FWF 504: FOREST MANAGEMENT

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INTRODUCTION
The forests make up one of renewable resources and serve as earth’s greatest reservoirs.
Hence if well managed, can provide essential products indefinitely and at the same time
remain a home for wildlife and a vital source of water supplies. Forest management is the
process of organizing forest stands/ecosystems so that they produce a continuous stream
of whatever resources are desired from the forest -timber, NTFPs, wildlife,
tourism/recreation, or any conceivable combination of the resources of the forest. There is
therefore the need to facilitate the production of resources from the forest in a manner that
ensures that they will be forever available. The management techniques for
accomplishing these purposes vary from the simple to complex techniques

Definition of Forest management

- Forest management is the application of science and technical principles to forest
stands operation. It is concerned with efficient planning so that the forest provides
greatest possible benefits.

- It ensures that the forest is managed and maintained so that production is optimized,
and so that over-cutting and under-cutting do not occur.

- It involves deliberate human intervention, aimed at maintaining the forest ecosystem

and its functions, to favouring species social- economic valuable species for the
improved production of goods and services.

- Therefore FM encompasses the administrative, legal, technical, economic, social and

environmental aspects of the conservation and uses of the forest.

- FM is also concerned with tourism, biodiversity, conservation, provision of NTFPs,

watersheds protection, wildlife production of forests services etc.

Forest Management for Optimization of Objectives

Forest management is the practical application of science, technology and economics to
forest for the achievement of certain objectives- mainly production of timber and other
forest products. It is more concerned with the organization of forest for the purpose of
securing a sustained yield while realizing the objectives of management.

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Objectives
The objectives of forest management are embodied in National Forest Policy of the
country. The main objectives of the National Forest Policy of Nigeria are in two fold:
(1).To ensure the sustainability of forests, i.e. to manage the forest in such a way as to
ensure a sustained yield of timber and other forest products in perpetuity
(2).To ensure that forests are harvested in order to bring about economic growth, job
creation, improved industry and further domestic processing.
Factors to be considered by Forest Managers in setting objectives for FM
Forest Managers are encouraged to take into consideration the following in setting
objectives of management.
1. Timber production objective(indigenous, exotic or mixed)
2. Slivicultural practices (Taungya, TSS, restoration)
3. Forest protection objectives (Fire, Pests and Diseases Control,)
4. Ecological objective (biodiversity, ecological balance)
5. Watershed Management objective (water quality, erosion, siltation, flooding etc.)
6. Wild life Objective (habitat, population species)
7. Aesthetic, recreational and socio-economic objectives (tourism, social )

Peculiarity of Forests that affects its Management

Forests have some peculiarity that affects its managements and also distinguishes
it from other industries and land-users.
1. Long Gestation Period: Forest trees take long time to mature. Minimum of 20 years
for timber and 10 years for poles and Fuelwood.
2. Capital: Capital for first investment is high. Also, due to long rotation age, return on
forestry investment is usually delayed and thus, invested capital is tied down for a
very long time.
3. Market: Market opportunity and values of forest products may change during the
long rotation. This may lead to re–evaluation of the original management objective
and Silvicultural treatments.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)

This is the management of the forest to provide goods and services to meet present-day
needs while at the same time securing their continued availability and contribution to
long-term development. It ensures that the forest produce resources on continual basis

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that will satisfy both current and future needs. The following points needs to be
understood in SFM:
-SFM builds upon traditional forest management but expands the time horizons (from one
to many rotations) and values (timber, wildlife, habitat to diversity and social values).
-It must be accepted from the onset that utilization of a given forest ecosystem implies
some change in its structure and composition.
-Thus SFM implies that the forest must be well developed and the various economics
stakeholders/agents involved earn a return on it.
-The desired outcome of SFM is a balance or trade-off between what are economically
feasible ecologically viable and socially acceptable.
-Thus, to achieve sustainable development it is necessary to manage and preserve forest
resources in order to meet the needs of present and future generation.

Component of SFM
1. Extent of forest Resource
a) Aim is to have a significant forest resources and stocking to support the economic and
environmental dynamism of forestry
b) Achieved by sustainable forest by reducing deforestation and restoring/rehabilitating
degraded forest landscapes through such measures like regeneration

2. Biological Diversity
a) Aim is to conserve and manage diversity and improve their genetic (Gene
modification)
Examples of Conservation Measures
i. Protection of fragile area
ii. Ensure that diversity of life in maintained
iii. Provide opportunities to develop new products
iv. Genetic improvement
v. Forest Health and Vitality

[Link] needs to be managed so that the risks and impacts of unwanted disturbances are
minimized. This include wild fires, stump felling, invasive pests, diseases, insect. Such
disturbances may impact social, economic as well as environmental vision of forestry.

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3. Productive Function of Forest
Forest trees outside forest services provide timber and NTFPs. These components (trees
and NTFPs) should be maintained at high value and supplied when needed without
compromising the products for future generation.

4. Protective Function of Forest

The role of forest is to help moderate soil hydrological system. This includes maintaining
clean water e.g healthy fish population and reducing impact of flood erosion and drought.
This contributes to good ecosystem which has strong effect on Agriculture and rural
livelihood.

5. Socio-economics function
This addresses the contribution of forest resource to the overall economy e.g through
employment, processing and marketing of forest products, energy, trade (export) and
investment in the forest sector. It also addresses the cultural, spiritual and recreational
value of the forest
6. Forest legal system. The forestry legal system needed to support SFM comprises the legal
procedures and measures/instruments employed for sustainable development of forest
resources. These include; forest reservation, definition of forest offences, prosecution of
forest offences, monitoring (registration) of wood processing plants (forest based
industrial activities), institution of hammers and forest utilization (exploitation) contracts.

Forest Management for Yield

The most celebrated principle of forest management all over the world is the “Principle of
Sustained Yield”. This being criticized as static one, was replaced by the “Principle of
increasing yield” in the recent past. But this new concept covers only those forests which
are in the early stages of their development. Yet another concept known as “Principle of
Progressive Yield” emerged in Helsinki World Forestry Congress in 1948, but this is
applicable to fast growing, short rotation species responding readily to the scientific
methods. Thus for long term forest the “Principle of Sustained Yield” remains
unchallenged.

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Though forest management is an integration of silviculture, silvicultural systems,
protection, economics etc., each of which is a separate subject itself; “Yield Regulation”
remains the core subject of forest management. It involves the study of sustained yield,
normal forest, management units, rotation, increment, yield regulation and serves as
a tool in answering the questions of when to cut, how much to cut, and what to cut, i.e. for
establishing sustained yield forest management plans.

Sustained Yield
Concept of sustained yield is evolved from the basic consideration that the later
generations may derive from the forest at least as much benefits as the present generation.
It envisages that a forest should be so exploited that the annual or periodic felling does
not exceed the annual or periodic growth. It is expressed as the allowable cut almost equal
to net increment.
Definition:
(1) a. The material that a forest can yield annually or periodically in perpetuity.
b. As applied to policy or plan of management, it implies continuous production
with the aim of achieving at the earliest practical time at the highest practical level
an approximate balance between net growth and harvest by annual or somewhat
longer periods.
(2) The regular, continuous supply of the desired produce to the full capacity of the
forest.
(3) The yield of timber or other forest produce from a forest which is managed in
such a way as to permit the removal of approximately equal volume or quantity of
timber or other forest produce annually or periodically in perpetuity.

Sustained yield may be annual or periodic depending on the presence of age classes of
trees in the forest. It ensures continuous yield and safeguards against extinction of forest
property. Where the forests are small with incomplete age classes, the crop is worked for
Intermittent Yield, which is the material or cash return obtained from time to time from a
forest not organized for continuous production.

Sustained yield management, therefore, means the continuity of harvest, indefinitely,

without impairment of the productivity of the soil. For Sustained Yield Management the

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forest must conform to an ideal normal forest. Principle of sustained yield is thus basic to
the concept of Normality. The principle achieves ‘Normality’
Normal Forest
In forestry, concept of Normal Forest envisages an ideal state of perfection, serving the
purpose of good scientific management. It is an ideal condition in the context of forestry.
Normal Forest is a conception of forest management based on the principle of Sustained
Yield. The term was evolved in early 19th century by German Foresters.
Definition:
A Normal Forest is an ideal state of forest condition which serves as standard with which
to compare an actual forest, so that the deficiencies of the latter can be identified and
necessary corrective action determined for purposes of sustained yield management. On a
given site, and for a given method of treatment and rotation, a forest is termed a normal
forest when it has:
(a) a normal series (distribution) of age-gradations or age-classes (presence in a forest in
appropriate quantity, the trees of all ages from one year old to rotation age);
(b) a normal increment, and consequently;
(c) a normal growing stock.
Normal series of Age-gradations, Normal Growing Stock and Normal Increment form
the ‘Trinity of Norms’ in forestry. A normal forest contains a regular and complete
succession of age-gradations or classes in correct proportion so that an annual or periodic
felling of the mature woods results in an equalization of the annual or periodic yield.

From a normal forest, annual or periodic yields equal to the increment without
endangering future yields and without detriment to the site. It is an ideally constituted
forest with such volumes of trees of various ages so distributed and growing in such a
way that they produce equal annual volumes of the produce which can be removed
continuously without detriment to future production.
For sustained yield management, a forest should be so managed that trees are harvested
at maturity (rotation age) and replaced by new crops, naturally and/or artificially, so that
year after year, or period after period, there are mature trees or mature crop available to
give the calculated sustained yield. This stipulates the establishment of a normal series of
age-gradations or age-classes.

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(a)Age-gradations or age-classes.
(i) Age gradation: When the trees of the same age occur on separate area, they constitute
a series of age-gradations. It is an age class of one or at most a few years
(ii) Age class: When trees falling within certain age limits occur together on the same
area, they form an age-class. It is found in even-aged, regular or uniform, natural forests.
The implication is that trees of the same age group can be identified and delineated on the
ground or map thus making management possible on an area basis.
In uneven-aged, very irregular forest, there may neither be age gradation nor age-classes.
In this case, delineation is not practicable so that management is based on individual trees
and their sizes not on age and area.
A forest is known to have a normal series of age-gradations, if it has in it a complete
series of age-gradations, from seedlings to the mature trees in proper proportion.
Similarly a forest is known to have a normal age-class distribution if it has in it a
complete series of age-classes and in such proportions which will permit equal volumes
from annual or periodic felling, under the given rotation and silvicutural system. The
presence of a complete series of age-gradations/classes is a sine-quo-non for obtaining
sustained yields from a forest.

(b)Normal increment: It means the best or maximum increment attainable by a species

per unit area under a given set of conditions in a site. It always denotes the volume
increment only, the product of height and girth increments. Increment also depends on
other factors. The increment of a tree will vary with species, site and degree of prevailing
competition. For each stand or age class, the increment is the sum of the increments of all
the trees forming that stand or age class. Hence it follows that for a given species, on a
given site and at a given age, the increment will be related to the density of stocking as it
reflects the degree of competition in stand. Under a given set of conditions therefore there
should be a density of stocking of which increment is at the maximum level possible i.e at
which increment is normal. The stand at which increment is normal is termed normal
stocking.

(c)Normal growing stock: It is the volume of stands in a forest with normal age classes
or age gradations and a normal increment. In practice, this is taken to be the volume
indicated in yield tables of each age-class. The abnormalities common in growing stock
are of four types:

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(i) Overstocked: A forest may be overstocked on two accounts:
- When a forest after the age of maturity have more volume per hectare than the normal.
- A forest also becomes overstocked when the rotation already fixed is reduced.
In both the cases, there will be surplus growing stock due to excessive distribution of the
older age classes. This surplus has to be gradually removed to achieve normalcy.
(ii) Understocked: Understocking arises in three situations:
- due to preponderance of the younger age classes, the volume per ha will be less
than the normal,
- due to previous mis-management or bad protection, the forest may have poor
density than the normal condition, and
- through the increase or extension of the rotation period.
This is remedied by conservative fellings and building up a proper reserve of growing
stock.
(iii) Volume normal but age classes abnormal: The whole forest may contain of single age
class against the normal proper distribution of all age classes. This is the worst form of
abnormality and conversion of such forest to normalcy is very difficult. In such situation,
suspension of sustained yield may be necessary and sacrifice of material due to decay and
unsoundness may be unavoidable.
(iv) Sub-normal increment: This situation may arise due to the effect of fire, disease etc.
or because of poor density or due to excessive over-mature timber.

Management Units
From the point of view of silvicultural management and yield regulation, the forests are
organized into working circles, felling series, coupes, cutting sections, periodic blocks
and felling cycles.
Working Circle (W.C.): A forest area (forming the whole or part of a Working Plan)
organized with a particular objective and subject to the same silvicultural system and the
same set of Working Plan prescriptions. In certain circumstances Working Circles may
overlap.
Felling Series (F. S.): A forest area forming the whole or part of a Working Circle and
delineated so as:
(i) to distribute felling and regeneration to suit local conditions, and

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 (ii) to maintain or create a normal distribution of age classes. The yield is
calculated separately for each felling series which should have an independent
representation of age classes.
When concentration of fellings in any one place is considered undersirable for
silvicultural, social or economic reasons, e.g. if it is desired to provide a sustained yield of
forest produce to one or more markets, or to distribute works of all kinds over one or
more areas, a working circle may be divided into felling series. It enables effective
control and distribution of work in different administrative units.
Coupe: A felling area, usually one of an annual series unless otherwise stated. A Felling
Series or Working Circle is divided into a number of Annual Coupes equal to the number
of years in the rotation, especially in Clearfelling System.
Cutting Section: A sub-division of a felling series formed with the objective of
regulating cuttings in some special manner: a planned separation of fellings in successive
years. Sometimes it is desirable to avoid fellings in contiguous coupes in successive years
for silvicultural considerations, such as fire danger or insect attack. In such cases, a
felling series is sub-divided into a number of cutting sections.
Periodic Blocks (P.B.): The part or parts of forest containing one age-class, set aside to
be regenerated or otherwise treated, during a specified period. The forests managed under
uniform system are divided into periodic blocks, which may be “Floating” or “single” and
“Fixed” of “Permanent”. When only generation block is allotted, it is called floating
periodic block. When all periodic blocks are allotted and retain their identity at working
plan revision, they are termed fixed or permanent periodic blocks. Number and area of P.
B. is calculated as under:
Number of P. B. = Rotation period / Regeneration period.
Area of P. B. = Area of working circle / Number of P. B.
Felling Cycle (F.C.): In selection forests, it is the time that elapses between successive
main fellings on the same area. In an ideal Selection Forest the entire area is a complete
and undivided F.S. which is to be worked every year. Such annual working of entire area
of the Working Circle is neither practicable nor desirable. The usual practice is to divide
the area into a number of coupes (cutting sections) each of which is worked at an interval
of a planned number of years, known as Felling Cycle (F.C.). It may vary from 5 to 40
years depending on the intensity of working. The number of coupes will obviously be
equal to the number of years in the F.C., and they may be made up of one or more forest
compartments.

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Rotation

It is also known as production period. It is the period which a forest crop takes between
its formation and final felling. It expresses the rate of growth of the crop to produce the
desired size and quality of crop.

Definition
(i) The planned number of years between the formation or regeneration of a crop
and its final felling. In the case of a selection forest, the average age at which a
tree is considered mature for felling.
(ii) The period of years required to establish and grow timber crops to a specified
condition of maturity.
(iii) The number of years fixed by the working plan between the formation or
regeneration and the final felling of a forest crop.
(iv) The interval between successive crop regenerations.
(v) The interval of time between the formation of a young crop by seeding,
planting or other means and its final harvesting.
(vi) The period which elapses between the formation of a wood and the time when
it is finally cut over.

Rotation for uniform and selection forests

The term rotation is applicable to regular crops only. In clear fellings, plantations and
regular forests, entire crops of trees of a sizeable area are felled at a time or during a
comparatively short period when ready for felling. There is, more or less, a clear
production period which can be planned in advance to give timber which satisfies the
objective of management. Thus the rotation is associated with the final felling age or
removal age which may vary with rate of growth. On better sites rotation will be shorter.

In selection (un-even aged/irregular) forests, trees of exploitable size are felled

selectively. The rotation period is equal to that of the average age of the exploitable size
of the trees removed – the exploitable age, at which they attain the size required to fulfill
the objectives of management.
The following factors are considered in fixing rotation:
(a) Owner’s desire and policy.

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(b) Financial aspects – maximum revenue.
(c) Productive capacity of land and tree species
(d) Market demand
(e) Value of wood products
(f) Capital investment – economic management.

Classification of rotation
Based on the objectives of management and of “necessity”, rotation is classified as:
physical rotation, silvicultural rotation, technical rotation, rotation of maximum volume
production, rotation of highest income, and financial rotation.
Physical rotation: Rotation that coincides with the natural lease of life of a species on a
given site. Trees are harvested only on their death. This is followed in protected forests,
park lands, roadside avenues, recreation forestry etc..
Silvicultural rotation: The rotation through which a species retains satisfactory vigour of
growth and reproduction in a given site. This rotation presupposes the crops are
regenerated by natural means and coppicing. It is useful in forests managed primarily for
aesthetic and recreational purposes, where large old trees with accompanying
regeneration provide scenic beauty. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between
Physical and Silvicultural rotations.
Technical rotation: Rotation under which a species yield the maximum material of a
specified size or suitability for economic conversion or for special use. The harvest
depends on market demands for forest product to suit specific purposes, e.g. transmission
poles, railway sleepers, match wood, paper pulpwood, saw logs etc. It is adopted,
particularly, by industrial firms which own forests and plantations for the purpose of
supplying raw materials for their plants.
Rotation of maximum volume production: The rotation that yields the greatest annual
quantity of material or that which produces the greatestmean annual increment of wood.
This is the widely used rotation throughout the world. It embodies the principles of
sustained yield. Besides, it aims profitable extraction and sale of wood. Maximum
volume production is achieved when the mean annual increment (MAI) of a crop reaches
the culmination point. This rotation yields largest volume per unit area, per annum, and is
an important rotation which is adopted frequently. It is suitable where the total quantity of
woody material is important and not the size and specification, like firewood, raw
material for paper pulp,

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fibre and particle board industries based on disintegration processes of wood.
Rotation of highest income: It is the rotation that yields highest average annual gross or
net revenue irrespective of the capital value of the forests; also known as rotation of
highest revenue or forest rental. It is calculated without interest and land value is also not
considered in this case. This rotation is fixed under the assumption that the wood has
same value whatever its size, and annual expenses do not vary with alterations in the
rotation. It will not be of any use in industrial plantations grown using borrowed money.
The rotation is important from the over all point of view, as attainment of highest gross
revenue is more important than that of net income because larger expenditure and
investment generates several social benefits, and indirect advantages to the trade and
industry. Private owners are interested in maximum net revenue by keeping the rotation
period as short as possible.
Financial rotation: It is the rotation which yields the highest net return on the invested
capital. It is determined on financial considerations and it is also known as “Economic
Rotation”. In this rotation all items of revenue and expenditure are calculated with
compound interest at an assumed rate, usually the rate at which the Government is able to
borrow money. It may be defined as the rotation which
- gives the highest discount profit, usually at its commencement.
- is most profitable.
- gives the highest net return on capital value
This rotation is not applicable to natural forests because of lack of data regarding age,
growth rate, mortality, etc. of the forest crop, the actual costs of various operations and
the price range of end products. The economic principles are however applied in the
management of man-made forests especially industrial plantations. In this case of man-
made forests, this rotation gives the highest net profit over and above a certain fixed
percent, after allowing compound interest on all expenditure and income.

Yield regulation (Y.R).

Once the structure of a normal or ideal forest has been decided, it is necessary to plan the
management of the given working cycle so as to develop it towards this standard. The
management procedure leading to this result is called yield regulation. It is a process by
which a balance between net growth and harvest is brought about and it depends basically
on the increment of the forest making up the sustained yield unit. The process consists
of:

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(a) Estimating productive capacity of the area in its present condition i.e. production
possibility.
(b) Deciding how much of this should be retained to built up the growth stock or how
much of the excess growth stock should be removed to minimize loss and balance the
yield.
(c) Deciding in what localities, time, proportion and total volume of timer to cut (i.e.
where, when and how much to cut).
(d) Deciding on the kind of timber species and size that should compose the volume cut.

The very essence of Y.R. is in determining the cut. There is no single formula for the
solution of cut-determination. This depends on state and trends of market, intensity of
management and silvicultural systems adopted. Thus Y.R. necessarily involves a
compromise between economic and silvicultural consideration in management.

Objectives of Yield Regulation

Generally the main objective why timber production and felling of trees should be
regulated can be broadly discussed under 4 headings namely:

a. Silviculture
Over Cutting: (i.e. Cutting more than required or cutting more than can be replaced).
This may cause deterioration of the soil, introduction of unwanted species. (e.g Musanga
cescropioides) and dieing out of wanted species due to lack of regeneration.
Under-Cutting: May lead to over matured trees which deteriorate in wood quality and
the seeds and fruits of which loose viability rapidly. The dense shade of an over-matured
tree will make it difficult for young plant on forest floor to survive due to lack of light.

b.
Labour
The employer needs skilled labour to carry out his work and this can only be achieved
through regular employment. Intermittent employment leads to forced employment of
casual labour with lack of skill and responsibility. Similarly an employee will not stay in
a job or trade that offers only intermittent employment. It means then that both parties:
employer and employee suffer when the work is intermittent.

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[Link] industry
Industries cannot continue to operate if wood raw material is only intermittent. There
must be a continuous and steady supply of timber to function adequately and profitably.

d. Economic reasons
Forestry can be likening to a business operating within biological limits. The capital
investment is made up of two things – the trees and the money expended in forest
operation. Although the owner of the forest may make a profit by waiting 60years or
more for the trees to mature before selling them, yet he has nothing to live on in the
meantime. Whereas he can get better returns on this money by mere putting it in a saving
bank. We must consider the capital tied up in the forest to be an investment and therefore
expect profit as a steady interest on the money invested. This can only be achieved by
regular periodic (Preferably Annual) yield from the forest.

Increment and the place of increment in yield regulation

Increment or growth has been defined as the amount of increase in a living organism
over time. It is the increase in girth, diameter, basal area, height, volume, quality, price of
individual trees or crops during a given period. It may be in term of wood content, or any
of the factors which increase with age-diameter, height, basal area, volume, quality price
or value. It is determined for any given period, by measuring it at the beginning and at the
end of the period.

In Forest Management, the term increment refers usually to only volume increment of
crops rather than of individual trees. It is intimately connected with the volume and age of
the crops. The increment of a forest is the resultant of a great number of factors such as
spp. type, site, age, climatic conditions, previous history etc., some of which can be
controlled in varying degrees. If one assumes given species, degree of protection and
climatic conditions, then from the view point of yield regulation, the main factors
affecting increment are:
(a) Site quality: Productivity of the land on which the stand is growing
(b) Stand density or stocking: A measure of the tree population in a stand related
to the extent of the utilization of the site capacity as well as the severity o
competition within the stand.

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 (c) Rotation: The period of time it takes to grow a stand from seedling to
maturity.
The relationship between the above three factors and increment provides the theoretical
basis of yield regulation.
Types of Increment
A. Current Annual Incrament (CAI): This is the amount of wood (m) added to a
tree/forest stand in a given year i.e the yield of current year minus the yield of previous
year. (e.g 328m3na-1 yield at 20 years - 301m3ha-1) yield at 19 years = 27m3ha-1(CAI)

A. Periodic Annual Increment (PAI) m 3ha-1/yr: This is the amount of wood added to a
tree/forest stand within a short period (5 or 10yrs) divided by the number of years in
that period (i.e. yield at 30years minus yield at 20years divided by 10). This is better
than CAI because CAI is cumbersome and expensive.
B. Mean Annual Increment (MAI): The is the average yearly volume growth of the
tree/stand. It is determined by dividing the total accumulated volume by the number
of years it took to accumulate the volume (e.g 258m3ha-1 yield at 20years is 258m3
divided by 20 = 129m3ha-1/ yr).
- It is relatively easy to measure the MAI of even-aged forest since the age is known.
- However, it is extremely difficult to determine MAI for un-even aged or natural forest
since they have no single age.
- MAI is critical to forest management but difficult to use for natural forest because of
the uneven age trees.

C.A.I. and M.A.I. Curves, their Relationship and significance

The terms C.A.I. and M.A.I., and the relationship between them occupy a significant
place in forest management. This is because M.A.I. at any given age is the arithmetic
mean of C.A.I.’s up to that age. It follows that there must obviously be a mathematical
relationship between them (illustrated by the figure below). As shown in the figure:
- CAI can be spectacularly high early in the life of a stand but represents production
rates that cannot be maintained CAI increases rapidly, attain a maximum and then
decreases rapidly.
- MAI increases slowly, attain a maximum and then decrease slowly. It culminates (i.e.
equal CAI) at the peak of MAI below the Culmination Point, CAI is higher than MAI
below CAI is lower than MAI beyond the Culmination Point.

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- The peak of MAI is key for determining how much can be harvested annually, if a
forest is managed to produce a sustained yield of timber and how long the rotation
should be to maximize production.
- When the CAI of a given stand exceeds the MAI, the stand has not yet reached the
Culmination of MAI, and the stand cannot be harvested.
- The point that CAI equal MAI is the Culmination of MAI, the point of maximum
volume of production potentials of a site. Thus, the stand should be harvested at
Culmination age.
- Thus the meeting points of C.A.I. and M.A.I. curves determine the rotation of
maximum volume production.

Figure 1: Relationship between Current Annual Increment (C.A.I.) and Mean

Annual Increment (M.A.I.):

Forest Organization and Subdivision for Sustainable Yield Management

Like any other business, some organization and subdivision of a forest property is
usually inevitable, if it is to survive and carry out the essential functions necessary for
achieving the purpose of the owner. Forest organization refers to the process of dividing a
forest area into administrative units, while forest subdivision refers to the further division
of an administrative unit into management units in order to ensure efficiency and
continuity of operations under sustained yield management. The purpose of forest
organization and sub division include to:
-get the job done quickly and efficiently.
-allocate responsibility of administrative and executive personnel on a territorial
basis.
-locate definitely all forest resources and operations.

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 -provide a basis for recording of activities and resources.
-facilitate the formulation of plans of management and efficient control of all forestry
activities.
-conform with significant physiographic features of the property.
-conform with the character of the forest – e.g. spp. composition, stand conditions
which affect or require different treatments; stocking and density, regeneration
conditions, whether dominantly old growth or cut over forest etc.

Forest Organisation
The choice and design of an appropriate organization and subdivision of a given forest
property is a most important task in forest management. Due to variety of purposes, no
single system of organization and sub-division of a forest are uniquely most feasible or
universally most desirable. The type and degree of sub-division will be affected by the
relative importance of several influencing factors. It is not always wise therefore, to
blindly copy systems existing elsewhere, though knowledge of such systems may
facilitate contrasting/comparing similarities and differences between such organizations
as related to prevailing conditions. A typical forest organizational structure in Nigeria is
made up of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Natural
Resources/Environment/Forestry, followed by the Permanent Secretary with the overall
responsibility for management of forests. Under the Permanent Secretary is the Director
of forestry who is responsible for the day to day administration of the forest estate. He is
assisted by a Deputy Director (s), while the deputy director is in turn assisted by Assistant
director and a number of forest officers charged with specific forestry subjects. The core
of the organization is the Zonal Forest Officer (ZFO), who is the head of the field
administrative unit (called “working circle”). The Z. F. O. is the “key man in a career
position”. Usually he is a professionally trained forester, directly responsible for
managing forests in his zone (area) and responsible only to his superiors at headquarters.
The success or failure of forest administration depends largely on the Z.F.O.

Frequently, the Z.F.O. may be the head of a large local forest organization having under
his control several professionally trained assistants (forest officers), technical and sub-
technical services men, clerical staff and various categories of labourers and work-men.
He is often in charge of a large forest area-, administers a sizeable vote and is responsible

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for employment of several cadre of workers. It should be noted that though Z.F.O.
performs primarily administrative functions, he is also an accomplished professional
forester who knows his job and can be relied upon to direct and oversee operations with
minimum intervention from the top.

In every country and forest service, organization of forests into field administrative units
is the general pattern; though such units and their heads may be called by different names
or titles. The nature and size of each unit are evolutionary and change with trends in
management, ownership status and other socio-economic factors. In Nigeria, forests are
organized to coincide largely with political administrative divisions- e.g. local
government areas. The reason for this type of organization include:-
-disposition (collection) of forest revenues.
-communal ownership of forests.
-dual control of management (state and local government).
-delineation of boundaries.
- influence of civil service practices.
In general, political and administrative factors have the most significant influences in the
early trends of organization. As management becomes more intensive the trend will be
towards smaller decentralization and facilitate decision-making at the field operating
level. The important thing to note is that “there is no standard area or staff size”. In some
countries or areas of a given country, units will be large, in others small. It all depends on
the extent, complexity and nature of the job to be done. Thus the size of the
administrative unit must be adjusted to the volume and character of the business to be
transacted in the area.

Among the principles which should guide forest organization are:-

a. Clear and complete chain (ending with the owner) of command with clearly defined
responsibilities for each link in the chain.
b. Chain of command should include professionals and experts drawn from other
appropriate disciplines and functioning in more than mere advisory capacities. Example
of such is the establishment of forest development board at the state level.
c. Necessary connections/networking should be established with other land use activities,
users of forest produce and source of finance- e.g. inclusion of non-foresters in the policy
making bodies.

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Forest sub-division
Forest organization represents the primary subdivision of a forest property. Further sub-
divisions of forests in a given administrative unit are usually necessary as all the forests
may not be managed for a single use. The sub-units would distinguish areas homogenous
(with respect to objectives and conditions) and large enough to form more or less self-
contained economic units. Such areas which are referred to as Working Plan Areas
(W.P.A.) become the basic units of planning and operative management for which
separate working plan has to be prepared. The W.P.A is in fact the basic sustained yield
unit. Each W.P.A should be under the control of a single field administrative authority,
though its size may fluctuate. Where there is dual control, effective management is hardly
possible. The W.P.A as a sustained yield unit should be constituted in such a way that in
terms of both size and yield, it takes due account of the interests of both the owner and
the consumers. Thus the controlling factors will be markets, productivity of the forest and
transportation. As a production unit, the W.P.A may comprise contiguous forests or a
number of individual forests may be grouped into it.

The W.P.A is usually further subdivided into smaller units called working circles – which
are made up of a group of stands organized for a particular product- e.g. fuelwood, or
service- e.g. protection, and thus subject to the same treatments and working methods.
For working purpose, a working circle is frequently sub-divided into compartments or
felling series. The compartment is a basic unit of forest management and has been defined
as “a territorial unit permanently demarcated for purpose of description, location of forest
operations and records”. The compartment is the smallest permanent unit in forest
management and all other units can be built up by grouping compartments. Since the
compartment is a permanent unit of management, its boundaries must be carefully
chosen, described and demarcated and not arbitrarily or accidentally changed later. The
compartment may also serve as a useful silvicultural unit where site, and stand type and
development are uniform enough for the same treatments to be employed over the whole
area. However, the compartment is primarily a management unit and silvicultural
uniformity is not a major consideration in its establishment. The size of the compartment
depends on the size of the W.P.A and the intensity of management. It may be as small as
1/10 acre or as large as 1 sq. mile depending on purpose in view.

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 FOREST CERTIFICATION SYSTEM
Definition and Meaning
This is the process whereby forest management practices are assessed against an
agreed management standard. Accredited audit teams measure the planning, procedures
and performance of the ground forest operations against a predetermined standard. If the
forest management practices meet the standard(s), they are then certified. And a
certificate is issued in respect of the forest products to be produced
This will assist in meeting the goals and objectives of SFM (economic,
environmental, cultural and social values) and environmental protection practices.

Goals of Forest Certification

1. Promotes responsible forestry practices by establishing management standards and
evaluating forestry practices against them. The standards promote long-term health
and productivity of forests for timber production, wildlife habitat, biodiversity
conversation, soil and water quality protection as well as socio-economic aspect.
2. Enables consumers to recognise and purchase forest products that originate from
certified producers. In this way, certification drives demand away from uncertified
forest.
3. It reduces global forest lost by preventing wood retailer from selling illegal wood or
wood harvested by illegal fellers

References

Adekunle, M.F. and Oluwalana S.A (2020): Forest Management Techniques. Retrived on
10th of October., 2020 from ttp://[Link]/attachments/465_NOTES%20FRM
%[Link]
Barratt, L.I. (1951): Relations of Forest Management and Economics. Journal of For.
(49)8:563-5
Davis, K.P. (1959): Comments on “Forest Growing Stock”. Journal of For.(53)10:735-9

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Principle of sustained yield is basic to the concept of Normality, discuss in relation to
“trinity of norms” in Forestry

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