Eng. Sci.

, 2021, 15, 20–37

Engineered Science
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.30919/es8d431

A Critical Review on Design and Development of Gas Sensing

Materials
M.N. Padvi,1 A.V. Moholkar,2 S.R. Prasad3 and N.R. Prasad1,*

Abstract
The detection of gas molecule is important for environmental monitoring, safety, health issues, chemical processing control,
agriculture and medical applications. This is much important for mine workers. Recently, metal oxide gas sensors by
nanostructures have stirred interest and have found their way in many applications due to their high sensitivity, material
design compliances and high safety properties. It is indicated that nanoparticles formation on the film surfaces, grain sizes,
gas types and operating temperatures have a severe effect on the chemisorption and physisorption process.
Keywords: Gas sensors; Types of sensors; Chemical Sensors; Metal oxide sensors.
Received: 14 January 2021; Accepted date: 8 March 2021.
Article type: Review article.

1. Introduction mine labors due to toxic gas. Firstly, canaries were used for
Nature has endowed human and mammalian animals with five gas detection in mines. The mines wore flame lights on their
primary sense organs namely eyes, ears, tongues, skin and helmet so they could see in the tunnels and used hand tools to
nose. Today there are cameras that mimic the eyes other drill the coal out of the linings of the tunnel. Several things
electronic sensors which mimic tongue, skin and nose.[1-4] A make mining dangerous, chief among them the possible
typical human nose has 400 types of scent receptors enabling exposure to methane and carbon monoxide. The cost and
us to smell about 1 trillion different odours. In spite of this difficulty of using different methods for determination of toxic
many times we cannot properly identify the particular gas or gases have revealed the gas sensors.
concentration of gases present in atmosphere. Here the real
need of a sensor. Need for gas sensors
Today’s scientific development has created camera that can The atmosphere we live in is composed of biotic and abiotic
mimic eye and there are tactile sensors which can mimic skin. factors. In fact, life evolved from abiotic factors. For the
These sensors perform important task of sensing chemical perpetuation of life on the planet adequate level of the abiotic
analytes and also giving information of the concentration of factor is quite essential. The abiotic factor includes various
analyte in the environment. The industrial revolution types of gases, moisture, humidity, temperature etc. The vital
tremendously increased the need of fuels. The fossil fuel used gases like oxygen should be maintained at an adequate level
during the industrial revolution that still is vital to us even in whereas the concentration of hazardous gases should not
the present day is coal. Coal has to be mined from the ground, increase beyond a critical level. Atmospheric pollution can
and since mining was primitive, it requires lot of manual labor. create a high level of health and life loss within the short span
Coal mining is dangerous occupation. People working in these of time. Indian has witnessed the lethal effect of methyl
areas ranged from very young boys to much older man. Thus isocyanides leakage from union carbide company during the
the start of industrial revolution, the acceleration of coal and year 1984. This incidence is popularly known as Bhopal gas
mine quarries caused a significant increase in the death of tragedy which resulted in the death of about 8000 people and
about 500,000 were affected. Increased environmental
1 School of Nanoscience and Technology, Shivaji University, pollution, urbanization, use of automobile motor vehicle,
Kolhapur, India. industrial wastes are the major source for the increase in the
2 Department of Physics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India.
concentration of gases above the threshold level. There are
3 DKTE College of Engineering, Ichalkaranji, India.
several diseases which result from pollution.[5-8] World Health
* Email: [email protected] (N. Prasad) Organization is a global organization related to health care.

20 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

According to one survey, seven million deaths take place due human. Here the person would wear a wet blanket over his
to pollution.[9] The air we breathe is composed of 78% shoulder and head and carried a long wick with its end lit on
Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.035% carbon fire. Then the person would enter in mine and begun to move
dioxide. Six pollutants have been identified as the main source the flame of the wick along the wall of the mine. When the
of air pollution. The particulate matter consists of lead and man would hit a small pocket of methane gas, it would ignite,
gases like oxides of carbon and oxides of nitrogen. The fuel but the miner remained fairly safe under the damped blanket.
burning in power plants and transport vehicles produces Coal is the most plentiful fuel derived from fossils. The history
oxides of nitrogen. This adversely affects human health and of coal used use for heating is at the time of caveman. The
surroundings. The health ill effect may include disease like depth and darkness of coal mine is the unique dangerous
asthma and environmental effect may cause acid rain. Air working place. Mine workers may die due to presence of toxic
quality control is the main aspect in the field of environmental gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and
monitoring. This is because respiratory organ diseases are carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is poisonous gas. Carbon
mainly ascribed to poor air quality. The major diseases monoxide is extremely flammable and is lighter than air thus
resulting from air pollution are stroke, ischemic heart diseases, more dangerous. Thus in 18th century, the presence of
lower respiratory infections and lung cancer etc. Gas sensing poisonous gases were detected with various hit or miss
devices are used to protect plants and personnel from methods. Sometimes canaries i.e. singing birds (Serinus
inflammable and toxic gases. As gas can adversely affect canaria) were used to detect poisonous gases especially carbon
human and belongings in three main ways as described monoxide. Male canary sings all the time when they are alone
below:[10-11] in hope of their song attracting a female. In fact, the main
(1) Some gases are inflammable i.e. they can catch fire at room reason for them being held in captivity is their incessant song.
temperature or slightly above it e.g. methane, butane, propane, When the canaries are kept in mine containing poisonous
LPG, etc. gases the heartbeat of canaries increases in presence of carbon
(2) Toxic: Some gases are toxic. They can cause hazard to monoxide. Thus in presence of carbon monoxide the bird stops
human and their belongings due to its toxic nature. E.g. carbon singing or perhaps could not survive. This was the indication
monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, methyl isocyanide etc. for the presence of poisonous gas especially carbon monoxide.
(3) Asphyxiant: We all need oxygen for metabolic process of In 1815, British scientist H. Davy developed a gas meter called
respiration. The percentage of oxygen in the air is 20.9%. Davys lamp against methane gas. In 1926, Johnson produced
When oxygen level becomes lower than 19.5% it is considered first commercial catalytic combustion gas sensor, and in 1929,
as oxygen deficient. When oxygen concentration drops below the company they founded with Williams became the first
16%, it becomes unsuitable for human and animals for company in Silicon valley in electronics. The term sensor
respiration. Some gases are having a risk of suffocation. became popular during 1970s. At the beginning of 1970
Overexposure of Nitrogen leads to a deficiency of oxygen and Taniguchi fabricated and patented the first chemoresistive gas
suffocation takes place. Therefore, in order to protect from sensor device for practical applications using tin oxide as gas
hazardous effects, there is a real need for the development of sensitive materials. Indeed, after investigating many metal
suitable sensing devices. oxides he found that SnO2 has many advantageous properties
The impact domain of sensors cannot be restricted merely such as higher sensitivity, low operating temperature and
to some kind of technical sensing organs. Sensors can be used thermal stable structure. In any sensor physical change
in many other fields. According to Jacob Franden "A sensor is contributes a chemical change that generates an electric
a device that receives signals or stimuli and responds in an impulse which then drives a circuit. As the name suggests it is
electrical signal". It can be alternatively defined as ‘A device a device that senses something or made to sense something.
that responds to physical stimulus such as heat, light, sound, This something is the parameter specific for which it is
pressure, magnetism etc. and transmits a resulting impulse’. designed like temperature, pressure, motion, moisture, heat,
The working nature of a sensor can be summarized as below: light or any one of a great number of environmental
* Sensor should be in direct contact with the investigated phenomena. Sensors have the processing unit which read that
subject. parameter and convert it to desired readable form. A sensor
* Sensor should transform non-electrical information into an needs low power to operate. Mode of power for sensor may be
electrical signal. active or passive. Active means AC supply and passive means
* Sensors should respond immediately to external stimuli. battery with limited life. A sensor is basically a transducer. The
* Sensors should be small in size and cost-effective. sensor reads data in its own way and to understand what the
* Sensors should operate continuously or at least in repeated sensor has read we need to convert. It converts the data which
number of cycles. is read, into another form of data. Like into voltage, current
* The sensors should be specific and selective in nature. etc. which can be interpreted by another device and hence we
* Sensors should be sensitive i.e. with small amount of analyte can find the readings. A transducer has the following elements.
it should respond quickly. Sensors, transducers, signal conditioner, read out. The
In the first time, the toxic gases could be detected by characteristic of sensor can be divided into two viz static and

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 21
Review article Engineered Science

dynamic groups. It is very important to understand these interest interacts or gets adsorbed onto the surface of a gas
characteristic behaviors to map correctly the relation between sensitive material and thus induces a change in the electrical
the output versus input of the measured. Actually sensor is characteristic of the material, which is the measure of the gas
transducer whose purpose is to detect some characteristic of concentration.
its environment. It detects events or changes in quantities and
provides a corresponding output generally as an electrical or 2. Characteristics of a sensor
optical signal for example thermocouple. Rapid advances in In general, the detectors should present high sensitivity,
microelectronics made available technical intelligence. The selectivity, fast reversible response and long term stability.
machines became more intelligent and more autonomous. Among the various sensors, semiconducting oxide gas sensors
Therefore, there was a need for development of artificial are widely used because of their various advantages over the
sensing organs which would enable machines to orient other gas[10-14] such as:
themselves independently. Gas sensors are used to detect (1) Sensitivity: The material should show high sensitivity in
combustible, explosive and toxic gases, when the measured terms of the variation of resistance or capacitance on contact
gas concentration exceeds the threshold value they can give an with a very small quantity of the gas or vapour concerned.
alarm that can be used as portable or fixed devices. Nowadays, (2) Selectivity: Some materials (e.g. Pt supported on TiO2) are
sensors are widely use in daily life e.g. blood pressure sensor, equally sensitive to many gases. This is not a desirable
blood sugar sensors, blood oxygen sensors, blood components characteristic. Selectivity is an important criterion.
sensors, light sensors, taste sensor also known as electronic (3) Reproducibility; The material should sense the gas over a
tongue etc. Even the major laboratory scale analysis needs large number of cycles extended periods and the sensors
various types of sensors. But among all types of sensors gas should not undergo 8 environmental degradation rapidly due
sensing devices are widely used. Actually, it is a component to humidity, temperature and other factors; repeatability.
used to detect fluctuation in gaseous state. There are so many (4) Cost effective: As for as possible, the sensor should not
gas sensors based upon the elements they sense; some are employ expensive materials such as noble metals because it
given below: has to become a consumer product.
(1) Carbon di oxide sensors: used for detection of pollution (5) Low operating temperature: The operating temperature
caused by vehicle emitting CO2. should be as low as possible the device should not consume
(2) Alcohol sensors: In fact, alcohol is in liquid state. But the more power. This will help in keeping the cost low.
sensor can detect the smell of alcohol. This is widely used by (6) Low response time: The response time as well as the
traffic police. recovery time should be as show as possible.
(3) LPG Sensors: It is used for avoiding the destruction caused (7) The size of the final sensor should be as small as possible
by leaked LPG cylinders. so that it can be integrate into the circuit easily.
The major characteristic of a sensor may be to operate (8) Being a consumer item, it has to be robust and rugged.
continuously or at least in repeated cycle, respond quickly, (9) Error The difference between the true value of the
transform non-electric information into electrical signals, and measuring and the value of the measured by the sensor is
be in direct contact with the investigated material and be a known as the error of the sensor.
small in size. The most important characteristics of a good (10) Resolution signifies the smallest incremental change in
sensor are stability, sensitivity, repeatability. Generally, sensor the measurand that will detect in an output signal.
is useful when all the three components are tightly specified. (11) Noise If we are not changing the measurand, but some
There are some additions characteristic which are desired in a fluctuations occur in the output is known as noise of the sensor.
good sensor such as selectivity and linearity. A gas sensor is Ambient temperature, electromagnetic waves and mechanical
generally a sensor based upon piezoelectric effect and quartz vibrations are some examples of noise.
or topaz crystals are studied for change in electrical and (12) Stability of the sensor is very important. The stability of
vibrational axis. The change in mass axis will be visible in a sensor is to produce the same output values for the same
other axis and accordingly correlated. Such sensors are already inputs for some interval of time.
used by armed forces for gas detection. Gas sensors respond (13) Response Time The time taken by a sensor to arrive at a
to gas stimuli and changes such as resistance need to be stable value is the response time. It is generally expressed as
transduced into some meaningful format. The gas sensors are the time at which the output reaches a certain percentage (for
in general non-specific to stimulus and may show changes to instance 95%) of its final value, in response to a stepped
many gases. That is why they are used in array conforming change of the input. The recovery time is defined in a similar
with biological olfactory system. way but conversely.
Today there is a great deal of interest in the development (14) Hysteresis It is the difference between output readings for
of gas sensors for application of air pollution monitoring, the same measurand, when approached while increasing from
detection of harmful gases in mines, grading of agro-products the minimum value and the other while decreasing from the
like coffee and spices, home safety, exhaust gas monitoring, peak value.
hand held breadth analyzer etc. In fact, the gas molecule of

22 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

2.1 Chemical sensors • They are small in size.

Chemical sensors as a special variety of sensors analyze our • The sensitive layer is in contact with the analyte.
environment i.e. they detect which substances are present and • The chemistry of sensitive layer changes with the
in what proportion. God has gifted five sense organs to us. exposure of analyte.
With the help of these sense organs we can see, hear, smell and • The sensitive layer is on a platform that allows
taste. Thus chemical sensors can be considered as artificial transduction of the charge into electrical signals.
noses or artificial tongues. • They operate in real time.
The flow chart shown above indicates the similarities • They are typically less expensive and more
between biological and technical systems. In living system, convenient than an equivalent instrument for the same
sensory receptor receives the signal from the surrounding. In chemical measurements.
the same manner in mechanical systems there are sensory A chemical sensor essentially contains two basic functional
receptors. In the transducers the primary information is units namely a receptor part and a transducer part. Some
transformed into electrical signals. In advanced sensor sensors may contain a separator e.g. membrane. In the
systems, there is additional part for the amplification or receptors part of a sensor which is a chemical interface, the
conditioning of the signals. At the end of the system, there is analyte interacts with chemically with a surface, producing a
microprocessor which can be regarded as central nervous change in physical/chemical properties. A transducer is the
system. The metal oxide nanomaterials exhibiting active device which can transform the energy carrying the chemical
response to gas molecules are shown in Table 1. information about the sample into an useful analytical signal.
The receptor part of the chemical sensor may be based on
Table 1. Gas Sensitive Materials and Gas Molecules. principles as below:
Materials Gas/Vapour Physical: Here no chemical reaction takes place. e.g.
SnO2 H2, CO, O2, NH3, AsHs, NO, Measurement of absorbance, refractive index, conductivity
NO2, Ethanol, Hydrocarbons temperature, optical activity, contact angle, mass, etc.
ZnO H2, CO, O2, NO, NH3, NO2, Chemical: - Here some chemical reaction takes place. The
Ethanol, and Hydrocarbons analyte chemically react with receptor and gives rise to
Fe2O3 H2, CO, PH3, Ethanol and analytical signal.
Hydrocarbons Biochemical: - Here biochemical process is the source of
TiO2 H2, CO, CO2, NH3, and analytical signal. e.g. Microbial potentiometric sensors or
Trimethyl amine immune sensors. Such sensors are called biosensors.
Cr2O3 PH3, NO, NO2 and CO Gas sensor is a device which measure and indicate the
CuO H2, CO, LPG, Ethanol concentration of certain gases in air. There are various
CeO3 O2 technologies used for gas sensing. The gas sensors are useful
WO3 H2S, Hydrocarbon to prevent exposure of toxic gases and fire. The gas detectors
V2O5 NO, NO2, CO and CO2 are battery operated devices used for safety purpose. There are
Nb2O5 NO, NO2, CO and CO2 portable gas sensors available in the market. These gas sensors
are capable to alert us if the concentration of a particular gas
The chemical sensor is well defined by IUPAC in 1991. “A is above permissible limits. These sensors can alert us through
chemical sensor is the device that transforms chemical a series of audible and visible indicators such as alarms, light
information ranging from concentration of a specific sample or combination of signals. In the earlier stage, the gas detectors
component to total composition analysis into an analytical were fabricated so as to detect a single gas. But with the
useful signal.” According to Wolfbeis “Chemical sensors can advancement of technologies now modern gas detectors are
small sized devices comprising the reorganization element and multifunctional and can detect several gases at a time.
a signal processor capable of continuously and reversibly Depending upon operating principle gas sensors can be
reporting a chemical concentration.” Here the term classified as under semiconductor gas sensors, MOSFET
reversibility indicates that the chemical sensor should not sensors, Schottky Barrier sensors, fiber Optic sensors and
freeze but should response dynamically to the change in
surface acoustic wave sensors.
sample concentration in the course of measurement.
According to Gopel and Schierbaum “Chemical sensors are
devices which convert the chemical state into an electrical 3. Classification of sensors based upon various technology
signal.” A chemical sensor is very much analogous to natural Sensors can be classified in number of ways. The sensors can
sensors present inside animal body. A flowchart is shown in be classified into different categories based upon transduction
Fig. 1, which representing artificial sensors and natural principle. The most commonly used gas sensors can be
sensors inside animal body. classified into following three types viz. optical sensors,
spectroscopic sensors and solid sensors.
2.2 Some properties of chemical sensors:

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 23
Review article Engineered Science

Fig. 1 Flow chart analogous to biological and technical systems.

3.1 Optical sensors temperature. M. Girschikofsky et al. has reported an optical

Measures absorption spectra after the target gas has been planar Bragg grating sensor which is capable of detecting
stimulated by electromagnetic radiations of light. This type of substances like benzene, toluene and xylene. Results obtained
sensors uses optical absorption/emission scattering of a gas showed good sensitivity towards these gases.
species at defined optical wavelengths. An optical gas sensor
consists of a light emitting element, a photo detecting element, 3.2 Infrared gas sensor
a gas sensing element, the gas sensing element responding to Infrared sensors consist of a detector which converts
light and a filter for picking up fluorescence or electromagnetic radiation energy into electrical signals. The
phosphorescence Most optical sensors are usually based on Detectors are of different types namely: Thermoelectric,
thin films of palladium or chemochromic oxides coated along Thermistor Bolometer, Pyroelectric detector and Photon
the length of an optical fiber. This type of fiber optic sensors detector. It also consists of an infrared source which could be
is known as optodes. As shown by many authors, optical a regular incandescent light or a heated wire filament which
sensors have been used for many years in the detection of can be used for the detection of CO2, CO and other
flammable gases like hydrogen. The first optical hydrogen gas hydrocarbons. Another component is an optical fiber which
sensor was reported by Butler in 1984 which consists of an could be of two types: dispersive and non-dispersive. Non-
optical fiber with Palladium and Titanium coatings. Detection dispersive types use discrete optical band pass filters and are
of hydrogen was made using interferometry. Crawford Massie mostly used for gas sensor applications while the dispersive
et al. also designed a low-cost portable optical sensor for types use an optical device like a grating or prism. The last but
methane detection with very good sensitivity, the sensor can not the least is the gas cell which allows the light path so as to
operate even in harsh environments. L. N Acquaroli et al. interact with the target gas. Infrared gas sensors are used for
designed an optical porous silicon gas sensor. The system was detecting different gases like methane, ethane, propane,
tested over a detection area of the porous silicon microcavity butane, benzene toluene, xylene and other alcohols like
with isopropyl alcohol vapor and even small changes in methanol, ethanol etc. H. Okajima et al. developed an Infrared
concentrations were detected. H. Manap et al. developed an gas sensor using LED for the measurement of methane,
optical fiber sensor for the monitoring of ammonia gas using absorption of gas samples between 0-97 % were successfully
an open optical path technique. Cross sensitivity of CO2 and measured, D. Garcia Romeo et al. developed a Non-
O2 was also tested to see their effect on ammonia gas. S. Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) gas sensor for the measurement of
Okazaki et al. also developed a fiber optic hydrogen gas sensor CO2 gas concentration for wireless sensor networks with low
using catalyst-supported tungsten trioxide. The sensor used power consumption Similarly Dong Chen et al. designed a
platinic acid at 500 °C and showed good response towards tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy for the
hydrogen gas detection and can detect gas even at room measurement of hydrogen sulfide gas. In order to produce a

24 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

sensor that is miniaturized, Guangjun Zhang et al. developed principle. The transducer, converts physical parameters into
a miniaturized CO2 sensor based on infrared absorption. There electrical parameters such as resistance, capacitance and
are two types of optical structure which is used for the inductance. It provides a sensing voltage or current signal
construction of infrared CO2 gas sensors namely: time-double which magnitude, frequency and phase can be measured.
beam and space-double beams. The time-double beam optical Thus in electrically transduced chemical sensors where gas
structure has only one infrared beam emitted from the infrared molecules directly interacts with the sensing material these
source and the detector receives 2 infrared beams with interfaces play a key role in defining the sensitivity, stability
different wavelengths and at different times while the space and bio-compatibility of sensing devices. The sensing material
double beam structure has one infrared beam emitted from the need to be designed in such a way that it should have large
infrared source and simultaneously enters two parallel plate surface area available for interaction with gas molecules. The
detectors. In this design, the space double beam is used so as sensors based upon transduction principle I shown in Table 2.
to enhance the construction and a cone-shaped air chamber is
designed. The optical probe consists of an infrared source, an Table 2. Sensors based upon transduction principle.
air chamber, an infrared receiving device and two sapphire Sr. Sensor Ref.
Transduction Principle
windows. The sensor showed an accuracy of 0.026 % with No. Classification
CO2 gas concentration in the range of 0-3 %. Naoya Kasai et Absorbance, [12,13]
al. investigated the ability of a system using a carbon infrared Photoluminescence,
emitter and an Infrared camera to detect a combustible gas 1. Optical Fluorescence, Refractive
propane. Index, optothermal effect
and light scattering
3.3 Spectroscopic techniques Voltometric and [14,15]
Spectroscopic analysis mainly involves techniques based on Potentiometric devices,
absorption and emission spectra. The principal of absorption chemically sensitized field
2. Electrochemical
spectrometry is the concentration dependent absorption of effect transistor and
photons at specific gas concentration. potentiometric solid
Apart from the basic method according to prior principles, electrolyte gas sensor.
there are many types of improve absorption spectrometry Metal oxide and organic [16–18]
includes likes Differential optical absorption spectroscopy, semiconductors,
3. Electrical
Tunable Diode Laser absorption spectroscopy, Raman Light electrolytic conductivity
Detection and Ranging and Infra cavity Absorption and electric permecibility
Spectroscopy. Piezoelectric and surface [19,20]
4. Mass sensitive
The Law of emission spectroscopy is that excited atoms acoustic waves
will emit photons and then go back to the ground state. Paramagnetic gas [21,22]
5. Magnetic
Spectroscopic and optical systems are much expensive for properties
domestic applications and sometimes required much space so The measurement of the [23,24]
that cannot be adjusted in small motors vehicles like car etc. heat effect of a specific
Therefore, there was increasing demand for the sensors 6. Thermometric chemical reaction or
which have fast sensing response simple implementation and adsorption which involves
low price. As they are small in size, they are potable, low the analyte
power consuming devices and are inexpensive because of Emission or absorption [25,26]
7 Others
considerable production of semiconductor materials. radiation
Especially mass spectroscopic technique makes a direct
measurement of molecular mass or vibrational spectra of the 3.4 Conducting polymers
target gas. It is possible that the spectroscopic techniques can Polymers are long chain like molecular structure where
quantitatively measure the concentration of the components repeated molecular units are connected by covalent bonds.
under study. Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy are Polymers are divided on the basis of their mechanical
the most important spectroscopic gas sensor systems. The properties and strength into three categories rubber, elastomers,
spectroscopic and optic systems are too expensive for plastic and fibers. There is a class of polymer known as
domestic use and sometimes difficult to implement in reduced conducting polymer which was developed in late 1970s by
spaces such as car engines. Therefore, the solid state sensors Alan Heeger, Dr Hideki Shriakawa and Alan Macdiarmid.
are having great advantage its charming qualities such as low Prior to the use of polymers as conducting materials it was
cost, simple implementation and fast sensing response. The widely used as insulator in electronic industries. The polymers
solid state sensors are small and so they are potable and have in which carbon atoms in the backbone are linked by double
low power consuming properties. The gas sensors can be bonds have the potential to conduct electricity, especially
classified into different categories based upon transduction when a number of such bonds occur in the vicinity of each

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 25
Review article Engineered Science

other. The electrons in one of the two bonds of the double range of molecules that can be detected by CNTs sensors is
bonds are held a little bit less strongly and can get away from limited to the molecules that have large binding energies and
the atoms forming bonds. The electrons in the weaker of the charge transfer with the nanotubes. Gas molecules such as
two bonds are shared laterally or sidewise while those in the toxic gases, water cannot be detected as they do not get
stronger bonds are in head on manner. The electron can leave adsorbed on the surface of nanotubes. The advancement has
the atom to which they originally belonged and travel along led to the development of by substitutional doping of impurity
the length of the polymer chain. The polymer is weakly atoms especially atoms of trivalent impurity such as nitrogen
conducting or semiconducting. It is also possible the polymer and boron. Nanocarbon based materials have proved to be
to become conducting when a suitable dopant is added into it. promising candidate for gas sensor applications due to their
When dopant is added the polymer becomes electronically intrinsic electrical properties that are highly sensitive to their
charged. The polymer chain generates charge carriers due to electrical environment. Carbon nanotubes have been
unpaired electrons. The polymer can be doped with iodine, employed as gas sensing materials. Graphene materials are
nitronium species or the salts of transition metals. Another used as sensing material because of their specific surface area
commonly used dopant are the compound of arsenic and and unique electrical properties and low noise. High surface
fluorine. Conducting polymers are also known as intrinsic area and hollow structure of the nanomaterials have been
conducting polymer which includes polymers of aniline, exposed effective adsorption. Single wall carbon nanotube
pyrrole. Such conducting polymers can be used as sensing (SWCNT) A single-walled carbon nanotube can be considered
material and is the active site for gas sensing. The conducting as being formed by rolling a sheet of graphene to create a
polymers as gas sensing material exhibits many superior seamless cylinder with diameters of 0.4–2 nm. Multi wall
qualities over other sensors such as room temperature carbon nanotube (MWCNT) A multi-walled carbon nano
operation, good mechanical properties and simple cost tubes comprise of several layers of graphene cylinders that are
effective route of synthesis. The main disadvantage for concentrically nested like rings of a tree trunk, with an
commercial availability of the polymer is the long-term interlayer distance close to that of graphite (0.34nm). The
instability and irreversibility and low selectivity among the inner and outer diameter in MWCNT varies from 2 to 30nm.
gases to be detected. When the polymer is doped then its Both MWCNTs and SWCNTs have diameters in the range
conductivity increases and stability decreases. The between fractions of nanometers and tens of nanometers and
polypyrrole can be used to detect NO2 and NH3 gases. It is length up to several centimeters with both their ends normally
possible to disperse carbon black in conducting polymers. capped by fullerene-like structures. Three main methods being
These are commercially available form of sensors and can be developed for CNTs synthesis are arc-discharge, laser ablation,
produced with high humidity tolerance.[27-29] and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Since the discovery of
MWCNTs in 1991 and the SWCNTs in 1993, CNTs have
3.4.1 Mechanism of conduction attracted extensive research interest due to their outstanding
It is generally believed that the mechanism of conductivity in structural, electronic, and mechanical properties such as
the polymers is based on motion of charged defects within the unique tubular structure like fullerene, high chemical and
conjugated framework. The charge carrier either positive or thermal stability, low weight, high electrical conductivity,
negative are product of oxidizing or reducing the polymers. stability, good heat conductance, large surface area, flexibility,
Research on conducting polymers has given the sight for rapid high elasticity, and, high mechanical strength. Different types
development of molecular electronics. In future scientist may of CNT. The property of SWCNTs is determined by their size
be able to produce transistors and electronic components and chirality’s. The SWCNTs can be metallic or semi
consisting of individual molecules dramatically increasing the conducting. The conductivity of each layer of MWCNTs
speed and reducing the size of computers. behaves like an SWCNT along the axial direction, while it is
very poor between the layers. As a whole, most MWCNTs
3.5 Carbon based materials display good conductivity. The unique electronic property
In 1991, during his experiment of electric arc discharge for combining with mechanical property makes carbon nanotubes
fullerene production Iijima noticed that certain novel structure ideal building. block for electronic devices such as sensors,
also produced which were named afterwards as carbon quantum wires, diodes and field-effect transistors (FETs). The
nanotubes. They are actually graphene sheets rolled change in electrical properties of CNT when exposed to gas
specifically in the tube shape. Depending upon diameter molecules is attributed to charge transfer between the
carbon nanotubes can be classified as single walled carbon nanotubes and molecules. The preparation process and
nanotubes and multi walled carbon nanotubes. Studies on technique have a significant influence on sensor behavior and
applying carbon nanotubes as gas sensing material started properties, so variation can be crucial for the stability of device
about two decades ago. Representing seamless cylinders based on carbon nanotubes. Further, carbon nanotubes gas
formed by wrapping of graphene sheets It has been sensor is slow response and recovery due to the nature of the
demonstrated that the electronic properties of semiconducting processes of gas adsorption and desorption by this
CNTs are very sensitive to certain gas exposure. However, the material.[30,31]

26 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

Table 3. Transition metal sulfide sensors.

Crystal structure Electrical conductivity Bandgap Fabrication method Applications
SnS orthorhombic p-type Indirect 1.1 PVD Photodetectors, gas sensors
GaS hexagonal Semiconductor Indirect 2.52 LPE Hydrogen evolution reaction
GeS orthorhombic p-type Monolayer indirect 2.34 Vapour Deposition High electron mobility
ZnS hexagonal n-type Direct 3.7 Hydrothermal Gas sensing, optical sensors
CdS hexagonal n-type Direct 2.42 Spray pyrolysis Solar cells, gas sensing
CuS hexagonal p-type Direct 2.5 Deposition Solar cells, gas sensors
PbS Hexagonal n-type Bulk 0.373 nm Chemical Bath Deposition Solar cells, photonics, gas sensors
NiS Rhombohydral p-type 0.5 Solvothermal Photo catalyst

3.6 Catalytic sensors while the second is important for optimizing the gas selectivity.
Many times metal oxide gas sensing devices require a suitable From these features, commercial sensors almost always have
catalyst deposited on the surface of a semiconductor. The noble metals added. Noble metals are active catalysts for the
deposited catalyst enhances the rate of chemical reaction and catalytic oxidation of hydrocarbons, CO and H2. In fact, the
increases the sensitivity. A catalyst is foreign material that catalytic activity of Ti02 powder has been shown to increase
alters the rate of a chemical reaction without taking actual part when impregnated with these metals, and such increase in
in the course of reaction. A catalyst does not change the free catalytic activity is a reason for lowering of TM.[32]
energy of reaction but it can lower the energy of activation.
The catalyst or promoters are chosen so as to influence the 3.7 Metal sulfides
selectivity of a sensor device. Ideally a particular catalyst In recent years, metal sulfides have emerged as a class of gas
should enhance the oxidation of a specific gas alone without sensing measurement. CdS and SnS2 thick films have been
affecting another gas. But number of time along with the tried for gas sensing applications. These materials showed
oxidation of gases under study, the catalyst can catalyze the better sensing properties with their respective metal oxide
oxidation of another gas also. Most hazardous gas can be counterparts. The metal sulfides also exhibit gas sensing
oxidized with release of heat. Therefore, an accurate properties. The various metal sulfides exhibiting gas sensing
measurement of these gases can be achieved using catalytic properties are shown in Table 3.
sensors. This sensor detects gas based on heat generated by
combustible gas burning on oxidation catalyst. It is the most
widely used gas sensor designed specifically for combustion 3.8 Semiconductor gas sensing materials
gases. This sensor used a metal oxide semiconductor which changes
As in chemical reaction, catalyst plays important role for in resistance when it comes in contact with detectable gas. The
semiconducting gas sensing devices also. In fact, one should sensor detects this change in resistance as the gas
think that catalyst should not affect gas sensing or rather lower concentration. This is a general purpose sensor that detects all
the gas sensing activity. Detection of various kinds of gases types of gases ranging from toxic gases to combustible gases.
via the enhancement of the sensor response and a decrease of Brattain and Bardeen were the first to report on gas sensitive
operating temperature of sensor response. It is also reported effects on germanium in 1952 making it the first
that certain additives can decrease in response time. semiconductor used as gas sensitive material. Metal oxide
Since the pioneering work by Shaver and Loh, the stand out as one of the most common diverse and most likely
promoting effect of noble metals have been confirmed in many largest class of materials due to their extensive structural,
semiconductor gas sensors. TiO2 based sensors can be physical and chemical properties and functionalities. The most
promoted by the addition of small amount of various metals, common metal oxide utilizes as sensing layer in
such as Pt, Pd, Rh and Ag. It was observed that the addition of chemosensative devices are binary oxides of p-block elements
metals influences the sensitivity in a rather complex manner and transition metals. Metal oxides are used for making gas
depending on the objective gases and operating conditions. As sensing devices as they exhibit many advantages. They are
the gas sensitivity usually goes through a maximum when the simple to operate, low cost and suitable for large number of
temperature changes, the maximum sensitivity (SM) and the gases. Actually metal oxides are basically semiconducting in
temperature (TM) for SM are conventionally utilized to nature. After the various development in semiconducting
characterize the effect of 37 noble metals. It can be said materials, it was Brattain and Bardeen who first put forward
generally that the additional of noble metals result in increase the idea to use metal oxides semiconductors as gas sensing
of SM lowering of TM and increase in rate of response. The materials. Then another scientist P J Shavar and Seiyaman et
first and third are important for obtaining high gas sensitivity, al. found the gas sensing behavior of metal oxides. Japanese’s

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 27
Review article Engineered Science

scientist Mr. Naoyoshi Taguchi is the first person in the world on the catalytic and sensing properties of the metal oxide. In
who developed semiconducting devices capable of detecting second case, electronic sensitization is associated with
low concentration of combustible and reducing gases. Thus oxidized metal oxide. Electronic sensitization comes out
metal oxide emerged as a class of material useful for gas through a direct electronic interaction between the promoter
sensing. The semiconducting metal oxides exhibiting gas and semiconductor surface. When the oxidation state of
sensing properties are porous polycrystalline materials. In case promoter changes with surrounding atmosphere, the electronic
of metal oxide semiconductors, surface of metal oxide grains stat of the semiconductor will also change.
is involved in receptor function while the grain boundaries act It has been observed that addition of fine particles of some
as transducers. The gas diffuses into sensor, through the back metals to n-type metal oxide usually results in a rise of the base
of porous membrane. The metal oxide gas sensors possess a resistance of semiconductor metal oxide in air. There is
wide range of electronic, chemical and physical properties that decrease in the electron concentration in the oxide surface
are highly sensitive to change in their chemical environment. layer. Which corresponds to an increase of space charge depth
Here the change in physical properties of the film upon gas as a result of electron transfer from the metal oxide to metal
exposure is measured. The sensing behavior is the most loaded on to its surface. When the metal surface is converted
important and well-known properties of a metal oxide material. with oxygen adsorbed at elevated temperature. In air, the
Semiconductors gas sensors detect gases by chemical oxygen adsorbed extract electrons. As there is tremendous
reactions that takes place when gases come in contact with the increase in surface area at nano regime, for the same chemical
sensor. Zinc oxide and tin dioxide are the most common metal composition, the smaller Nanoparticles are, the more sensitive.
oxides used in gas sensors. The electrical resistance in the The interaction taking place between a gas and a solid mainly
sensor is increased when it comes in contact with the taken place on the surface and interfaces are crucial for
monitored gas like NO2. Based upon the electronic structure controlling the properties of the gas sensors. In
the gas sensing materials may be of different metal oxides such monocrystalline materials the proportion of atoms at the
as Cr2O3, ZnO, SnO2, MnO2, NiO, GeO, CuO, MoO3, etc. Thus surface are very high. The doped metal oxide as gas sensing
these metal oxides can be broadly classified into two main material is shown in Table 4.
types such as transition metal oxide and non-transition metal When the sensor comes in contact with the monitored gas,
oxides. Pre-transition metal oxides are rarely used as gas the resistor changes its resistance sharply which enables us to
sensing materials for detection of gases. This is because of know the exact concentration of gas. The conductivity
large band gap observed in s block element metal oxides. behavior of doped metal oxide semiconductor depends upon
Therefore, only transition metal oxides with d0 and d10 its nature of doing viz.
configurations are widely used as sensing materials. The
Table 4. Doped metal oxides as gas sensors.
earlier members of transition metal series show d0
Type of Material Oxidizing Gases Reducing Gases
configuration whereas the lateral members of the series shows
d10 configurations. A semiconductor gas sensor is a n-type n-type Resistance increases Resistance decreases
intrinsic semiconductor. The metal oxide crystals are often p-type Resistance decreases Resistance increases
loaded with small amount of foreign substance (noble metals
or their oxides) called a sensitizer. Doping the metal oxide Nano thin films are films of materials, having a thickness
layer with suitable promoter is a common way of enhancing within the nanometer range. The thin film consists of transition
the sensing characteristic of chemo resistive gas sensors. metal oxides. Many times transition metal oxides are doped
with suitable dopants like carbon nanotubes, polymers or some
3.8.1 When metal additives are added another transition metals. The transition metal oxide can be
This can lead to two different sensitization mechanisms synthesized by bottom up route of synthesis like atomic layer
(1) Chemical sensitization (spill over mechanism) deposition, hydrothermal route of synthesis etc.
(2) Electronic sensitization (Fermi level mechanism). Nanotechnology provides many advantages for gas sensing
In first case, the promoting effect is due to the ability of development. Materials at nanoscale consumes lower power
noble metals to activate inflammable gases by enhancing their for operation, are faster and can detect gases at lower limit.
spill over, so that they react with oxygen adsorb more easily. The gas sensing materials at nano level are most resistant to
The promoter in case activates a test gas to facilitate its heat shock and are cost effective.
catalytic oxidation on the semiconductor surface. Thus, the Nowadays semiconductor gas sensors are generally three
promoter does not affect the resistance of the element directly, types such as (1) sintered, (2) thin film and (3) thick film gas
leaving the gas sensing mechanism essentially the same as in sensors. However, in recent years a combination of various
the case without it. The promoter increases the gas sensitivity semiconductor sensors, an alternating in working temperature
as it increases the rate of the chemical process leading to and introduction of computer pattern recognition techniques
decrease in concentration of the negatively change of adsorbed have been tried for solving the long term problem of
oxygen. Therefore, the effect is called as chemical qualitative and quantitative measurement of mixture of gases.
sensitization. Thus, the additive exerts a sort of remote control

28 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

3.8.2 How does a gas sensor work 3.9 Solid state gas sensing devices
When metal oxide is heated on air at high temperature, oxygen At the early stage of development of semiconductors, scientist
is adsorbed on the surface. In clean air, donor electrons in noticed that p-n junctions were sensitive to sensitive to
metal oxide are attracted towards oxygen which is absorbed environmental background gases. Initially this was looked as
on the surface of the sensing material. This prevents electric a problem and it was solved by encapsulating the
current flow. In the surface of reducing gases, the surface semiconductor chip so that it was no longer exposed to outside
density of adsorbed oxygen decreases as it reacts with the environment. After that, number of efforts was made to utilize
reducing gases. Electrons are then released into the metal the sensitivity of a semiconductor junction as a gas detector.
oxide, allowing current to flow freely through the sensor. Classification of solid state gas sensor as below in Table 5.

3.8.3 Working principle Table 5. Classification of solid-state gas sensors.

Depending upon the concentration of the analyte the sensor Types of sensors Gas sensor Working Principle
produces a corresponding potential by changing the resistance Here resistance change
of the material inside the sensor, which can be measured as is observed when the
output voltage. Depending upon the output voltage the nature Chemiresistive gas comes in contact
and concentration of the gas can be successfully estimated. with semiconducting
The nature of gas to be detected depends upon the nature of material.
sensing materials. Normally these sensors are available as Here CV curve of field
modules with comparators. The metal oxide gas sensor works effect transistor are
Chemical field
on chemi-resistance principle. When the gas molecule sensitive to a gas when
Solid State Transistor
interacts with metal oxide surface, it acts as either an acceptor it comes in contact
Sensors
or donar. This changes the resistivity or electrical conductivity with gate
of thin film. The resistivity of the metal oxide semiconducting Here Temperature
thin film depends on majority charge carriers in the film and difference is measured
also gas molecules nature i.e. whether it is oxidized or reduced when oxidation
in the ambient temperature. When the concentration of gas Calorimetric process takes place.
exceeds the threshold value the digital pin goes high. The The rise in temperature
analog pin can be used to measure the concentration of the gas. is proportional to the
concentration of gas.
3.8.4 Gas sensor construction Here the signal is
Today the most commonly used type of gas sensor is metal obtained as a result of
oxide-based gas sensor. The metal oxide gas sensor consists of potential difference
various components such as gas sensing layer, heater coil, between working
electrode line, tubular ceramic and electrode. electrode and reference
Potentiometric
electrode. Thus
3.8.5 Advantages of semiconductor sensors potential depends upon
• Semiconductor gas sensors are comparatively the concentration of
inexpensive to manufacture due to their simplicity the analyte in the gas
and scalability. phase.
• Specific sensors can be designed for particular Here the diffusion
applications. e.g. a sensor can be designed for low current of an ionic
concentration applications where as an alternative Amperometirc conductor is
sensor can be designed for high concentration proportional to the gas
applications. concentration.
3.8.6 Limitations of semiconductor sensors: Solid states gas sensing material may be organic or
• It is possible that non-targeted gas may get adsorbed inorganic type materials. These materials are deposited in the
on metal oxide thin film and give false results. form of thin or thick films on a nonconducting substrate like
• The relationship between response and concentration glass slides. Semiconductor based chemiresistor sensors are
may not be linear. Individual calibration of sensors most investigated and widely used for detection of
may be necessary which can lead to increasing combustible and toxic gases due to their low cost and
sensors cost associate with resources and labor time. relatively simple fabrication techniques.
• Semiconductor sensors can be unreliable at high From the metal, which in turn extracts electrons from metal
relative humility and varying temperature. oxide leading to a further increase in the space charge depth.

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 29
Review article Engineered Science

Table 6. Metal oxide chemiresistive materials, additive and the analyzing gas.
Metal Oxide Additives Analyzing gases Descriptions Refs
Chemiresistive
materials
Aluminum oxide Al, SiO2, Si Humidity CH4, Porous structure made by electrochemical anodization of aluminum thin [33-36]
(Al2O3) NH3 films.
Regeneration by heating above 100 oC; sensor saturated after long
exposure to humidity.
Nanoporous alumina able to operate at room temp. as ammonia sensor
Bismuth oxide Sb2O3 Smoke sensor (CO, Sensitive to many gases. [37-39]
(Bi2O3) CO2), H2, Operated at high temperature (450 oC). Doping with Sb2O3 enables the
NO and O2 reduction of operating temperature to 200oC.Additives such as Fe and Ag
stabilize the structure and Cu induces high selectivity for NO.
Cadmium oxide Additive ethanol No gas sensing properties for pure CdO [40]
(CdO) By adding to ZnFe2O4, improves the selectivity in detecting ethanol among
a mixture of petrol, H2, CO, LPG, and other hydrocarbon gases, as well as
stability, durability, and response behavior.
Ceria (CeO2) O2, H2S Oxygen gas sensor due to the chemical stability and high diffusion [41,42]
coefficient of oxygen vacancies.
By adding to TiO2 or SnO2 increases sensitivity to
O2 and H2S, respectively.

Chromium oxide TiO2 NO2, O2 Sensitive to NO2, O2 and humidity, doped by TiO2. [43-45]
(Cr2O3) H2, NH3 and
Humidity
Cobalt oxide SiO2 NH3, CO, CH4, p-type semiconductor with energy band gap of 1.4-1.8 eV induced by non- [46-48]
(Co3O4) C3H8, stoichiometrically excessive oxygen.
H2 and NO2 Sensitive to many sorts of gases.
Thin film operates as NH3 gas sensor even at room temperature.

Copper oxide SnO2 NO2, CO p-type semiconductor. [49-52]

(CuO) and H2S Used as an additive to n-type metal oxide to give improvement or
selectivity. For example, CuO-doped SnO2 is highly sensitive to H2S.
Also used as a catalytic membrane for CO and
ethanol detection

Iron oxide Au, Zn Organic gases, CO n-type semiconductor; α-Fe2O3 (hematite) has complex defect structures [53-56]
(Fe2O3) and NO2 such as oxygen vacancies, Fe3+ interstitials and Fe2+ interstitials, which
induce semiconducting properties.
Transition to p-type can occur by: the gas concentration, dopants, and the
operating temperature
Many dopants enable Fe2O3 to be selective for a particular gas:
• ZnO (NH3) at room temperature,
• Pt, Pd or RuO2 (acetone)
• Au, Zn (CO and NO2)

30 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

Continued
Gallium oxide SnO2, Pd, O2, CO, NO, NH3 Semiconductor with the energy band gap of 4.9 eV. Usual operating [57-61]
oC.
(Ga2O3) Ta2O3, WO3, and CH4 temperature is about 1000 Due to the high operating temperature:
NiO • Low base line is established quickly without drift
• Not cross-sensitive with humidity
• Stable even at a low partial pressure of oxygen in atmosphere
• Rapid response and recovery properties.
Doping with Ta2O5, WO3, NiO and SnO2 makes it sensitive to NO, NH3,
CO and CH4.
The operating conditions may be a disadvantage regarding energy
consumption.
Indium oxide O3, NO2, H2, H2S,n-type semiconductor with energy band gap of 3.55-3.75 eV [62-69]
(In2O3) Cl2, NH3, Highly sensitive for detection of oxidizing gases, O3 and NO2, even at
ethanol, acetone very low concentration.
Enhanced selectivity for NO2 by doping with MoO3
Can detect many toxic gases
Molybdenum NH3 and n-type semiconductor with energy band gap of 3.2 eV. The catalytic [70-73]
Oxide NOx properties on oxidation of hydrocarbons and conversion of NOx to
nitrogen are attracting investigation for gas sensing properties. Ti coating
over MoO3 can enhance the sensitivity for NH3. Limited use as a gas
sensor owing to the comparatively low melting temperature (795 oC).
Restricted by high resistivity at room temperature (1010 Ωcm) for
utilization as a gas sensor and integration into a circuit.
Niobium oxide SnO2 NH3 Attractive dielectric material for solid-type electrolytic capacitors due [74,75]
(Nb2O5) to its high dielectric
constant and durability.
As n-type semiconductor gas sensor, Nb2O5 can
detect NH3.
Nickel Li, TiO2 NO2, p-type semiconductor with energy band gap of 4.2 eV. Wide range of [76-79]
Oxide Formaldehyde H2, applications due to its good chemical stability, and optical and electrical
(NiO) CH4 and properties in supercapacitors, catalysts, electrochromic films, p-type
CO transparent films and fuel cell electrodes.
Li-doping enhances the selectivity to H2 or formaldehyde by promoting
oxidation.
Titanium oxide La, Pt, Cr2O3, CH3OH, C2H2OH, n-type semiconductor with high temperature stability and endurance in [80-90]
(TiO2) WO3 C3H7OH, O2, H2, harsh environments. Thermal expansion coefficient matched with alumina
NH3 and used as thin film gas sensor substrate.
NO2 By adding Cr, the electronic structure can be altered
to p-type which exhibits rapid response to oxidative gases

Tungsten oxide Mg, Zn, Mo, NH3, NO, n-type semiconductor with good response to NH3 and NO. [91-105]
(WO3) Re, Au, Pd H2S and O3 Adsorbed O2 does not cover the surface as it does on SnO2 surface
elements, so a catalyst or promoter are required:
• Elements such as Au, Mo, Mg, Re, etc. achieve selectivity for
toxic gases.
• Doping with Cu or surface modification with Au and Pt enhance
sensitivity to NH3.

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 31
Review article Engineered Science

Continued
Vanadium oxide Additive As a catalyst in oxidation reactions, is used as a promoter for gas sensors [106-108]
(V2O5) by adding to such metal
oxides as TiO2, MoO3 and ZnO.
Zinc oxide Highly attractive metal oxide with various [109-118]
applications in optical, electrical and piezoelectric
areas.
The first metal oxide gas sensing material. Tremendous research has been
done and found many sensing capabilities toward trimethylamine,
hydrogen, oxygen, ethanol and NH3, with stability.

4. Metals oxide semiconductor nanoparticles for chemical oxide semiconductor compatible MEMS fabrication process.
gas sensors MEMS technique requires less power consumptions, high
Gas adsorption is mainly a surface-related phenomenon. The sensitivity and wafer based manufacturing. This technology is
grain size and area of an active surface layer are the main easily reproducible and scalable. Semiconductor materials are
parameters which control the gas sensing phenomenon in deposited on MEMS substrate in the form of thick and thin
solid-state gas sensing devices. Therefore, the decrease in films. The various technologies can be used for formation of
particle size plays a crucial role in gas sensing phenomenon. thin films.
Because of high surface, metal oxide Nanoparticles are the
suitable candidates for gas sensing devices. 4.3 Thin films
Thin film technology has progressed rapidly in the direction
4.1 Interaction of gaseous species at semiconductor surface of thin film coating and also have been developed for the need
The intrinsic semiconductor gas sensors are of two types i.e. of the industry. It serves a number of purpose for various used
p-type metal oxide gas sensors and n-type metal oxide gas including electronics, optical coating, superconducting films
sensors. Although two types of metal oxide semiconductors magnetic films for data storages, environmental smart
gas sensors are possible but the majority of the semiconductor windows, heat prevention and corrosion resistance and super
gas sensors are of n-type. The pure undoped metal oxide hard coating. There is no accurate definition for thin or thick
semiconductor can be n-type or p-type depending upon the films. In general, if the thickness of film is below 1µm it is
defects in the crystals. Consider ZnO semiconductor. considered as thin film. But normally when the solid material
This is the example of the extrinsic semiconductor. is coated on the solid support known as substrate the film
However, in the undoped condition of cations are missing the developed is called thin film. The thin films are having
crystalline acquires a negative charge and behaves as n-type different properties than thick films. In the present scenario
semiconductor and vice a versa. As cations are smaller in size, many researchers have developed thin and thick films which
missing of the cation is more common as compared to missing can be successfully used as gas sensing devices. Here
of anions. When a solid is terminated by the surface, the nanotechnology plays a key role which can rectify and provide
surface atoms are incompletely coordinated-one or two nearest huge opportunity to provide next generation gas sensing
neighbours are missing, and there are dangling bonds. Their devices with enhanced sensing performance in terms of fasr
dangling bonds are unsatisfied and unshared with neighbours. response time and selectivity at very low concentration of the
analyte. A major attraction of nanomaterials `in the gas sensor
4.2 Device development application is because of high surface area to volume ratio
The sensor performance is highly dependent upon design of known as aspect ratio. The electrical conductivity of
the sensor device and material. The semiconductor materials semiconductor gets altered when it comes in contact with gas
used as gas sensing devices need to be heated often in the molecules under study. Nanostructured metal oxide thin film
range of 150-450 ˚C. In the common type of gas sensing produces very high sensitivity due to high surface activity and
devices the electrode is printed on one side generally on the unique microstructure. High adsorption of gas species on the
top of the substrate and heater is printed on the bottom on the surface and subsequent catalytic activity with the adsorbed
substrate. The electrodes and heaters are printed using species enhances sensing performance and thus reducing
transition metals such as silver, gold, palladium, platinum response time compared to the conventional microstructure
while the substrate is made up of silicon dioxide or alumia. In gas sensors.
this type of sensing devices there is much more consumption The majority of the sensor work reported so far are based
of the energy due to heating of thick substrate. Therefore, on various metal oxide semiconductors. These materials can
researchers were in the search to overcome this problem. This be doped easily or sensitized by using suitable transition metal.
could be successfully overcome using complementary metal

32 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

Table 7. Comparative study of advantage and disadvantage of WHO. A review of different gas sensors was presented. The
sensors based upon transduction principle. different sensing techniques discussed in this article includes
Number Sensor Type Advantage Disadvantage catalytic gas sensors, electrochemical gas sensors, optical gas
1 Optical Easy to operate Affected by sensors, thermal conductivity gas sensors and acoustic gas
in absence of ambient light sensors. Since the properties of an ideal sensor are defined by
oxygen. Not interference some variables which are; sensitivity, selectivity, high
affected by response time and fast recovery time. In view of this, all the
electromagnetic sensors recently utilize the microfabrication and
interference. microfabrication techniques for the sensor fabrication. By
Monitoring area adopting this technique, many solutions are offered including
is very wide. small size, low cost, low power consumption and as well
2 Electrochemical Measures toxic Failures modes possessing all the characteristics that classify them as an ideal
gases in are unrevealed sensor (119-121). Table 7 Comparison of gas detection sensor
relatively low unless advanced technological.
concentrations. monitoring The development of semiconducting metal oxide as gas
Wide range of technique used. sensor has accelerated over last two decades and these sensors
gases can be are widely used in sensing devices. Metal oxide
detected semiconductor sensors have been shown to be sensitive to a
3 Catalytic Simple, Requires air or large number of gases, with response varying with target gas
measures oxygen to work. concentration and device operating temperature. These
flammability of Can be poisoned properties can be tailored the specific environment in which
gases and low by lead, chlorine the sensor is to be used. In future it is possible to design breath-
cost technology and silicones based sensing device. Exhaled breath of animals contains
4 Infra-red Uses only Not all gases almost 2000 volatile organic and inorganic compounds. Some
physical have IR of the volatile organic or inorganic compound’s concentration
technique. No absorption. changes significantly in diseased condition. Therefore, a
unseen failure Sequential sensitive, selective, cost effective and portable gas sensing
modes. Can be monitoring is system could successfully diagnose the disease and extent of
used in inert slower on multi illness.
atmospheres point analyzers
and also more Acknowledgement
user expertise The authors pay sincere tribute to Late Ms Deepika Rai
required Dhirendra Prasad who suddenly left this world and lived very
5 Thermal Robust but Reaction due to short span of life, we the authors remember her on this
simple heating wire. occasion and pray Almighty God for peace of her holy soul.
construction. The authors are also thankful to Prof. P.S. Patil, Pro-Vice-
Easy to operate Chancellor Shivaji University, Kolhapur and Mr Prashant
in absence of Salvalkar for their constant encouragement and support during
oxygen. the progress of this review paper.
Measuring
range is wide Funding
6 Metal oxide Mechanically Susceptible to There is no any financial assistance from any government or
robust, works contaminants and non-government organization.
well at constant changes due to
high humidity environmental Supporting information
condition. conditions. Non- Not Applicable.
linear response
effects Conflict of interest
complexity There are no conflicts to declare.

5. Conclusion References
The importance of environmental sensors has been increasing [1] Di Rosa Ambra Rita, L. Francesco, C. Federica and C.
exponentially due to increase in toxic gas emission and at the Vincenzo, J. Food Eng., 2017, 210, 62–75,
same time imposition of several emission norms in the doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.04.024.
industries and permissible health hazards limits announced by

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 33
Review article Engineered Science

[2] S. Buratti, D. Ballabio, G. Giovanelli, C.M. Zuluanga [21] D. Matatagui, O. Kolokoltsev, N. Qureshi, E. Mejía-uriarte,
Dominguez, A. Moles, S. Benedetti and N. Sinelli, Anal. Chim. A. Vázquez-olmos, J. M. Saniger, Sens. Actu. B Chem. 2017, 240,
Acta, 2011, 697, 67–74, doi:10.1016/j.aca.2011.04.020. 497–502, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2016.08.174.
[3] P. Muntner, D. Shimbo, R. M. Carey, J. B. Charleston, T. [22] D. Matatagui, O. V. Kolokoltsev, N. Qureshi, E. V. Mejía-
Gaillard, S. Misra, M. G. Myers, G. Ogedegbe, J. E. Schwartz, uriarte, J. M. Saniger, Nanoscale, 2015, 7, 9607-9613, doi:
R. R. Townsend, E. M. Urbina, A. J. Viera, W. B. White, J. T. 10.1039/c5nr01499a.
Wright Jr., Hypertension, 2019, 73, E35-E66, doi: [23] Mizushima et al. (United States Patent, 1998), chap.
10.1161/HYP.0000000000000087. US005747859A, pp. US005747859A.
[4] Oh Seok Kwon and Jyongsik Jang et.al., Nano Lett., 2015, 15, [24] Tamon Kasajima, Hong Kong, ( United States Patent, 2012)
6559–6567, doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02286. chap. US008193805B2, pp. US008193805B2.
[5] N. Silberman, R. Fergus, 2011 IEEE International Conference [25] Y. Zhang, W. Gao, Z. Song, Y. An, L. Li, Z. Song, W. Yu, Y.
on Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops), 2011, 601- Wang, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem, 2010, 147, 5–9, doi:
608, doi:10.1109/iccvw.2011.6130298. 10.1016/j.snb.2009.11.044.
[6] Z. Fang, Z. Zhao, Y. Wu et al., Proceedings of the 2004 [26] L. Liao, H. B. Lu, J.C. Li, C. Liu, D.J. Fu, Appl. Phys. Lett.,
International Conference on Information Acquisition, ICIA, 2008, 91, 173110, doi: 10.1063/1.2800812.
2004 , 84-87, doi: 10.1109/icia.2004.1373325. [27] W. Wen, Introductory Chapter : What Is Chemical Sensor ?
[7] Ivarsson, P. Kikkawa, Y. Winquist, F. Krantz-r, C. Hayashi, K. In Progresses in Chemical Sensor; 2016, 3–8, doi: 10.5772/64626.
Toko, K. Lundstr, I. Anal. Chim. Acta 2001, 449, 59–68, doi: [28] A. Lobnik, M. Turel, S. K. Urek, Adv. Chem. Sens., 2007, 3–
10.1016/S0003-2670(01)01349-6. 28, doi: 10.5772/31534.
[8] A. Iwasaki, P. S. Pillai, Nat. Publ. Gr., 2014, 14, 315–328, doi: [29] I. Capek, Chapter 1 Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials. In
10.1038/nri3665. Nanocomposite Structures and Dispersions: Science and
[9] E. Broughton, Environ. Health: A Global Access Science Nanotechnology : Fundamental Principles and Colloidal Particles,
Source, 2005, 4, 1-6, doi: 10.1186/1476-069x4-6. Studies in Interface Science Book, 2006, 23, 1–69, doi:
[10] L. Torsi, A. Dodabalapur, L. Sabbatini, P. Zambonin, Sensor. 10.1016/s1383-7303(06)80002-5.
Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 67, 312–316, doi: 10.1016/s0925- [30] J.C. Tarafdar, S. Sharma, R. Raliya, Afr. J. Biotechnol., 2013,
4005(00)00541-4. 12, 219–226, doi: 10.5897/AJB12.
[11] W. Chen, P. Liu, Y. Liu, Qi Wang, and W. Duan, Chen, Chem. [31] J. Jeevanandam, A. Barhoum, Y. S. Chan, A. Dufresne, M.
Eng. J., 2018, 353, 115–125, doi:10.1016/j.cej.2018.07.110. K. Danquah, J. Nanotechnol., 2018, 9, 1050–1074, doi:
[12] J. Li, H. Yan, H. Dang, F. Meng, Opt. Laser Technol., 2021, 10.3762/bjnano.9.98.
135, 106658, doi: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106658. [32] F. H. Garzon, R. Mukundan, R. Lujan, E. L. Brosha, Solid
[13] N. Sabri, S. A. Aljunid, M. S. Salim, R. B. Ahmad, J. Phys. State Ionics, 2004, 175, 487–490, doi: 10.1016/j.ssi.2004.04.041.
Conf. Ser., 2013, 423, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/423/1/012064. [33] G. Sberveglieri, R. Anchisini, R. Murri, C. Ercoli and N.
[14] J. R. Stetter, W. R. Penrose, S. Yao, J. Electrochem. Soc. Pinto, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1996, 32, 1-5, doi: 10.1016/0925-
2003, 150, 11–16, doi: 10.1149/1.1539051. 4005(96)80100-6.
[15] N. R. Stradiotto, H. Yamanaka, M. V. B. Zanoni, J. Braz. [34] R. K. Nahar, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 63, 49-54, doi:
Chem. Soc., 2003, 14, 159–173, doi: 10.1590/S0103- 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00511-0.
50532003000200003. [35] E. C. Dickey, O. K. Vargese, K. G. Ong, D. Gong, M. Paulose
[16] J. Park, Nanostructured Semiconducting Metal Oxides for and C.A. Grimes, Sensors, 2002, 2, 91-110,
Use in Gas Sensors, 2010, 243, http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3441. doi:10.3390/s20300091.
[17] G. Eranna, B. C. Joshi, D. P. Runthala, R. P. Gupta, G. [36] A. Ryzhikov, M. Labeau, A. Gaskov, Sensor. Actuat. B-
Eranna, B. C. Joshi, D. P. Runthala, R. P. Gupta, Crit. Rev. Solid Chem., 2005, 109, 91-96, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.03.004.
State Mater. Sci., 2010, 29, 111–188, doi: [37] G. S. Devi, S.V. Manorama and V.J. Rao, J. Electrochem.
10.1080/10408430490888977. Soc., 1998, 145, 1039- 1044, doi: 10.1149/1.1838385.
[18] P. Ripka, Meas. Sci. Technol. Top., 2010, 21, doi: [38] Z. N. Adamian, H. V. Abovian and V. M. Aroutionian, Sens.
10.1088/0957-0233/21/11/112001. Actuators B, 1996, 35, 241-243, doi: 10.1016/S0925-
[19] V. Gupta, M. Sharma, N. Thakur J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., 4005(96)90035-0.
2010, 21, 1227–1243, doi: 10.1177/1045389X10381659. [39] A. Cabot, A. Marsal, J. Arbiol and J. R. Morante, Sensor.
[20] G. Park, C. R. Farrar, F. Lanza, S. Coccia, Smart Mater. Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 99, 74-89, doi:
Struct., 2006, 16, 1673–1683, doi: 10.1088/0964-1726/15/6/020. 10.1016/j.snb.2003.10.032.

34 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

[40] C. Xiangfeng, L. Xingqin and M. Guangyao, Sensor. Actuat. 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00987-X.

B-Chem., 2000, 65, 64-67, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00430- [57] M. Ogita, K. Higo, Y. Nakanishi and Y. Hatanaka, Appl. Surf.
X. Sci., 2001, 175-176, 721-725, doi: 10.1016/S0169-
[41] H. J. Beie and A. Gnorich, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1991, 4, 4332(01)00080-0.
393-399, doi: 10.1016/0925-4005(91)80141-6. [58] M. Ogita, S. Yuasa, K. Kobayashi, Y. Yamada, Y. Nakanishi
[42] P. Jasinski, T. Suzuki and H.U. Anderson, Sensor. Actuat. B- and Y. Hatanaka, Appl. Surf. Sci., 2003, 212-213, 397-401, doi:
Chem., 2003, 95, 73-77, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00407-6. 10.1016/S0169-4332(03)00122-3.
[43] Y. Li, W. Wlodarski, K. Galatsis, S.H. Moslih, J. Cole, S. [59] J. Frank, M. Fleischer, H. Meixner and A. Feltz, Sensor.
Russo and N.Rockelmann, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2002, 83, Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 49, 110-114, doi: 10.1016/S0925-
160-163, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)01031-0. 4005(98)00094-X.
[44] G. Neri, A. Bonavita, G, Rizzo and S. Galvagno, J. Euro. Cer. [60] U. Lampe, E. Simon, R. Pohle, M. Fleischer, H. Meixner,
Soc., 2004, 24, 1435-1438, doi: 10.1016/S0955-2219(03)00431- H.P. Frerichs, M. Lehmann and G. Kiss, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem.,
X. 2005, 111-112, 106-110, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.06.041.
[45] J. Du, Y. Wu, K. Choy, Thin Solid Films, 2006, 497, 42-47, [61] M. Freischer, M. Seth, C.-D. Kohl and H. Meixner, Sensor.
doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2005.09.169. Actuat. B-Chem., 1996, 35-36, 290, doi: 10.1016/s0925-
[46] M. Kaur, D. K. Aswal, J. V. Yakhmi, S. K.Gupta, 4005(97)80084-6.
Chemiresistor gas sensors: materials, mechanisms and fabrication. [62] T. Doll, A. Fuchs, I. Eisele, G. Faglia, S. Groppelli and G.
Science and Technology of Chemiresistor gas sensors. New York, Sberveglieri, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 49, 63-67, doi:
Nova Science Publisher, 2007. 10.1016/S0925-4005(98)00037-9.
[47] J. Wollenstein, M. Burgmair, G. Plescher, T. Sulima, J. [63] G. Faglia, B. Allieri, E. Comini, L.E. Depero, L. Sangaletti
Hildenbrand, J. Bottner and I. Eisele, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., and G. Sberveglieri, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1999, 57, 188-191,
2003, 93, 442-448, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00168-0. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00079-9.
[48] C. Cantalini, M. Post, D. Buso, M. Guglielmi and A. [64] Z. Jiao, M. Wu, J. Gu and X. Sun, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem.,
Martucci, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2005, 108, 184-192, doi: 2003, 94, 216-221, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00343-5.
10/1016/j.snb.2004.11.073. [65] A. Forleo, L. Francioso, M. Epifani, S. Capone, A.M.
[49] A. Cruccolini, R. Narducci and R. Palombari, Sensor. Actuat. Taurino and P. Siciliano, Thin Solid Films, 2005, 490, 68-73, doi:
B-Chem., 2004, 98, 227- 232, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2003.10.012. 10.1016/j.tsf.2005.04.022.
[50] K. Unioersity, A. Katoch, J.-H. H. Kim, S. S. Kim, T. [66] W. Y. Chung, G. Sakai, K. Shimanoe, N. Miura, D.-D Lee
Maekawa, J. Tamaki, N. Miura, S. W. Choi, A. Katoch, J. Zhang, and N. Yamazoe, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 46, 139-145, doi:
Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2015, 15, 575–578 doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(98)00100-2.
10.1166/jnn.2015.11505. [67] J. Xu, X. Wang and J. Shen, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2006,
[51] M. Frietsch, F. Zudock, J. Goschnick, and M. Bruns, Sensor. 115, 642-646, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.10.038.
Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 65, 379-381, doi: 10.1016/S0925- [68] R. Winter, K. Scharnagl, A. Fuchs, T. Doll and I. Eisele,
4005(99)00353-6. Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 66, 85-87, doi: 10-1016/s0925-
[52] V. R. Katti, A. K. Debnath, K. P. Muthe, M. Kaur, A. K. Dua, 4005(99)00298-1.
S. C. Gadkari, S. K. Gupta and V. C. Sahni, Sensor. Actuat. B- [69] A. Gurlo, M. Barsan, M. Ivanovskaya, U. Weimer and W.
Chem., 2003, 96, 245-252, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00532- Gopel, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 47, 92-99, doi:
X. 10.1016/S0925-4005(98)00033-1.
[53] P. Althainz, L. Schuy, J. Goschnick and H.J. Ache, Sensor. [70] D. Mutschall, K. Holzner and E. Obermeier, Sensor. Actuat.
Actuat. B-Chem., 1995, 24-25, 448-450, doi: 10.1016/0925- B-Chem., 1996, 35-36, 320-324, doi: 10.1016/S0925-
4005(94)01393-4. 4005(97)80089-5.
[54] G. Neri, A. Bonavita, G. Rizzo, S. Galvagno, S. Capone and [71] E. Comini, G. Faglia, G. Sberveglieri, C. Cantalini, M.
P. Siciliano, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2006, 114, 687-695, doi: Passacatando, S. Santucci, Y. Li, W. Wlodarski and W. Qu, Sensor.
10.1016/j.snb.2005.06.06. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 68, 168, doi: 10.1016/S0925-
[55] S. V. Ryabtsev, A. V. Shaposhnick, A. N. Lukin and E. P. 4005(00)00484-6.
Domashevskaya, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1999, 59, 26-29, doi: [72] M. Ferroni, V. Guidi, G. Martinelli, M. Sacerdoti, P. Nelli
10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00162-8. and G. Sberveglieri, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 48, 285-288,
[56] G. Neri, A. Bonavita, S. Galvagno, P. Siciliano and S. doi: 10-1016/s0925-4005(98)00057-4.
Capone, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2002, 82, 40-47, doi: [73] C. Imawan, F. Solzbacher, H. Steffes and E. Obermeier,

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 35
Review article Engineered Science

Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 64, 193-197, doi: 10.1016/S0925- 4005(99)00413-X.

4005(99)00506-7. [92] B.T. Marquis and J.F. Vetelino, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem.,
[74] L. Chambon, J.P. Germain, A. Pauly, V. Demarne and A. 2001, 77, 100-110, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00680-3.
Grisel, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1999, 60, 138-147, doi: [93] X. Wang, N. Miura and N. Yamazoe, Sensor. Actuat. B-
10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00259-2. Chem., 2000, 66, 74-76, doi: 10.1016/s0925-4005(99)00410-4.
[75] I. T. Weber, R. Andrade, E. R. Leite and E. Longo, Sensor. [94] P. Ivanov, J. Hubalek, K. Malysz, J. Prášek, X. Vilanova, E.
Actuat. B-Chem., 2001, 72, 180-183, doi: 10.1016/S0925- Llobet and X. Correig, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 100, 221-
4005(00)00648-1. 227, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2003.12.065.
[76] M. Matsumiya, F. Qiu, W. Shin, N. Izu, N. Murayama and S. [95] Kaur M, Aswal DK, Yakhmi JV, Gupta SK. Chemiresistor
Kanzaki, Thin Solid Films, 2002, 419, 213-217, doi: gas sensors: materials, mechanisms and fabrication. Science and
10.1016/S0040-6090(02)00762-9. Technology of Chemiresistor gas sensors. New York, Nova
[77] J. A. Dirksen, K. Duval and T.A. Ring, Sensor. Actuat. B- Science Publisher, 2007.
Chem., 2001, 80, 106-115, doi: 10.1016/s0925-4005(01)00898-x. [96] I. Lee, S.-J. Choi, K.-M.Park, S.S Lee, S. Choi, I.-D. Kim,
[78] I. Hotovy, J. Huran, P. Siciliano, S. Capone, L. Spiess and V. & C. O. Park, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2014, 197, 300–307,
Rehacek, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2001, 78, 126-132, doi: doi:10.1016/j.snb.2014.02.043.
10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00802-4. [97] N. M. Hung, N. M. Hieu, N. D. Chinh, T. T. Hien, N. D.
[79] I. Hotovy, V. Rehacek, P. Siciliano, S. Capone and L. Spiess, Quang, S. Majumder, D. Kim, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2020,
Thin Solid Films, 2002, 418, 9-15, doi: 10.1016/S0040- 313, 128001, doi:10.1016/j.snb.2020.128001.
6090(02)00579-5. [98] M. Stankova, X. Vilanova, E. Llobet, J. Calderer, C.
[80] R. K. Sharma, M.C. Bhatnagar and G.L. Sharma, Sensor. Bittencourt, J. J. Pireaux and X. Correig, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem.,
Actuat. B-Chem., 1997, 45, 209-215, doi: 10.1016/S0925- 2005, 105, 271-277, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2004.06.009.
4005(97)00295-5. [99] T. L. Royster, D. Chatterjee and G. R. Paz-Pujalt and C.A.
[81] L. Zheng, M. Xu and T. Xu, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, Marrese, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 1998, 53, 155-162, doi:
66, 28-30, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00447-5. 10.1016/s0925-4005(98)00312-8.
[82] F. Hossein-Babaei, M. Keshmiri, M. Kakavand and T. [100] W. Qu and W. Wlodarski, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000,
Troczynski, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2005, 110, 28-35, doi: 64, 42-48, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00481-5.
10.1016/j.snb.2005.01.010. [101] H. Kawasaki, T. Ueda, Y. Suda and T. Ohshima, Sensor.
[83] A.M. Taurino, S. Capone, P. Siciliano, T. Toccoli, A. Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 100, 266-269, doi:
Boschetti, L. Guerini and S. Iannotta, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 10.1016/j.snb.2003.12.052.
2003, 92, 292-302, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00314-9. [102] Y. S. Kim, S. C. Ha, K. Kim, H. Yang, S. Y. Choi, Y. T. Kim,
[84] D. Manno, G. Micocci, R. Rella, A. Serra, A. Taurino and A. J. T. Park, C. H. Lee, J. Choi, J. Paek and K. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett.,
Tepore, J. Appl. Phys., 1997, 82, 54-59, doi: 10.1063/1.365848. 2005, 86, 213105, doi: 10.1063/1.1929872.
[85] Y. K. Jun, H. S. Kim, J.H. Lee and S.H. Hong, Sensor. Actuat. [103] L. G. Teoh, I. M. Hung, J. Shieh, W. H. Lai and M. H. Hon,
B-Chem., 2005, 107, 264- 270, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2004.10.010. Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 2003, 6, 108, doi:
[86] K.D. Benkstein and S. Semancik, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 10.1149/1.1585252.
2006, 113, 445-453, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.03.122. [104] M Bendahan, R Boulmani, J. L. Seguin and K Aguir, Sensor.
[87] A.M. Ruiz, A. Cornet and J.R. Morante, Sensor. Actuat. B- Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 100, 320-324, doi:
Chem., 2005, 111-112, 7-12, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.06.040. 10.1016/j.snb.2004.01.023.
[88] I. Hayakawa, Y. Iwamoto, K. Kikuta and S. Hirano, Sensor. [105] J. Tamaki, A. Hayashi, Y. Yamamoto and M. Matsuoka,
Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 62, 55-60, doi: 10.1016/S0925- Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2003, 95, 111-115, doi: 10.1016/s0925-
4005(99)00303-2. 4005(03)00417-9.
[89] L.E. Depero, M. Ferroni, V. Guidi, G. Marca, G. Martinelli, [106] J. Liu, X. Wang, Q. Peng and Y. Li, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem.,
P. Nelli, L. Sangaletti and G. Sberveglieri, Sensor. Actuat. B- 2005, 115, 481-487, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.10.012.
Chem., 35-36, 381-383, doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(97)80100-1. [107] I. Raible, M. Burghard, U. Schlecht, A. Yasuda and T.
[90] G. N. Chaudhari, A. M. Bende, A. B. Bodade, S.S. Patil and Vossmeyer, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2005, 106, 730-735, doi:
V.S. Sapkal, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2005, 115, 297-302, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2004.09.024.
10.1016/j.snb.2005.09.014. [108] S. Capone, R. Rella, P. Siciliano and L. Vasanelli, Thin
[91] C.N. Xu, N. Miura, Y. Ishida, K. Matsuda and N. Yamazoe, Solid Films, 1999, 350, 264-268, doi: 10.1016/s0040-
Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2000, 65, 163-165, doi: 10.1016/S0925- 6090(99)00045-0.

36 | Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 © Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021
Engineered Science Review article

[109] H. Nanto, T. Minami and S. Takata, J. Appl. Phys., 1986, Annasabeb Moholkar: He is working as
60, 482-484, doi: 10.1063/1.337435. Assistant professor in Shivaji University,
[110] P. Mitra, A.P. Chatterjee and H.S. Maiti, Mater. Lett., Kolhapur. His research area includes
1998, 35, 33, doi: 10.1016/s.0167-577x(97)00215-2. synthesis of nano-materials. He has
[111] P. Nunes, E. Fortunato, A. Lopes and R. Martins, Int. J. published several papers of international
Inorg. Mat., 2001, 3, 1129, doi: 10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00136- repute. His main area of research is Gas
2. sensing nanomaterials.
[112] S.K. Hazra and S. Basu, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2006, 117,
177-182, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.11.018. Saurabh Rai Dhirendra Prasad: He is
[113] X. L. Cheng, H. Zhao, L.H. Huo, S. Gao and J.G. Zhao, working as Assistant Professor at DKTE
Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2004, 102, 248-252, doi: Society’s Textile and Engineering
10.1016/j.snb.2004.04.080. Institute, Ichalkaranji and also research
[114] S. T. Shishiyanu, T. S. Shishiyanu and O. I. Lupan, Sensor. scholar of Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
Actuat. B-Chem., 2005, 107, 379-386, doi: He has qualified M.E. in Electronics and
10.1016/j.snb.2004.10.030. Telecommunication from KIT College of
[115] T. Mazingue, L. Escoubas, L. Spalluto, F. Flory, G. Socol, Engineering, PhD from Shivaji University Kolhapur. He has
C. Ristoscu, E. Axente, S. Grigorescu, I.N. Mihailescu and N.A. published several papers in journal of repute. He has also
Vainos, J. Appl. Phys., 2005, 98, 074312, doi: 10.1063/1.2076442. worked as reviewer for various international journals. He has
[116] H. Gong, J.Q. Hu, J.H. Wang, C.H. Ong and F.R. Zhu, about 16 years of teaching experience. He has expertise in the
Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 2006, 115, 247-251, doi: field of microwave engineering, audio and video engineering
10.1016/j.snb.2005.09.008. and digital signal processing.
[117] H. T. Wang, B. S. Kang, F. Ren, L. C. Tien, P. W. Sadi, D.
P. Norton, S. J. Pearton and J. Lin, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2005, 86, Neeraj Rai Dhirendra Prasad: He has
243503, doi: 10.1063/1.1949707. completed master’s degree in chemistry
[118] C. Wang, X. Chu and M. Wu, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., from Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Then,
2006, 113, 320-323, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.03.011. he completed PhD in chemistry from
[119] PhD thesis Nisha R, http://hdl.handle.net/10603/63727. SPPU, Pune. He has written several
[120] PhD thesis Mujawar Tabbasum Hanif, research papers in the journal of inter-
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/130710. national repute. Presently, he is trying to
[121] PhD thesis Afzal Mohammad, implement concept of nanotechnology in veterinary medicine
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/160813. and human medicine. He is interested in paranormal
phenomenon and trying to connect to modern science.
Author information
Publisher’s Note: Engineered Science Publisher remains
Mukesh N Padvi: He has completed neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
master’s degree in Physics from and institutional affiliations.
prestigious Kavgitri Bahinabai Choudhari
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon,
India. He is having very bright educational
career. He secured second position in the
master’s degree examination. Then he qualified SET
examination. He is popular teacher and always helping
students and colleagues in all academic and personal
problems. He is working in School of Nanoscience and
Technology since last May 2014.

© Engineered Science Publisher LLC 2021 Eng. Sci., 2021, 15, 20-37 | 37