Mastering Microcontrollers
GPIO
Quick Reference Guide
___
By EWskills
Why Understanding GPIO Matters:
● Basic Building Block: GPIO is the first hardware skill most beginners learn in embedded
systems.
● Control Projects: It lets you interact with devices—turn things on/off, read inputs, and
automate tasks.
● Learn Digital Logic: Helps you understand how timing and signals work in electronics.
● Essential for IoT & Robotics: Most smart devices and robots use GPIO to talk to sensors
and control parts.
● Connects Code to the Real World: GPIO lets your software physically sense or control
things around it.
2
🚀 Practice real-world tasks & problems for GPIO to build pro-level skills — Click here
GPIO
● General-Purpose Input Output (GPIO) used for INPUT and OUTPUT.
○ GPIO INPUT → switch, buttons, keypad.
○ GPIO OUTPUT → LED, Relay, 7-segment display
GPIO Registers
Generally, in controllers (AVR, PIC), the following types of GPIO registers are present.
Considering the AVR controller
Register Purpose
DDRx Configures pin direction (1 = output, 0 = input)
PORTx Sets pin output level OR enables internal pull-up
PINx Reads the voltage level on input pins (5V = logic 1, 0V = logic 0)
where x = port number (eg, B, C, D)
NOTE: ARM and RISC-based 32-bit controllers have more add-on registers (e.g.,
PIN-function-selection register, pullup-configuration register, etc).
DDRx PORTx STATE
0 0 INPUT HIGH-IMPEDANCE (floating)
0 1 INPUT PULLUP
1 0 OUTPUT LOW (0V)
1 1 OUTPUT HIGH (5V)
3
INPUT HIGH IMPEDANCE (Hi-Z)
It's like an open circuit — the pin 'floats' and its voltage can randomly vary due to electrical noise,
making it unreliable unless we connect external voltage to it.
Connecting switch
Without internal PULLUP & PULLDOWN
With internal PULLUP & PULLDOWN
4
Source & Sink current
● Source: The current flows from the GPIO pin to the load. (e.g. GPIO HIGH powering an
LED).
● Sink: The current flows from the load into the GPIO pin (which acts like ground). (e.g.
LED cathode (- ve) connected to GPIO).
Max Limits:
Each microcontroller has max source/sink current capacity per pin. Exceeding it can damage
the pin or controller.
E.g. – ATmega328 has a max GPIO source / sink current limit of 40 mA. Although it is
recommended to keep it minimum (< 20 mA).
GPIO Port’s current limit:
Controller’s PORT also has its own limits for source/sink current.
E.g., AVR ATmega328 PORTC has a max sink current limit of 100 mA. As it has only 3 PORTs, the
max source/sink current it can handle is up to 300 mA.
5
GPIO Internal Resistance
Controller's GPIO has some internal resistance e.g., ~25Ω for AVR ATmega328.
So when OUTPUT is HIGH and current flows, it drops the GPIO voltage.
GPIO current Internal voltage drop (approx) GPIO voltage (approx)
0 mA 0 mV 5V
10 mA 250 mV 4.750 V
20 mA 500 mV 4.5 V
40 mA 1V 4V
GPIO cautions
GPIO Short Circuit Scenarios:
GPIO Source Sink cautions (AVR ATmega328p)
6
How a Controller Decides HIGH or LOW on GPIO Input
Most of the controllers have a similar range as above.
🚀 Practice real-world tasks & problems for GPIO to build pro-level skills — Click here
