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Science Learner’s Material Unit 1

Earth and Space - Overview

This unit transitions from Grade 9's volcano lessons to a deeper exploration of plate
tectonics. It aims to explain the presence of volcanoes and other geological features.
This module uses skills like graphing, measuring, analyzing, and interpreting data to
understand the theory of plate tectonics.

The expected outcomes are to:

Identify types of plate boundaries due to lithospheric movements.

Relate lithospheric movement to geologic changes.
Explain processes along the boundaries.

Unit 1 MODULE 1: PLATE TECTONICS

Introduction
The module introduces the theory of "Plate Tectonics" to understand the Earth's
changing features, such as mountains, volcanoes, and earthquake belts.

Key question to be answered at the end of this module:

What is the relationship among the locations of volcanoes, earthquake

epicenters, and mountain ranges?

Learning Competencies/Objectives
By the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the distribution of active volcanoes, earthquake epicenters, and

major mountain belts.
2. Describe the different types of plate boundaries.
3. Explain the different processes that occur along the plate boundaries.

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Pre-Assessment

This pre-assessment will test your knowledge on topics such as:

Arrival times of seismic waves

Earthquake epicenter determination
Plate tectonics

What is Plate Tectonics?

Earth's lithosphere consists of the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The crust
is made of solid rocks like sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks, with an
average density of 2.8 g/cm3 and thickness ranging from 5 to 50 km. It's thickest in
areas with young mountains and thinnest along the ocean floor.

There are two kinds of crust:

Continental crust: Thicker but less dense.

Oceanic crust: Thinner but denser.

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According to the plate tectonics model, the lithosphere is broken into numerous
segments called plates.

As shown in the map of plate boundaries, there are seven relatively large plates and
a number of smaller ones, including the Philippine plate. The plates move very
slowly but constantly, and this movement is called tectonics; thus the theory of
moving lithospheric plates is called plate tectonics.

Before studying plate tectonics further, let's define what earthquakes are, and the
waves that it releases:

Earthquake: releases three types of seismic waves; Primary P − waves ,

Secondary S − waves, and Long surface waves L − waves.

The first two travel into the Earth’s interior while the last one on the surface. These
waves travel at different velocities; thus, do not arrive at a seismic recording station
at the same time. The farther the recording instrument is from the focus, the greater
the difference in arrival times of the first P-wave compared to the first S-wave. The
difference in the arrival time will tell us the distance of the earthquake’s focus from
the seismic recording station.

If we have at least three recording stations that can tell how far away from them the
earthquake occurred, the epicenter can be determined using the triangulation
method.

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Activity 1: Find the Center

Objective: Locate the epicenter of an earthquake using the triangulation method.

Materials:

Hypothetical records of earthquake waves

Philippine map
Drawing compass and ruler

Procedure:

1. Study the data showing the difference in the arrival time of P-wave and S-wave
on three seismic recording stations.

Recording Time difference in the arrival time of Distance of epicenter

station P-wave and S-wave seconds from the station km

Batangas 44.8
Puerto
32
Princesa
Davao 38.4

2. Compute the distance of the epicenter from each of the stations using this
formula:

d = T dx100km/8seconds

Where:

d = distance km
Td = time difference in the arrival time of P-wave and S-wave seconds

3. Choose one of the recording stations and measure the computed distance on
the map scale thescaleof themapinF igure3is1.5cm : 200km. Set your compass
for that computed distance.

4. Center your compass on the station you have chosen. Draw a circle.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the rest of the stations. You should get three circles
that intersect or nearly intersect at a point. This intersection is the epicenter.

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If the earthquake took place at a far greater distance, seismologists use the distance-
time graph similar to the figure below in determining the location of the epicenter.

Activity 2: Let’s Mark the Boundaries

Objectives:

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Describe the distribution of active volcanoes, earthquake epicenters, and major

mountain belts.
Determine the scientific basis for dividing the Lithospheric plates.

Materials:

Figure 5: Map of earthquake distribution

Figure 6: Map of active volcanoes of the world
Figure 7: Mountain ranges of the world
2 pieces plastic sheet used for book cover, same size as a book page
Marking pens twodif f erentcolors

Procedure:

1. Study Figure 5 showing the earthquake distribution around the world. Trace the
approximate locations of several earthquake “clusters” using a marking pen on
one of the plastic sheets.

2. Study the map of active volcanoes in Figure 6.

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3. On the second plastic sheet, sketch the approximate locations of several

volcanoes using a marking pen.
4. Place the earthquake plastic sheet over the volcano plastic sheet.
5. Study Figure 7, the orange portions indicate mountain ranges of the world.

The places on Earth where most of the earthquakes originated or some mountains
and volcanoes were formed mark the boundaries of each lithospheric plate. Each
plate is slowly moving relative to each other, causing geologic events to happen
along their boundaries.

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Types of Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are where deformation of the lithosphere happens, greatly
impacting both the environment and us.

There are three distinct types of plate boundaries, differentiated by their movement:

Divergent Boundary: Plates move apart, creating a zone of tension.

Convergent Plate Boundary: Plates collide.
Transform Fault Boundary: Plates slide or grind past each other without
diverging or converging.

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Activity 3: Head-On Collision

Part A: Converging Continental Plate and Oceanic Plate

Objectives:

Explain the processes that occur along convergent boundaries.

Determine the consequences of colliding plates.

Procedure:

1. Study Figure 10 showing a cross-sectional diagram of plates that are

converging, and answer the questions that follow.

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In the collision of a continental edge with an oceanic edge:

Subduction process: The denser oceanic crust P lateA bends towards the
mantle. Since the mantle is hotter than the crust, the subducted crust
melts forming magma.

Part B: Convergence of Two Oceanic Plates

Procedure:

1. Study Figure 11. It shows a cross-section of two converging oceanic plates.

2. Using your knowledge gained from the previous activity, identify the geologic
events or features resulting from this collision.

Like the first type of convergent boundaries discussed earlier, converging oceanic
plates will cause formation of trenches, and these trenches will become sources of
earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes, especially the stronger ones, can generate
tsunamis.

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Tsunami: The Japanese term for “harbor wave,” tsunami is a series of

ocean waves with very long wavelengths typicallyhundredsof kilometers
caused by large-scale disturbances of the ocean.

The leading edge of the subducted plate will eventually reach the mantle causing it
to melt and turn into magma. The molten material will rise to the surface creating a
volcanic island arc parallel to the trench.

Volcanic island arc: chain of volcanoes position in an arc shape.

Many parts of the Philippines originated from oceanic-oceanic convergence. Majority

of the islands in the Philippine archipelago are considered as part of the Philippine
Mobile Belt.

The Philippine Mobile Belt eventually collided with the Sundaland block which
explains the presence of trenches, such as the Manila-Negros-Cotabato Trench
System, and the Sulu Trench, as shown in Figure 14.

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Aside from the formation of trenches and troughs, the downward movement of
oceanic lithospheres underneath the Philippine Archipelago creates active volcanic
chains.

Part C: Two Continental Plates Converging

Procedure:

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Materials:

Modeling clay
2 blocks of wood
Paper
1. On a piece of paper, flatten the modeling clay with the palm of your hand.
2. Cut the clay into four strips; each strip should be 0.5 cm thick, 4 cm wide, and
12 cm long.
3. Put 4 strips one on top of the other.
4. Place a block of wood at each end of the clay strips and slowly push the two
blocks together. Observe what happens to the clay.

When two continental plates converge, a collision zone is formed. Subduction

ceases, with no trench, volcano, or island arc created. Instead, a large group of tall
mountains called a mountain range is formed.

The Himalayas are a result of the collision between India and Eurasia about 40 to 50
million years ago. Collision of continental plates is also associated with shallow
earthquake activities.

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Activity 4: Going Separate Ways

Objectives:

Explain the processes that occur along divergent boundaries.

Determine the results of plates that are moving apart.

Materials: photographs of Rift Valleys and Oceanic Ridges

Procedure:

1. Analyze the photographs of rift valleys topmostpictures and oceanic ridges

below, and answer the questions that follow.

Formation of rift valleys and oceanic ridges are indications that the crust is spreading
or splitting apart. In this case, the plates are forming divergent plate boundaries
wherein they tend to move apart.

Most divergent boundaries are situated along underwater mountain ranges called
oceanic ridges. As the plates separate, new materials from the mantle ooze up to fill
the gap, cooling to produce new ocean floor.

The Mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge is an example of spreading center which causes the
divergence of the South American plate and the African plate.

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When a spreading center develops within a continent, the crust may break into
several segments, leading to the formation of down faulted valleys called rift valleys.
The rift valley increases its length and depth as the spreading continues and
develops into a linear sea, similar to the Red Sea today.

Activity 5: Slide and Shake

Objective: determine the effect of transform-fault boundary on the Earth’s crust.

Materials:

Four blocks of wood

Two hook screws
Sandpaper

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Procedure:

1. Attach a hook screw on one end of Blocks 2 and 3.

2. Arrange the blocks as shown in the illustration below.
3. Place sandpaper on the side of the blocks where they all meet.
4. Slowly pull Blocks 2 and 3 on its hook screw to the direction indicated by the
arrow. Observe the motion of the blocks.

Most transform faults join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge. The presence of a
ridge is an indication of diverging plates, and as the plates diverge between the two
segments of the mid-ocean ridge, the adjacent slabs of crust are grinding past each
other.

Although most transform faults are located within the ocean basins, there are a few
that cut through the continental crust. An example of this is the San Andreas fault.

The immediate concerns about transform fault boundaries are earthquake activities
triggered by movements along the fault system.

Activity 6: Drop It Like It’s “Hot Spot”

Objective: Relate hot spot with plate tectonics

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Materials:

Alcohol lamp
Test tube
Test tube holder
Bond paper 2sheets
Match
Water

Procedure:

1. Attach one end of the bond paper to the end of another bond paper.
2. Fill 3/4 of the test tube with water and heat it over an alcohol lamp.
3. While waiting for the water to boil, place the paper on top of the test tube. Be
sure that the two are in contact.
4. Once the water starts boiling and fumes are coming out, hold the paper in the
same position for the next 10 seconds.
5. After 10 seconds, move the bond paper very slowly and horizontally by 10
centimeters. See to it that the paper and test tube are still in contact.
6. Repeat step 5 after another 10 seconds and observe.

This activity gives you an idea how tectonic activities could also happen within a
plate and not just along the boundaries. This idea started when extensive mapping of
seafloor volcanoes in the Pacific revealed a chain of volcanic structures extending
from the Hawaiian Islands to Midway Islands.

Scientists suggested that there is a source of molten materials from the mantle called
mantle plume that formed the volcanic island chains. As the Pacific plate moves,
different parts of it will be on top of the mantle plume to receive the molten
materials, thus creating the volcanic islands.

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Continuing plate movement eventually carries the island beyond the hot spot, cutting
it off from the magma source, and volcanism ceases. As one island volcano becomes
extinct, another develops over the hot spot, and the cycle is repeated. This process of
volcano growth and death, over many millions of years, has left a long trail of
volcanic islands and seamounts across the Pacific Ocean floor.

Performance Task
Prepare an emergency kit for your family to prepare for disasters such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis.

The scoring rubric below will be used in assessing your kit.

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1 pt. 2 pts. 3 pts. 4 pts.

None of the A few of the At least 10 items

At least 8 items are
items are items are clearly are clearly
Survival clearly necessary
necessary for necessary for necessary for
Kit Items for survival during
survival during or survival during or survival during or
or after a disaster.
after a disaster. after a disaster. after a disaster.
None of the A few of the At least 8 of the At least 10 items
items are labeled items are labeled items are labeled are labeled
properly and properly and a properly and a properly and a
Labels
there is no reason for each reason for each reason for each
and Uses
reason for item is included item is included on item is stated on
including it in the on a separate a separate sheet of a separate sheet
survival kit. sheet of paper. paper. of paper.
The kit is not The kit is The kit is neatly
organized. It somewhat The kit is done well organized and
looks like the organized and it with some labeled as
Neatness student threw it looks like the organization and necessary. Much
and Effort together at the student ran out of labeling. It appears time and effort
last minute time or didn’t take the student worked were put into
without much care of the hard on it. creating this
care. project. project.

V. Summative Assessment
Test your understanding of the concepts discussed in this module with these
questions.

VI. Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
The lithosphere is broken into numerous segments called plates.
Each plate is slowly but continuously moving.
The motion of the plates forms three types of plate boundaries: Divergent,
Convergent, and Transform fault boundaries.
Divergent boundaries form when plates move apart, creating a zone of tension.
Convergent boundaries are present when two plates collide.
Transform faults are characterized by plates that are sliding past each other.
Plate tectonics give rise to several geologic features and events.

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Glossary of Terms
Continental volcanic arc: mountains formed in part by igneous activity
associated with subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent

Convergent boundary: a boundary in which two plates move toward each

other, causing one of the slabs of the lithosphere to subduct beneath an
overriding plate

Crust: the outer portion of the earth

Continental Crust: the thick part of the Earth’s crust, not located under
the ocean

Oceanic Crust: the thin part of the Earth’s crust located under the oceans

Divergent boundary: a region where the crustal plates are moving apart

Earthquake: vibration of Earth due to the rapid release of energy

Fault: a break in a rock along which movement has occurred

Fracture: any break in a rock in which no significant movement has taken

place

Geology: the science that studies Earth

Hot spot: a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of creating

magma

Magma: a mass of molten rock formed at depth, including dissolved gases

and crystals.

Mid-ocean ridge: a continuous mass of land with long width and height
on the ocean floor.

Plates: rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit

Plate tectonics: a theory which suggests that Earth’s crust is made up of

plates that interact in various ways, thus producing earthquakes,
mountains, volcanoes, and other geologic features

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Module 2: The Earth’s Interior

I. Introduction
While we've explored celestial bodies millions of miles away, reaching the center of
our own planet remains elusive.

In Module 1, we explored plate boundaries and their role in shaping Earth's surface.
Now, we'll delve into the connection between these processes and our planet's
internal structure.

This module aims to help you visualize and understand the Earth's internal structure
and composition, providing scientific knowledge to describe its layers and understand
their characteristics.

This module also aims to help you develop your critical thinking skills to have a
deeper understanding about the planet where you live.

Key questions to be answered at the end of this module:

1. How do the structure and composition of the Earth cause geologic activities and
physical changes?
2. What are the possible causes of the lithospheric plate movements?
3. What proves the movement of the tectonic plates?

II. Learning Competencies/Objectives

In this module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the internal structure of the Earth.

2. Discuss the possible causes of plate movement.
3. Enumerate the lines of evidence that support plate movement.

Studying the Earth's Interior

Scientists analyze Earth's interior using seismic waves, as mechanical probes are
impossible due to heat and pressure.

Seismic Waves

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Seismic waves are vibrations caused by the rapid release of energy, often from
slippage along faults in the Earth's crust. These waves radiate in all directions from
the focus and are recorded by seismographs.

Types of Seismic Waves

There are two main types of seismic waves:

Body waves: Travel through the Earth's inner layers.

Surface waves: Travel along the Earth's surface.

Surface Waves

Surface waves arrive after P and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the
Earth.

The image depicts two types of

surface waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves.

Love waves: Named after A.E.H. Love, they move the ground in a side-to-side
horizontal motion, causing the ground to twist.
Rayleigh waves: Named after John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, they roll
along the ground like a wave across a lake, moving the ground up and down or
side to side. These waves cause most of the shaking felt during an earthquake.

Body Waves

Body waves travel through the Earth's inner layers. There are two types of body
waves: P-waves primarywaves and S-waves secondarywaves.

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️P and S-waves
P-wave P rimarywave: A pulse of energy that travels quickly through the Earth
and through liquids.
Also called compressional waves.
Travel by particles vibrating parallel to the direction the wave travels.
Travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
S-wave Secondarywaveorshearwave: A pulse of energy that travels slower
than a P-wave through Earth and solids.
Move as shear or transverse waves.
S-waves cannot travel through any liquid medium.

The image depicts the differences

between longitudinal P-waves and lateral S-waves.

Studying Earth's Interior with Seismic Waves

Scientists study the Earth's internal structure by measuring the time it takes for
seismic waves to reach detecting stations from the epicenter of an earthquake. The
epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus. P-waves are
always detected first because they travel faster than S-waves.

In 1909, Andrija Mohorovičić discovered that the velocity of seismic waves changes
and increases about 50 kilometers below the Earth’s surface. This led to the idea that
there is a difference in density between the Earth’s crust and the mantle. The
boundary between these two layers is called the Mohorovičić discontinuity, or Moho.

Shadow Zones

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P-wave shadow zone: Exists from 103° to 142°. This indicates something
inside the Earth bends the P-waves, suggesting a core composed of a different
material than the mantle. This boundary is called the Gutenberg discontinuity.
S-wave shadow zone: S-waves are not detected beyond 103°, indicating that
S-waves do not travel throughout the entire Earth's body. Because S-waves
cannot travel through liquids, this suggests that the outer core is liquid.

In 1936, Inge Lehmann discovered a new region of seismic reflection within the core,
indicating that the Earth has a core within a core. The outer core is liquid
basedontheS − waveshadow, and the inner core is solid with a different density.

Earth's Layers Thickness

Layer Thickness in kilometers

Crust 40
Mantle 2900
Outer core 2200
Inner core 1278

Composition of Earth's Interior

The Earth's composition provides clues about its past and changes over 4.6 billion
years. The layers include the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The Crust
The crust is the thinnest, outermost layer of the Earth, extending about 32 kilometers
below the surface. Underneath mountains, it can extend to 72 kilometers.

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The image depicts a geological

diagram illustrating the interaction between an oceanic plate being subducted
beneath a continental plate.

It is subdivided into two regions:

Continental crust: Mainly made up of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium,

sodium, and potassium. It is 35-40 kilometers thick and made of less dense
rocks like granite. Found under land masses.
Oceanic crust: Around 7-10 kilometers thick, with an average of 8 kilometers. It
is found under the ocean floor and made of dense rocks such as basalt. The
oceanic crust is heavier than the continental crust.

The crust consists of two layers:

The upper layer is composed of granite and is only found in the continental
crust.
Below the granite is a layer made mainly of basalt, found under both the
continents and the oceans.

Elements in the Earth's crust

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Element Percentage

Oxygen 46.60
Silicon 27.72
Aluminum 8.13
Iron 5.00
Calcium 3.63
Sodium 2.83
Potassium 2.59
Magnesium 2.09
Titanium 0.40
Hydrogen 0.14

The Mantle
Beneath the crust is the mantle, which extends to about 2900 kilometers from the
Earth’s surface. It makes up about 80% of the Earth’s total volume and about 68% of
its total mass.

The mantle is mainly made up of silicate rocks and is solid. It is mostly made of the
elements silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium. The lower part of the mantle consists
of more iron than the upper part, making it denser. The temperature and pressure
increase with depth, allowing the solid rock to flow slowly.

The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle form a rigid shell called the
lithosphere, which is about 50 to 100 kilometers thick. These lithospheric plates
move relative to each other.

Beneath the lithosphere lies the soft, weak layer known as the asthenosphere, made
of hot molten material with a temperature of about 300 – 800°C. The upper 150
kilometers of the asthenosphere has a temperature enough to facilitate a small
amount of melting, and make it capable to flow, which facilitates the movement of
the lithospheric plates. The lithosphere, with the continents on top, is carried by the
flowing asthenosphere.

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The image depicts a diagram of the

Earth's internal structure, divided into distinct layers.

The Core
The core is subdivided into two layers: the inner and the outer core.

Outer core: 2900 kilometers below the Earth’s surface. It is 2250 kilometers
thick and made up of iron and nickel. The temperature in the outer core reaches
up to 2000°C, causing iron and nickel to melt.
Inner core: Made up of solid iron and nickel and has a radius of 1300
kilometers. Its temperature reaches about 5000°C. The extreme temperature
could have molten the iron and nickel but it is believed to have solidified as a
result of pressure freezing.

The Earth's magnetic field strengthens the idea that the Earth's outer core is
molten/liquid. The outer core, mainly made up of iron and nickel, moves around the
solid inner core, creating Earth’s magnetism.

The inner core must have a density about 14 times that of water. Iron is three times
denser than crustal rocks, which meets the required density.

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Our Dynamic Earth

Continental Drift
In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed that about 200 million years ago, the continents
were once one large landmass called Pangaea, which means “All Earth”.

The image presents a

visual representation of the evolution of Pangaea, a supercontinent that existed on
Earth.

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Pangaea started to break into two smaller supercontinents called Laurasia and
Gondwanaland during the Jurassic Period. These smaller supercontinents broke into
the continents, which separated and drifted apart.

Wegener's evidence included:

The fit of the edges of continents on opposite sides of the South Atlantic.
Distribution of fossils in different continents.
Rock features.
Ancient climates.

Continental Jigsaw Puzzle

The shapes of the continents fit together, such as South America and Africa, and
India, Antarctica, and Australia. Eurasia and North America complete the puzzle in
the north.

Evidence from Fossils

Fossils of the extinct plant Glossopteris were found in 250 million-year-old rocks in
Southern Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica. The large seeds of this plant could
not have traveled long distances by wind or survived ocean waves.

The image depicts a map of

the supercontinent Gondwana, highlighting the continents Africa, South America,
Antarctica, Australia, and India.

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Mesosaurus and Lystosaurus, freshwater reptiles, had fossils discovered in South

America and Africa. It is impossible for these reptiles to swim across vast oceans.

Evidence from Rocks

Rock formations in Africa line up with those in South America, suggesting they were
once a long mountain range. The folded cape mountains of South America and Africa
line up perfectly as if they were once a long mountain range.

Coal Deposits
Coal beds, formed from swamp plants millions of years ago, were discovered in
South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and even Antarctica.
This indicates Antarctica was once positioned in a part of the Earth where it
supported large quantities of life, experiencing a tropical climate closer to the
equator.

Seafloor Spreading
The Seafloor Spreading Theory explains continental drift. In the 1960s, Harry Hess
and Robert Dietz suggested that hot, less dense material from below the Earth’s
crust rises towards the surface at the mid-ocean ridge. This material flows sideways,
carrying the seafloor away from the ridge and creating a crack in the crust. The
magma flows out of the crack, cools down, and becomes the new seafloor. Over time,
the new oceanic crust pushes the old oceanic crust away from the ridge.

This process created bodies of water, such as the Red Sea, as the African and
Arabian plates moved away from each other. Seafloor spreading is also pulling the
continents of Australia, South America, and Antarctica away from each other in the
East Pacific Rise.

Subduction zones occur where two oceanic plates collide or where an oceanic plate
and a continental plate collide. The old seafloor, farthest from the ridge, is destroyed
at the subduction zone.

The rate of formation of new seafloor is not always as fast as the destruction of old
seafloor at the subduction zone, which explains why the Pacific Ocean is getting
smaller and the Atlantic Ocean is getting wider.

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Findings that support Seafloor Spreading Theory:

1. Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge.

2. Rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are older.
3. Sediments are thinner at the ridge.
4. Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those at the continents.

The Seafloor Spreading Theory contradicts the Continental Drift Theory, which
stated that continents moved through unmoving oceans and that larger continents
broke through the oceanic crust. Seafloor spreading shows that the ocean is the
actual site of tectonic activity.

Magnetic Reversal
Magnetic reversal occurs when the North Pole is transformed into a South Pole and
the South Pole becomes the North Pole, due to a change in the direction of flow in
the outer core. This can be explained through magnetic patterns in magnetic rocks,
especially those found in the ocean floor.

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The image illustrates

magnetic reversal, focusing on Earth's magnetic field reversals and their impact on
oceanic crust.

When lava solidifies, iron-bearing minerals crystallize, aligning with the Earth’s
magnetic field. When magnetic reversal occurs, there is also a change in the polarity
of the rocks. New rocks are added to the ocean floor at the ridge with approximately
equal amounts on both sides. The stripes on both sides are of equal size and polarity,
which seem to be mirror images across the ocean ridge, indicating that the seafloor is
spreading.

प्ले Plate Tectonic Theory

The Plate Tectonic Theory explains the movement of lithospheric plates. The Earth’s
lithosphere is divided into several plates that ride over the weak asthenosphere.

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There are three types of plate movements:

Separation of two plates divergent

Collision of two plates convergent
Sliding past each other transf orm

Heat produced in the core causes convection in the mantle, which causes the plates
to move around.

As a substance like water is heated, the less dense particles rise while denser
particles sink. Once the hot less dense particles cool down, they sink, and the other
less dense particles rise. This continuous process is called convection current, which
also happens in the Earth’s mantle.

The hot, less dense rising material spreads out as it reaches the upper mantle,
causing upward and sideward forces. These forces lift and split the lithosphere at
divergent plate boundaries. The hot magma flows out of the mantle and cools down
to form the new ocean crust.

The downward movement of the convection current occurs along a convergent

boundary where the sinking force pulls the tectonic plate downward. The convection
currents rotate very slowly, moving and dragging the plates along.

As an oceanic crust moves away from a divergent boundary, it becomes denser than
the newer oceanic crust. As the older seafloor sinks, the weight of the uplifted ridge
pushes the oceanic crust toward the trench at the subduction zone, which is called
ridge push. Slab pull is the other process involved in tectonic plate movement, where
the weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing slab into the subduction zone.

The image illustrates a

cross-section of the Earth's interior with convection currents in the mantle.

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