PRACTISE SCHOOL REPORT (BP706PS) B.

PHARM 4TH YEAR 7TH SEM BATCH 2019-2023

A REPORT ON

NANOPARTICLES

In the partial fullfillment of the requirement of Practice School (BP706PS)

For the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of pharmacy

Submitted by

ANJALI CHAUDHARY
(B. Pharm 7TH sem.)
Roll no:190110300007

Under Supervision of
DR. TENZIN WANGPO
Associate Professor
GRD(PG)IMT ,Dehradun

Veer Madho Singh Uttarakhand Technical University (UTU), Dehradun,

Uttarakhand

2022

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GRD(PG) Institute of Management & Technology,

Department of Pharmacy, 214, Rajpur Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

FORWARDING CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work incorporated in the report for Practice School (BP706PS)
entitled “NANOPARTICLES” submitted by Anjali Chaudhary bearing roll no
190110300007, in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of Bachelor of Pharmacy of Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India is a bonafide work by him in GRD(PG) Institute of Management &
Technology, 214, Rajpur Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Signature of Examiner Signature of Director

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GRD(PG) Institute of Management & Technology,

Department of Pharmacy, 214, Rajpur Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Anjali Chaudhary carried out the work presented in this report
entitled “NANOPARTICLES” for the degree of Bachelors in Pharmacy from
Uttarakhand Technical University Dehradun under my supervision. The result is a
genuine research/review carried out by the candidate & the contents do not from the
award of any other degree to the candidate or anybody else from this or any other
university/institution.

Name & Signature of Supervisor

Dr. Tenzin Wangpo

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GRD(PG) Institute of Management & Technology,

Department of Pharmacy, 214, Rajpur Road, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

DECLARATION BY THECANDIDATE

I, at this moment, declare that this report entitled “NANOPARTICLE” is a bonafide

and genuine work done by me under the guidance of Dr.Tenzin Wangpo, Associate
Professor GRD(PG)IMT, Department of Pharmacy, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

Name & Signature of Student

Anjali Chaudhary
B. Pharm 7th semester

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SN.NO CONTENTS PAGE.NO

1. Abstract 1

2. Introduction 2-3

3. Limitation 3

4. Toxicity 4

5. History and development of nanomaterials 5-6

6. Types and classification of nanomaterials 6

7. Classification of nanomaterials based on their dimension 7

8. Classification of nanomaterials 7 - 11

9. Methods of preparation of nanoparticles 12 -13

10. Synthesis of nanoparticles 14

11. Source of nanomaterials 15

12. Properties of nanoparticles 16 - 17

13. Physicochemical Evaluation 18 -19

14. Performance Evaluation 20

15. Pharmaceutical Application 21

16. Conclusion 22

17. Reference 23 - 24

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NANOPARTICLES

ABSTRACT

There is increasing interest and need to develop a deeper understanding of nanoparticles’

nature, fate, and behavior in the environment. This is driven by the increased use of
engineered nanoparticles and the increased pressure to commercialize this growing
technology. In this review, we discuss the critical properties of nanoparticles and their
preparation and then discuss how these factors can play a role in determining their fate and
behavior in the natural environment. A key focus of the discussion will relate to the surface
chemistry of the nanoparticle, which may interact with a range of molecules naturally
present in surface waters and sediments. Understanding these factors is a core goal required
for understanding the final fate of nanomaterials and predicting which organisms are likely
to be exposed to these materials.

KEYWORDS: Nanoparticles, engineered nanoparticles, commercialize, drug delivery, drug

release.

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1. INTRODUCTION: -

The term nanoparticles are somewhat general and are used to designate the novel drug
delivery systems that are submicron (<1µm) in size or are colloidal systems, generally made
of polymers. It does not consider the morphological or structural organization of the system.
However, the ultra-dispersed matrix system less than 1 µm in size is often improperly
termed as nanoparticles; Nanoparticles constitute the most vital elements of the recently
coined discipline of nanotechnology, including bionanotechnology.

There has been a rapid increase in interest in nanotechnology and nanoparticles in

commercial applications. However, there is little known of the fate and behavior of
engineered nanoparticles in the environment. The properties of nanoparticles differ
remarkably from small molecules, and their chemistry and synthesis necessitate that they are
considered more like complex mixtures than small molecules.

The primary goals in designing nanoparticles as a delivery system are to control particle
size, surface properties, and release of pharmacologically active agents to achieve the drug's
site- specific action at the rationale rate and dose. Polymeric nanoparticles offer some
specific advantages over liposomes. For instance, they help increase the stability of
drugs/proteins and possess beneficial controlled release properties.

ADVANTAGES

Some of the advantages of using nanoparticles as a drug delivery system are as follows;

1. Ease of manipulating nanoparticles’ particle size and surface characteristics to achieve

passive and active drug targeting after parenteral administration.
2. The nanoparticle surface can be modified to alter the biodistribution of drugs with
subsequent clearance of the drug to achieve maximum therapeutic efficacy with minimal
side effects.
3. Controlled released and the choice of matrix constituents can readily modulate particle
degradation characteristics.
4. Drug loading is relatively high, and drugs can be incorporated into the systems without
any chemical reaction, essential for preserving drug activity.
5. Site-specific targeting can be achieved by attaching targeting ligands to the surface of
particles or use of magnetic guidance.

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6. Liposomes and polymer-based nanoparticles are generally biodegradable, do not

accumulate in the body, and are possibly risk-free.
7. Small-sized nanoparticles can penetrate smaller capillaries, allowing efficient drug
accumulation at the target sites.

DISADVANTAGE: -

Some significant problems in pharmaceutical applications of polymeric nanoparticles are:

1. High surface energy may lead to high aggregation in a biological system.

2. It can be quickly scavenged by the body's Reticuloendothelial system (RES), resulting
in a low biological half- life.
3. Organic solvent remaining (residual) during the preparation of nanoparticles may cause
toxicity.
4. Poor target and site-specificity, and
5. High immunogenicity of foreignness.

2. LIMITATION: -

Despite these advantages, nanoparticles do have limitations like,

1. Altered physical properties lead to particle-particle aggregation, making the physical

handling of nanoparticles complex in liquid and dry forms due to smaller size and larger
surface area.
2. The smaller the particle’s size greater the surface area, and this property makes
nanoparticles very reactive in the cellular environment.
3. Small particles size results in limited drug loading and burst release. These practical
problems have to be sorted out before nanoparticles can be used clinically or made
commercially available.

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3. TOXICITY: -

These tiny particles can quickly get the entry inside the body through the skin, lungs, or
intestinal tract, depositing in several organs and may cause severe adverse biological reaction
by altering the physicochemical properties of tissue. Non-biodegradable particles, when used
for drug delivery, may show accumulation on the site of the drug delivery, leading to chronic
inflammatory reactions. Most nanoparticle toxicity reactions are observed due to inhalation of
particulate matter, leading to lung and cardiovascular diseases.

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4. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF NANOMATERIALS: -

Humans already exploited the reinforcement of ceramic matrixes by including natural

asbestos nanofibers more than 4,500 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians were also using
nanomaterials (NMs) more than 4000 years ago based on a synthetic chemical process to
synthesize ≈5 nm diameter PbS NPs for hair dye. Similarly, “Egyptian blue” was the first
artificial pigment prepared and used by Egyptians using a sintered mixture of nanometer-
sized glass and quartz around the 3rd century BC. Egyptian blue represents a multifaceted
CaCuSi4O10 and SiO2 (glass and quartz). In ancient geographical regions of the Roman
Empire, including countries such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, the extensive use of
Egyptian blue for decorative purposes has been observed during archaeological explorations.
The synthesis of metallic NPs via chemical methods dates back to the 14th and 13th century
BC, when Egyptians and Mesopotamians started making glass using metals, citing the
beginning of the metallic nanoparticle era. These materials may be the earliest examples of
synthetic NMs in practical application.

From the late Bronze Age (1200–1000 BC), red glass was found in Frattesina di Rovigo
(Italy), colored by surface plasmon excitation of Cu NPs. Similarly, the Celtic red enamels
from the 400–100 BC period have been reported to contain Cu NPs and cuprous oxide.
Nevertheless, a Roman glass workpiece is the most famous example of ancient metallic NPs
usage. The Lycurgus Cups is a 4th-century Roman glass cup made of dichroic glass that
displays different colors: red when light passes from behind and green when light passes
from the front. Recent studies found that the Lycurgus Cups contain Ag–Au alloy NPs, with
a ratio of 7:3 inaddition to about 10% Cu.

Later, red and yellow colored stained glass found in medieval churches was produced by
incorporating colloidal Au and Ag NPs, respectively. During the 9th century,
Mesopotamians started using glazed ceramics for metallic lustier decorations. These
decorations showed excellent optical properties due to distinct Ag and Cu NPs isolated
within the outermost glaze layers. These decorations are an example of metal nanoparticles
that display iridescent bright green and blue colors under particular reflection conditions.
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) analysis of these ceramics revealed a double layer
of Ag NPs (5–10 nm) in the outer layer and larger ones (5–20 nm) in

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the inner layer. The distance was constant at about 430 nm between two layers, leading to
interference effects. The scattered light from the second layer leads to the phase shift due to
the scattering of light by the first layer. This incoming light wavelength-dependent phase
shift leads to a different wavelength while scattering. Later, the red glass was manufactured
using this process worldwide. In the mid-19th century, a similar technique was used to
produce the famous Satsuma glass in Japan. The absorption properties of Cu NPs helped
brighten the Satsuma glass with ruby color. Furthermore, clay minerals with a thickness of a
few Nanometers are the best examples of natural NM usage since antiquity. Even in 5000
BC, it was reported that clay was used to bleach wools and clothes in Cyprus.

5. TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS: -

• Nanomaterials can be nanoscale in one dimension(e.g., surface films), two dimensions

(e.g., strands of fibers), or three dimensions (e.g., Particles).
• They can exist in single, fused, aggregated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular
shapes. Common types of nanomaterial include.
• Nanotubes
• Dendrimers
• Quantum dots
• Fullerenes
• Composites
• According to Siegel, nanoparticle materials are zero-dimensional, one-dimensional,
and two-dimensional, three-dimensional nanoparticles.

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6. CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS BASED ON THEIR

DIMENSION: -

The production of conventional products at the nanoscale currently helps and will continue
to support numerous countries' economic progress. Many types of NPs and NSMs have been
reported, and many other varieties are predicted to appear in the future. Therefore, the need
for their classification has ripened. The first idea for NM classification was given by Gleiter
et al. This classification is highly dependent on the electron movement along the dimensions
in the NMs. For example, electrons in 0D NMs are entrapped in dimensionless space,
whereas 1D NMs have electrons that can move along the x-axis, less than 100 nm. Likewise,
2D and 3D NMs have electron movement along the x–y-axis, and x, y, z-axis, respectively.

7. CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS

based on their origin a part from dimension and material-based classifications, NPs and
NSMs can also be classified as natural or synthetic based on their head.

(i) Natural nanomaterials are produced either by biological species or anthropogenic

activities. Artificial surfaces with exclusive micro and nanoscale templates and properties
for technological applications are readily available from natural sources. Naturally
occurring NMs are present throughout the Earth’s spheres (i.e., in the hydrosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere, and even in the biosphere), regardless of human actions. Earth is
comprised of NMs that are naturally formed and are present in the Earth’s spheres, such
as the atmosphere, which includes the whole of the troposphere. This hydrosphere
provides oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and hydrothermal vents. The lithosphere
comprises rocks, soils, magma, or lava at particular stages of evolution, and the biosphere
covers micro-organisms and higher organisms, including humans.

(i) Synthetic (engineered) nanomaterials are produced by mechanical grinding, engine

exhaust, and smoke or are synthesized by physical, chemical, biological, or hybrid
methods. Risk assessment strategies have arisen in recent times as there is the increased
fabrication and subsequent release of engineered NMs and their usage in consumer
products and industrial applications. These risk assessment strategies are beneficial in
forecasting the behavior and fate of engineered NMs in various environmental media. The
major challenge among engineered NMs is whether existing knowledge is enough to
predict their behavior

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or exhibit a distinct environment-related behavior, different from natural NMs. Currently,

various sources related to potential applications are used to produce engineered NMs.

➢ NPs are broadly divided into various categories depending on their morphology, size and
chemical properties. Based on physical and chemical characteristics, some of the well-
known classes of NPs are given as below.

• Carbon-based NPs
Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) represent two major classes of carbon-based NPs.
Fullerenes contain nanomaterial that are made of globular hollow cage such as allotropic forms of
carbon. They have created noteworthy commercial interest due to their electrical conductivity, high
strength, structure, electron affinity, and versatility. These materials possess arranged pentagonal
and hexagonal carbon units, while each carbon is sp2 hybridized. Fig. 3 shows some of the well-
known fullerenes consisting of C60 and C70 with the diameter of 7.114 and 7.648 nm, respectively.

Figure 3. Different form of Fullerenes/buck balls (A) C60 and (B) C70.
CNTs are elongated, tubular structure, 1–2 nm in diameter . These can be predicted as metallic or
semiconducting reliant on their diameter telicity . These are structurally resembling to graphite
sheet rolling upon itself (Fig. 4). The rolled sheets can be single, double or many walls and
therefore they named as single-walled (SWNTs), double-walled (DWNTs) or multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (MWNTs), respectively. They are widely synthesized by deposition of carbon precursors
especially the atomic carbons, vaporized from graphite by laser or by electric arc on to metal
particles. Lately, they have been synthesized via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique . Due
to their unique physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics, these materials are not only used

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in pristine form but also in nanocomposites for many commercial applications such as fillers,
efficient gas adsorbents for environmental remediation and as support medium for different
inorganic and organic catalysts .

Figure 4. Rolling of graphite layer into single-walled and multi-walled CNTs.

• Metal NPs
Metal NPs are purely made of the metals precursors. Due to well-known localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) characteristics, these NPs possess unique optoelectrical properties. NPs of the
alkali and noble metals i.e. Cu, Ag and Au have a broad absorption band in the visible zone of the
electromagnetic solar spectrum. The facet, size and shape controlled synthesis of metal NPs is
important in present day cutting-edge materials. Due to their advanced optical properties, metal NPs
find applications in many research areas. Gold NPs coating is widely used for the sampling of
SEM, to enhance the electronic stream, which helps in obtaining high quality SEM images (Fig. 1).
There are many other applications, which are deeply discussed in applications section of this
review.

• Ceramics NPs
Ceramics NPs are inorganic nonmetallic solids, synthesized via heat and successive cooling. They
can be found in amorphous, polycrystalline, dense, porous or hollow forms. Therefore, these NPs
are getting great attention of researchers due to their use in applications such as
catalysis, photocatalysis, photodegradation of dyes, and imaging applications.

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• Semiconductor NPs
Semiconductor materials possess properties between metals and nonmetals and therefore they
found various applications in the literature due to this property semiconductor NPs possess wide
bandgaps and therefore showed significant alteration in their properties with bandgap tuning.
Therefore, they are very important materials in photocatalysis, photo optics and electronic devices.
As an example, variety of semiconductor NPs are found exceptionally efficient in water splitting
applications, due to their suitable bandgap and bandedge positions .
• Polymeric NPs
These are normally organic based NPs and in the literature a special term polymer nanoparticle
(PNP) collective used for it. They are mostly nanospheres or nanocapsular shaped. The former are
matrix particles whose overall mass is generally solid and the other molecules are adsorbed at the
outer boundary of the spherical surface. In the latter case the solid mass is encapsulated within the
particle completely. The PNPs are readily functionalize and thus find bundles of applications in the
literature .
• Lipid-based NPs
These NPs contain lipid moieties and effectively using in many biomedical applications. Generally,
a lipid NP is characteristically spherical with diameter ranging from 10 to 1000 nm. Like polymeric
NPs, lipid NPs possess a solid core made of lipid and a matrix contains soluble lipophilic
molecules. Surfactants or emulsifiers stabilized the external core of these NPs. Lipid
nanotechnology is a special field, which focus the designing and synthesis of lipid NPs for various
applications such as drug carriers and delivery and RNA release in cancer therapy.

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Figure 1: Nanomaterials with different morphologies:

(A) nonporous Pd NPs (OD) 19,10), copyright Zhang et al.;licensee Springer, 2012,
(B) Graphene nanosheets (20)(11], copyright 2012, Springer Nature
(C) Ag nanorods (1D)112], copyright 2011. American ChemicalSociety
(D) polyethylene oxidenanofibers (1D)113), copyright 2010,
American Chemical Society
(E) urchin like ZnO nanowires (30), reproduced from [14] with
permission from The Royal Society or Chemistry
(F) WOJ nanowlre nelWOrk (3D)[15], copyright 2005 Wiley-
VCH.

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8. METHODS OF PREPARATION OF NANOPARTICLES: -

Nanoparticles can be prepared from various materials such as proteins, polysaccharides,

and synthetic polymers. The selection of matrix materials is dependent on many factors
including :-

(a) size of nanoparticles required

(b) inherent properties of the drug, e.g., aqueous solubility and stability

(c) surface characteristics such as charge and permeability

(d) degree of biodegradability, biocompatibility, and toxicity.

(e) Drug release profile desired.

(f) Antigenicity of the final product.

NANOPARTICLES HAVE BEEN PREPARED MOST FREQUENTLY

BY THREE METHODS: -

(1) dispersion of preformed polymers.

(2) polymerization of monomers and

(3) ionic gelation or coacervation of hydrophilic polymers.

However, other methods such as supercritical fluid technology and particle replication in
non-wetting templates (PRINT) have also been described in the literature to produce
nanoparticles. The latter was claimed to have absolute control of particle size, shape, and
composition, setting an example for the industry’s future mass production of
nanoparticles.

A.DISPERSION OF PREFORMED POLYMERS:-

Dispersion of preformed polymers is a common technique used to prepare biodegradable

nanoparticles from poly (lactic acid) (PLA); poly (D, L-glycolide), PLG; poly (D, L-
lactide- co-glycolide) (PLGA), and poly (cyanoacrylate) (PCA). This technique can be
used in various ways, as described below. Solvent evaporation method: In this method, the
polymer is dissolved in an organic solvent such as dichloromethane, chloroform, or ethyl
acetate, which is also used as the solvent for dissolving the hydrophobic drug. The polymer
and drug solution mixture is then emulsified in an aqueous solution containing a
surfactant or

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emulsifying agent to form an oil in water (o/w) emulsion. After stable emulsion
formation, the organic solvent is evaporated by reducing the pressure or continuous
stirring. Particle size was influenced by the type and concentrations of stabilizer,
homogenizer speed, and polymer concentration. A high-speed homogenization or
ultrasonication may often be employed to produce a small particle size.

B. POLYMERIZATION METHOD:-

In this method, monomers are polymerized to form nanoparticles in an aqueous solution.

The drug is incorporated either by being dissolved in the polymerization medium or by
adsorption onto the nanoparticles after polymerization is completed. The nanoparticle
suspension is then purified to remove various stabilizers and surfactants employed for
polymerization by ultracentrifugation and re-suspending the particles in an isotonic
surfactant-free medium. This technique has been reported for making poly butyl
cyanoacrylate or poly (alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles16;17. Nanocapsule formation
and particle size depending on the surfactants' concentration and stabilizers.

C. COACERVATION OR IONIC GELATION METHODS:-

Much research has been focused on preparing nanoparticles using biodegradable

hydrophilic polymers such as chitosan, gelatin, and sodium alginate. Calvo and co-
workers developed a method for preparing hydrophilic chitosan nanoparticles by ionic
gelation .
The process involves a mixture of two aqueous phases: the polymer chitosan, di-
block copolymer ethylene oxide, or propylene oxide (PEO-PPO), and the other is a
polyanion sodium tripolyphosphate. In this method, chitosan’s positively charged amino
group interacts with negatively charged tripolyphosphate to form coacervates with a size
in the nanometer range. Coacervates are formed due to electrostatic interaction between
two aqueous phases. In contrast, ionic gelation involves the material transitioning from
liquid to gel due to ionic interaction conditions at room temperature.

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9. SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES Various methods can be employed for the

synthesis of NPs, but these methods are broadly divided into two main classes i.e.

(1) Bottom-up approach and

(2) Top-down approach.

These approaches are divided into subclasses based on the operation, reaction condition,
and adopted protocols. Top-down syntheses in this method, a destructive system is
employed. These units are converted into suitable NPS starting from larger molecules,
decomposing into smaller units. Examples

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10. SOURCES OF NANOMATERIALS:-

Sources of nanomaterials can be classified into three main categories based on their origin:

(i) incidental nanomaterials, which are produced incidentally as a by-product of industrial

processes such as nanoparticles produced from vehicle engine exhaust, welding fumes,
combustion processes, and even some natural processes such as forest fires;

(ii) engineered nanomaterials, which humans have manufactured to have specific required
properties for desired applications and

(iii) naturally produced nanomaterials can be found in organisms, insects, plants, animals,
and human bodies. However, the distinctions between naturally occurring, incidental, and
manufactured NPs are often blurred. For example, in some cases, incidental NMs can be
considered a subcategory of natural NMs. Molecules are atoms, the primary structural
components of all living and nonliving organisms in nature. Atoms and molecules have
been naturally manipulated to create intricate NPs and NSMs that continually contribute
to life on earth. Incidental and naturally occurring NMs are continuously formed within
and distributed throughout ground and surface water, the oceans, continental soil, and the
atmosphere. One of the main differences between incidental and engineered NMs is that
the morphology of engineered NMs can usually be better controlled than incidental NMs;
additionally, engineered NMs can be purposely designed to exploit novel features that
stem from their small size. It is known that metal NPs may be spontaneously generated
from synthetic objects, which implies that humans have long been in direct contact with
synthetic NMs and that macroscale objects are also a potential source of incidental
nanoparticles in the environment.

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11. PROPERTIES:-

PARTICLES SIZE AND SHAPE:- The size of the nanoparticles formed depends
on the preparation method. This may further be affected by different process variables within
the same technique, but the size of the nanoparticles formed is generally less than 200nm.
They are mostly spherical in shape. The inner structure mainly depends on the type of system
formed. The nanoparticles are a vesicular structure with hollow-core, whereas nanospheres
have a solid core.

SURFACE PROPERTIES:- The charge on the surface of the nanoparticles is

significant to determine the fate of the system in the body. The surface charge depends
mainly on the nature of the polymer used and the pH of the medium during the
preparation technique. With most of the polymers, a negative charge is acquired by the
surface of the nanoparticles. Due to this negative charge, there are very high chances of
interaction with the serum components.

DRUG LOADING EFFICIENCY:- A successful drug delivery system has high

loading capacity, such that the amount of carrier system required to be administered is
less. The electrical charge on both the drug and the carrier may influence the loading
capacity.

In nanoparticles, drug entrapment within the core requires the solubility of the drug in
the oily phase. The maximum loading capacity is found when the body is the pure drug
molecule. The cure to polymer ratio in nanoparticles can be as high as 500% (as in
nanoparticles) to values lower than 10% (as in nanoparticles).

BIODEGRADATIONS:- Biodegradability is a desired characteristic of polymers to

be used to prepare nanoparticles. Most of the natural and synthetic polymers follow this
property. This may act as the rate-limiting step in releasing the drug from the
nanoparticles, especially matrix systems.

In some synthetic polymers, the degradation rate depends on the type and length of an
alkyl chain, for example, in cyanoacrylates. Thus, the rate of bioerosion and the release
rate can be controlled by proper selection of the alkyl chains; This principle helps develop
suitably sustained-release formulations.

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DRUG RELEASE:- The release from nanoparticles may follow one of the following
mechanisms:

1. Desorption of surface-bound of absorbed drug.

2. Diffusion through nanoparticles matrix.
3. Diffusion through polymer wall (in case of nanoparticles).
4. Matrix erosion.
5. A combined decline and diffusion process.
The release rate of the drug is higher in the case of nanoparticles compared to other
larger structures. This may be due to their larger specific surface area. The drug
release from the nanoparticles depends on the type of system (matrix or vesicular) and
the drug loading mechanism. Thus, nanoparticles are not generally meant for
sustaining the release of the drug but can be used in controlled drug delivery.

In nanospheres, the release rate depends on the mechanism of drug loading. When
the drug is superficially adsorbed onto the surface of the nanoparticles, the release
mechanism follows the partitioning process of the drug. Thus, the rapid and total
release is obtained when the release of this system is studied in sink conditions. When
the drug is entrapped within the matrix, the release mechanism depends on the types
of polymer used. If the polymer is biodegradable, the release of the drug depends on
both the rate of diffusion of the rug and the rate of bioerosion of the polymeric
system. Thus, this type of system may act as a sustained release carrier system in
which the rate of release depends on om the rate of degradation of the polymer. But if
the nanospheres are formed using non-biodegradable polymer, drug release is
governed only by diffusion.

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12. PHYSICOCHEMICAL EVALUATION

A.PARTICLES SIZE AND SHAPES:- by photon correlation spectroscopy, electron

microscopy (scanning and transmission), quasi electron light scattering, dynamic light
scattering, scanned probe microscopy.

a) Scanning electron microscopy for morphological (surface) characterized of the

nanoparticles.
b) Freeze fracture microscopy: After freeze fracturing, the inner composition of
nanospheres can be determined. The nanospheres appear to be a carrier having a solid
core with a highly porous internal structure. The nanospheres are a ball with a dense
polymeric network.

B.SURFACE CHARGE:- is determined by the measurement of zeta potential of the

aqueous suspension of the nanoparticles. In this method, the mobility of the charged
particles is monitored by applying electrical potential. Laser Doppler Anemometry and
electrophoresis can also determine the surface charge.

C.HYDROPHOBICITY:- can be determined by hydrophobic interaction

chromatography, 2-phase partition chromatography, water contact angle determination,
absorption of hydrophobic fluorescent dyes, and adsorption of radiolabelled probes.

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In hydrophobic interaction chromatography, column chromatography separates the

materials based on their interaction with a hydrophobic gel matrix.

D.CHEMICAL ANALYSIS can be performed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,

which detects function group in 100 A extension of nanoparticles coat. This technique is
based on the emission of electrons from material in response to irradiation by photons of
sufficient energy to cause ionization of core-level electrons.

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13. PERFORMANCE EVALUTION

A.D RUG RELEASE:- The drug release profile of a colloidal system depends on the
experimental conditions. Therefore it is essential to avoid any artifactual rate-limiting step,
such as a membrane or absence of sink conditions.

The drug release can be studied by:

a) Side-by-side diffusion cells with artificial or biological membrane.
b) Dialysis bag diffusion technique.
c) Reverse dialysis sac technique.
d) Ultracentrifugation.
e) Centrifugal ultrafiltration technique.

B.PROTEIN ADSORPTION: A quantitatively, two-dimension

polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis can be used to determine the
nanoparticle-plasma protein interaction. The particles were incubated with the
plasma separation and washed with different washing mediums. The proteins adsorbed on
nanoparticles are then estimated by(2D-PAGE).

C.BIODEGRADATION:- This study is essential for nanoparticles, as biodegradable is

a critical parameter in selecting polymers. The study helps determine the fate of the system
in the body, and also, in some cases, the drug release is governed by the degradation of the
polymeric system.

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14. PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS

1. They are used for intracellular targeting of the anti-infective drug. Thus the intracellular
infections of the human body can be treated easily.
2. They target cytostatic drugs. Thus their toxicity is reduced, and therapeutic activity is
enhanced.
3. They are used for specific targeting of anti-inflammatory drugs to areas of inflammation.
Thus the side effects of these drugs are minimized.
4. They are used for ocular delivery systems and for delivering pilocarpine and other miotic
drugs.
5. They are used as carriers for radio nucleotides and diagnostic purposes for nuclear
medicine.
6. They help to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs.
7. They help to deliver drugs across the blood-brain barrier.
8. They are also used to formulate sustained releases preparations.
9. They are used to release disinfectants or algaecides into large bodies, such as insect pests
feeding on colloidal peptides.
They are used for the targeted delivery of proteins and peptides.
10. They are used as an adjuvant to obtain potent antigens as a vaccine.
11. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) are used to formulate skin and hair care products in
which the oily core contains different cosmetic oils and lipophilic agents.

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15. CONCLUSION:-

Nanotechnology-enabled drug delivery is opening a prospective future in pharmaceutics.

The emergence of nanotechnology is likely to significantly impact the drug delivery sector,
affecting just about every route of administration from oral to injectable. The present
pharmaceutics is often characterized by poor bioavailability, resulting in higher patient costs,
ineffective treatment, and, more importantly, increased toxicity risks or even death.
Nanotechnology focuses on the very small, and it is uniquely suited to creating systems that
can better deliver drugs to tiny areas within the body. Nano-enabled drug delivery also
makes it possible for drugs to permeate through cell walls, which is critical to the expected
growth of genetic medicine over the next few years. The payoff for doctors and patients from
nanotechnology-enabled drug delivery should be lower drug toxicity, reduced cost of
treatments, improved bioavailability, and an extension of the economic life of proprietary
drugs.

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