organization’s previously set security policies are used to monitor and filter incoming and outgoing
network traffic through a firewall, a network security device. A firewall is essentially the barrier that stands
between a private internal network and the open Internet at its most basic level.

Antivirus

Viruses and other types of dangerous software can be found and eliminated from your computer or laptop
using an antivirus package. Malicious software, also referred to as malware, is computer code that can
damage your computers, laptops, and the data they contain.

Password managers

A password manager is a piece of software that aids in organising and storing passwords. In order to access
their complete password database from top to bottom, users of password managers typically need to generate
a master password, which should be a single, extremely strong password.

Cyber Law

Cyber laws serve as a deterrent to illicit cybercrime and regulate the systematic use of e-resources, such as e-
business. To prevent cybercrimes and prosecute those responsible, numerous cyber laws have also been
passed. These laws specify the punishment that will be meted out to those who violate the laws.