Local Area Network (LAN) Topologies

Star Topology

The main premise of a star topology is that devices are individually

connected via a central networking device such as a switch or hub. This
topology is the most commonly found today because of its reliability and
scalability - despite the cost.

Any information sent to a device in this topology is sent via the central
device to which it connects. Let's explore some of these advantages and
disadvantages of this topology below:

Because more cabling and the purchase of dedicated networking

equipment is required for this topology, it is more expensive than any of the
other topologies. However, despite the added cost, this does provide some
significant advantages. For example, this topology is much more scalable
in nature, which means that it is very easy to add more devices as the
demand for the network increases.
Unfortunately, the more the network scales, the more maintenance is
required to keep the network functional. This increased dependence on
maintenance can also make troubleshooting faults much harder.
Furthermore, the star topology is still prone to failure - albeit reduced. For
example, if the centralised hardware that connects devices fails, these
devices will no longer be able to send or receive data. Thankfully, these
centralised hardware devices are often robust.

Bus Topology

This type of connection relies upon a single connection which is known as

a backbone cable. This type of topology is similar to the leaf off of a tree in
the sense that devices (leaves) stem from where the branches are on this
cable.

Because all data destined for each device travels along the same cable, it
is very quickly prone to becoming slow and bottlenecked if devices within
the topology are simultaneously requesting data. This bottleneck also
results in very difficult troubleshooting because it quickly becomes difficult
to identify which device is experiencing issues with data all travelling along
the same route.

However, with this said, bus topologies are one of the easier and more
cost-efficient topologies to set up because of their expenses, such as
cabling or dedicated networking equipment used to connect these devices.

Lastly, another disadvantage of the bus topology is that there is little

redundancy in place in case of failures. This disadvantage is because there
is a single point of failure along the backbone cable. If this cable were to
break, devices can no longer receive or transmit data along the bus.

Ring Topology

The ring topology (also known as token topology) boasts some similarities.
Devices such as computers are connected directly to each other to form a
loop, meaning that there is little cabling required and less dependence on
dedicated hardware such as within a star topology.

A ring topology works by sending data across the loop until it reaches the
destined device, using other devices along the loop to forward the data.
Interestingly, a device will only send received data from another device in
this topology if it does not have any to send itself. If the device happens to
have data to send, it will send its own data first before sending data from
another device.

Because there is only one direction for data to travel across this topology, it
is fairly easy to troubleshoot any faults that arise. However, this is a double-
edged sword because it isn't an efficient way of data travelling across a
network, as it may have to visit many multiple devices first before reaching
the intended device.

Lastly, ring topologies are less prone to bottlenecks, such as within a bus
topology, as large amounts of traffic are not travelling across the network at
any one time. The design of this topology does, however, mean that a fault
such as cut cable, or broken device will result in the entire networking
breaking.

What is a Switch?

Switches are dedicated devices within a network that are designed to

aggregate multiple other devices such as computers, printers, or any other
networking-capable device using ethernet. These various devices plug into
a switch's port. Switches are usually found in larger networks such as
businesses, schools, or similar-sized networks, where there are many
devices to connect to the network. Switches can connect a large number of
devices by having ports of 4, 8, 16, 24, 32, and 64 for devices to plug into.

Switches are much more efficient than their lesser counterpart

(hubs/repeaters). Switches keep track of what device is connected to which
port. This way, when they receive a packet, instead of repeating that packet
to every port like a hub would do, it just sends it to the intended target, thus
reducing network traffic.
Both Switches and Routers can be connected to one another. The ability to
do this increases the redundancy (the reliability) of a network by adding
multiple paths for data to take. If one path goes down, another can be
used. Whilst this may reduce the overall performance of a network because
packets have to take longer to travel, there is no downtime -- a small price
to pay considering the alternative.

What is a Router?

It's a router's job to connect networks and pass data between them. It does
this by using routing (hence the name router!).

Routing is the label given to the process of data traveling across networks.
Routing involves creating a path between networks so that this data can be
successfully delivered.

Routing is useful when devices are connected by many paths, such as in

the example diagram below.
Subnetting

As we've previously discussed throughout the module so far,

Networks can be found in all shapes and sizes - ranging from
small to large. Subnetting is the term given to splitting up a
network into smaller, miniature networks within itself. Think of it as
slicing up a cake for your friends. There's only a certain amount of
cake to go around, but everybody wants a piece. Subnetting is
you deciding who gets what slice & reserving such a slice of this
metaphorical cake.Take a business, for example; You will have
different departments such as:

1. Accounting
2. Finance
3. Human Resources
Whilst you know where to send information in real life to the
correct department, networks need to know as well. Network
administrators use subnetting to categorise and assign specific
parts of a network to reflect this.

Subnetting is achieved by splitting up the number of hosts that

can fit within the network, represented by a number called a
subnet mask. Let's refer back to our diagram from the first room in
this module:

As we can recall, an IP address is made up of four sections called

octets. The same goes for a subnet mask which is also
represented as a number of four bytes (32 bits), ranging from 0 to
255 (0-255).

Subnets use IP addresses in three different ways:

● Identify the network address

● Identify the host address
● Identify the default gateway

Let's split these three up to understand their purposes into the

table below:
Type Purpose Explanation Example

This address
For example, a
identifies the
device with the IP
start of the
address of
Network actual network
192.168.1.100 will 192.168.1.0
Address and is used to
be on the network
identify a
identified by
network's
192.168.1.0
existence.

An IP address For example, a

here is used to device will have
Host
identify a the network 192.168.1.100
Address
device on the address of
subnet 192.168.1.1

The default Any data that

gateway needs to go to a
address is a device that isn't on
special address the same network
Default assigned to a (i.e. isn't on
device on the 192.168.1.0) will 192.168.1.254
Gateway
network that is be sent to this
capable of device. These
sending devices can use
information to any host address
another but usually use
 either the first or
last host address
network
in a network (.1
or .254)

Now, in small networks such as at home, you will be on one

subnet as there is an unlikely chance that you need more than
254 devices connected at one time.However, places such as
businesses and offices will have much more of these devices
(PCs, printers, cameras and sensors), where subnetting takes
place.

Benefits

1. Efficiency
2. Security
3. Full control

We'll come on to explore exactly how subnetting provides these

benefits at a later date; however, for now, all we need to
understand is the security element to it. Let's take the typical café
on the street. This cafe will have two networks:

One for employees, cash registers, and other devices for the
facility One for the general public to use as a hotspot

Subnetting allows you to separate these two use cases from each
other whilst having the benefits of a connection to larger networks
such as the Internet.

ARP

Recalling from our previous tasks that devices can have two
identifiers: A MAC address and an IP address, the Address
Resolution Protocol or ARP for short, is the technology that is
responsible for allowing devices to identify themselves on a
network.

Simply, ARP allows a device to associate its MAC address with

an IP address on the network. Each device on a network will keep
a log of the MAC addresses associated with other devices.

When devices wish to communicate with another, they will send a

broadcast to the entire network searching for the specific device.
Devices can use ARP to find the MAC address (and therefore the
physical identifier) of a device for communication.

How does ARP Work?

Each device within a network has a ledger to store information on,

which is called a cache. In the context of ARP, this cache stores
the identifiers of other devices on the network.
In order to map these two identifiers together (IP address and
MAC address), ARP sends two types of messages:

1. ARP Request
2. ARP Reply

When an ARP request is sent, a message is broadcasted on the

network to other devices asking, "What is the mac address that
owns this IP address?" When the other devices receive that
message, they will only respond if they own that IP address and
will send an ARP reply with its MAC address. The requesting
device can now remember this mapping and store it in its ARP
cache for future use.This process is illustrated in the diagram
below:

DHCP

IP addresses can be assigned either manually, by entering them

physically into a device, or automatically and most commonly by
using a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server.
When a device connects to a network, if it has not already been
manually assigned an IP address, it sends out a request (DHCP
Discover) to see if any DHCP servers are on the network. The
DHCP server then replies back with an IP address the device
could use (DHCP Offer). The device then sends a reply
confirming it wants the offered IP Address (DHCP Request), and
then lastly, the DHCP server sends a reply acknowledging this
has been completed, and the device can start using the IP
Address (DHCP ACK).
OSI Model

The OSI model (or Open Systems Interconnection Model) is an

essential model used in networking. This critical model provides
a framework dictating how all networked devices will send,
receive and interpret data.

One of the main benefits of the OSI model is that devices can
have different functions and designs on a network while
communicating with other devices. Data sent across a network
that follows the uniformity of the OSI model can be understood by
other devices.

The OSI model consists of seven layers which are illustrated in

the diagram below. Each layer has a different set of
responsibilities and is arranged from Layer 7 to Layer 1.

At every individual layer that data travels through, specific

processes take place, and pieces of information are added to this
data, which is what we'll come to discuss in the upcoming tasks
within this room. However, for now, we only need to understand
that this process is called encapsulation and what the OSI model
looks like in the diagram below:
("All People Seem To Need Data Processing")
Physical

This layer is one of the easiest layers to grasp. Put simply,

this layer references the physical components of the hardware
used in networking and is the lowest layer that you will find.
Devices use electrical signals to transfer data between each other
in a binary numbering system (1's and 0's).

Data Link

The data link layer focuses on the physical addressing of the

transmission. It receives a packet from the network layer
(including the IP address for the remote computer) and adds in
the physical MAC (Media Access Control) address of the
receiving endpoint. Inside every network-enabled computer is a
Network Interface Card (NIC) which comes with a unique MAC
address to identify it.

MAC addresses are set by the manufacturer and literally burnt

into the card; they can’t be changed – although they can be
spoofed. When information is sent across a network, it’s actually
the physical address that is used to identify where exactly to send
the information.

Additionally, it’s also the job of the data link layer to present the
data in a format suitable for transmission.

Network

The third layer of the OSI model (network layer) is where the
magic of routing & re-assembly of data takes place (from these
small chunks to the larger chunk). Firstly, routing simply
determines the most optimal path in which these chunks of data
should be sent.

Whilst some protocols at this layer determine exactly what is the

"optimal" path that data should take to reach a device, we should
only know about their existence at this stage of the networking
module. Briefly, these protocols include OSPF (Open Shortest
Path First) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol). The factors
that decide what route is taken is decided by the following:
What path is the shortest? I.e. has the least amount of devices
that the packet needs to travel across.

What path is the most reliable? I.e. have packets been lost on that
path before?

Which path has the faster physical connection? I.e. is one path
using a copper connection (slower) or a fibre (considerably
faster)?

At this layer, everything is dealt with via IP addresses such as

192.168.1.100. Devices such as routers capable of delivering
packets using IP addresses are known as Layer 3 devices —
because they are capable of working at the third layer of the OSI
model.

Transport
Layer 4 of the OSI model plays a vital part in transmitting data across a network and
can be a little bit difficult to grasp. When data is sent between devices, it follows one of
two different protocols that are decided based upon several factors:
● TCP
● UDP

Let's begin with TCP. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Potentially hinted by
the name, this protocol is designed with reliability and guarantee in mind. This protocol
reserves a constant connection between the two devices for the amount of time it takes
for the data to be sent and received.

Not only this, but TCP incorporates error checking into its design. Error checking is how
TCP can guarantee that data sent from the small chunks in the session layer (layer 5)
has then been received and reassembled in the same order.

Let's summarise the advantages and disadvantages of TCP in the table below:
Advantages of TCP Disadvantages of TCP

Requires a reliable connection between the two

devices. If one small chunk of data is not
Guarantees the accuracy of data.
received, then the entire chunk of data cannot be
used.

Capable of synchronising two A slow connection can bottleneck another device

devices to prevent each other from as the connection will be reserved on the
being flooded with data. receiving computer the whole time.

TCP is significantly slower than UDP because

Performs a lot more processes for
more work has to be done by the devices using
reliability.
this protocol.

TCP is used for situations such as file sharing, internet browsing or sending an email.
This usage is because these services require the data to be accurate and complete (no
good having half a file!).

In the diagram below, we can see how a picture of a cat is broken down into small
pieces of data (known as packets) from the "webserver", where the "computer" re-
constructs the picture of the cat into the correct order.

Session
Once data has been correctly translated or formatted from the presentation layer (layer
6), the session layer (layer 5) will begin to create and maintain the connection to other
computer for which the data is destined. When a connection is established, a session is
created. Whilst this connection is active, so is the session.
The session layer is also responsible for closing the connection if it hasn't been used in
a while or if it is lost. Additionally, a session can contain "checkpoints," where if the data
is lost, only the newest pieces of data are required to be sent, saving bandwidth.

What is worthy of noting is that sessions are unique — meaning that data cannot travel
over different sessions, but in fact, only across each session instead.

Presentation
Layer 6 of the OSI model is the layer in which standardisation starts to take place.
Because software developers can develop any software such as an email client
differently, the data still needs to be handled in the same way — no matter how the
software works.
This layer acts as a translator for data to and from the application layer (layer 7). The
receiving computer will also understand data sent to a computer in one format destined
for in another format. For example, when you send an email, the other user may have
another email client to you, but the contents of the email will still need to display the
same.

Security features such as data encryption (like HTTPS when visiting a secure site)
occur at this layer.

Application
The application layer of the OSI model is the layer that you will be most familiar with.
This familiarity is because the application layer is the layer in which protocols and rules
are in place to determine how the user should interact with data sent or received.
Everyday applications such as email clients, browsers, or file server browsing software
such as FileZilla provide a friendly, Graphical User Interface (GUI) for users to interact
with data sent or received. Other protocols include DNS (Domain Name System), which
is how website addresses are translated into IP addresses.