Explain each slide in detail.

(lecture view)
Certainly! Below is a detailed lecture-style explanation of the slides from your "Unit-1
CPU Organization" presentation. Each main point is expanded and explained as if being
delivered in a classroom or lecture setting.

1. Introduction: BASIC CPU ORGANIZATION

Good morning, everyone.

Today we’ll discuss the basic organization of the CPU.
We'll see

how data moves through the CPU,

what different components it has,
and how each part contributes to executing instructions in a computer.

2. Functional Units

Let’s start with the functional units in a computer system.

 A functional unit (also called as an execution unit) is a part of the CPU that -
performs the operations and calculations required by a program.

 A general-purpose computer consists of five main units:

a. Input Unit

b. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

c. Memory Unit

d. Arithmetic & Logical Unit (ALU)

e. Control Unit

f. Output Unit

Each of these units plays a specific role in computation and data processing.

3. Input Unit

 The Input Unit comprises the devices and mechanisms by which data and
programs enter the computer.
  Common examples are the keyboard, mouse, trackballs, microphones, and so on.

 These devices convert human-friendly data or signals into a form understandable by

the computer.

4. Memory Unit

 The Memory Unit stores all the data and instructions needed for processing.

 Memory is broadly classified into:

o Primary Storage: This is fast but limited in capacity. Examples include RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory). Cache memory is
also part of this, providing ultra-fast access by sitting closest to the CPU.

 Data is stored as bits, grouped into words (16-64 bits per word).

 Each word has a unique address used to access it.

 Advantages: Quick access, small in size.

 Disadvantages: Expensive, holds less data than secondary storage.

o Secondary Storage: Used for storing large quantities of data over time.

 Examples include magnetic disks (hard drives), magnetic tapes, and

optical disks (CDs/DVDs).

 While slower than primary memory, secondary storage is cheaper and

holds much more information.

5. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

 The ALU is the part of the CPU that performs all arithmetic and logical operations.

 Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.

 Logical Operations: AND, OR, NOT, etc.

 Every operation your computer performs—be it a calculation, comparison, or

manipulation—ultimately happens in the ALU.

6. Output Unit

 Once the data is processed, the output unit delivers the results to the user in a
form they can interpret.
  The most common output device is the monitor (screen), but other examples are
printers, speakers, etc.

 Output devices convert information from computer format to human format.

7. Control Unit

 The Control Unit is the “orchestra conductor” of the CPU.

 It coordinates all the activities of the computer by sending control signals and
timing signals to various components.

 These signals ensure that operations occur in the right order and at the right time,
regulating how data moves throughout the system.

8. Data Paths in the CPU

 The CPU is split into two main internal sections:

o Data Section (or Data Path): Contains registers and the ALU.

o Control Section: Sends control signals to the data path.

 Local Buses connect the components inside the CPU for quick transfer of data,
instructions, and addresses.

 Data Movement:

o Internal: Registers to registers, or between ALU and registers.

o External: Transfer between CPU and memory or I/O via the system bus.

9. Types of Internal Data Movements

There are three main ways to organize how data is moved internally among registers and
the ALU:

1. One-Bus Organization

2. Two-Bus Organization

3. Three-Bus Organization (not detailed here)

We’ll focus on the first two.

One-Bus Organization
  One-bus architecture means a single shared data path exists for all internal
transfers.

 This limits data flow—at most, one transfer can occur per clock cycle.

 Thus, to fetch two operands, two cycles are needed.

 Pros: Simple and cheap to implement.

 Cons: Slow because operations that could happen in parallel, must occur
sequentially.

Two-Bus Organization

 Two buses mean more data can flow in the same time.

o For example, two operands can be fetched simultaneously for the ALU.

 Registers are connected to both buses, so data can be read from two different
registers at the same time.

 Sometimes, one bus is for moving data into registers and the other for moving out.

 This architecture is faster but slightly more complex and expensive.

10. CPU Registers

What are Registers?

 Registers are the fastest memory elements and reside inside the CPU.

 Used as temporary storage to hold data, addresses, and instructions being

processed.

 A register can hold a word of data with each flip-flop storing a single bit.

Working of the CPU: The Machine Cycle

The CPU carries out a series of basic operations with each instruction, known as the
machine cycle:

1. Fetching: Reading the instruction from memory.

2. Decoding: Figuring out what the instruction means.

3. Executing: Performing the action.

 4. Storing: Saving the result, if needed.

This process repeats continuously as programs run.

11. Types of Registers

Common registers include:

1. Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched
and executed. It increments after each instruction.

2. Instruction Register (IR): Holds the actual instruction fetched from memory,
ready to be decoded/executed.

3. Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address in memory for ongoing
read/write operations.

4. Memory Buffer Register (MBR/MDR): Holds actual data/instructions being

transferred to/from memory.

5. Accumulator (AC): Temporarily holds results of operations performed by the ALU.

6. Stack Pointer Register (SPR): Manages the stack—a special memory area used
for function calls, storing items in a last-in-first-out (LIFO) way.

12. Program Counter (PC)

 The PC is crucial for sequential instruction execution.

 Every time an instruction is fetched, the PC points to it. Afterward, it increases to

point to the next instruction.

13. Instruction Register (IR)

 IR keeps the current instruction for the CPU to decode and execute.

 It acts as a buffer during the execution of instructions fetched from memory.

14. Memory Address Register (MAR)

 The MAR holds the address of the memory location to be accessed for a read or a
write operation.

15. Memory Buffer Register (MBR/MDR)

  The MBR contains the data being transferred to or from memory.

 For example, if an instruction requires data from memory, the data first comes into
the MBR, then goes to an appropriate register or the ALU.

16. Accumulator (AC)

 The Accumulator temporarily stores intermediate results of the calculations by the

ALU.

17. Stack Pointer Register (SPR)

 The Stack Pointer Register facilitates stack operations.

 The stack structure allows pushing (storing) and popping (retrieving) data in last-in-
first-out (LIFO) order, often used for function calls and local variables.

Summary
 The CPU is composed of multiple functional units working in tandem to fetch,
decode, execute, and store instructions and data.

 Various registers and memory structures help organize and speed up the
processing.

 Data movement is orchestrated by buses internally and externally, and improved

organization (multi-bus systems) leads to faster computation.

 Understanding this structure is foundational for deeper learning in computer

architecture and organization.

If you need more details with diagrams or more examples for each section, just ask!