📝 Page 1: Real Analysis
Introduction to Real Analysis
Real analysis is the rigorous study of the real number system, functions of a real variable,
sequences, series, limits, and continuity. It provides the theoretical foundation for calculus.
Sequences and Limits
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. A sequence {an} converges to a limit L if, for every
ϵ>0, there exists an integer N such that for all n>N, ∣an−L∣<ϵ.
● Cauchy Sequences: A sequence is a Cauchy sequence if its terms get arbitrarily close
to each other. Every convergent sequence of real numbers is a Cauchy sequence, and
every Cauchy sequence of real numbers is convergent. This property, known as
completeness, is a defining characteristic of the real numbers.
Topology of the Real Line
● Open and Closed Sets: An open set in R is a set where every point has a neighborhood
(an open interval) that is entirely contained within the set. A closed set is a set whose
complement is open. The closed interval [a,b] is a common example.
● Compact Sets: A set in R is compact if and only if it is both closed and bounded
(Heine-Borel theorem). Compact sets are crucial for proving many fundamental
theorems in analysis.
📝 Page 2: Abstract Algebra
Group Theory
A group (G,∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ that satisfies four axioms:
1. Closure: For all a,b∈G, a∗b∈G.
2. Associativity: For all a,b,c∈G, (a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c).
3. Identity Element: There exists an identity element e∈G such that for all a∈G,
e∗a=a∗e=a.
4. Inverse Element: For each a∈G, there exists an inverse element a−1∈G such that
a∗a−1=a−1∗a=e.
● Subgroups and Cosets: A subgroup is a subset of a group that is itself a group under
the same operation. For a subgroup H of a group G, the cosets of H are sets of the form
gH={gh∣h∈H} for some g∈G.
● Lagrange's Theorem: If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then the order of H (number
of elements) divides the order of G.
Rings and Fields
● Ring: A ring is a set with two binary operations (addition and multiplication) that satisfy a
set of axioms. A ring is more structured than a group; it has properties related to both
operations.
● Field: A field is a ring where the non-zero elements form a commutative group under
multiplication. Examples include the real numbers (R) and the rational numbers (Q).
📝 Page 3: Complex Analysis
Introduction to Complex Analysis
Complex analysis is the study of functions of complex variables. The complex numbers, C, are
a field extension of the real numbers, of the form z=x+iy, where x,y∈R and i2=−1.
Analytic Functions
● Holomorphic (Analytic) Functions: A complex function f(z) is holomorphic in an open
set if it is complex differentiable at every point in that set. This is a much stronger
condition than real differentiability.
● Cauchy-Riemann Equations: A necessary condition for a function f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) to be
holomorphic is that its real and imaginary parts satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂x∂u=∂y∂vand∂y∂u=−∂x∂v
Complex Integration and Contour Integration
● Cauchy's Integral Theorem: If a function f(z) is holomorphic on and inside a simple
closed contour C, then the integral of f(z) over C is zero: ∮Cf(z)dz=0.
● Cauchy's Integral Formula: If f(z) is holomorphic on and inside a simple closed contour C
and a is a point inside C, then:
f(a)=2πi1∮Cz−af(z)dz
This formula shows that the value of an analytic function inside a contour is completely
determined by its values on the boundary.
📝 Page 4: Topology
Introduction to Topology
Topology is the study of topological spaces, which are mathematical objects on which
concepts like continuity, connectedness, and convergence can be defined. It is sometimes
called "rubber sheet geometry" because it deals with properties that are preserved under
continuous deformations, such as stretching or bending, but not tearing or gluing.
Topological Spaces
A topological space is a set X together with a collection of subsets of X called open sets,
which satisfy three axioms:
1. The empty set and X itself are open sets.
2. Any finite intersection of open sets is an open set.
3. Any arbitrary union of open sets is an open set.
Key Topological Concepts
● Continuity: A function f:X→Y between two topological spaces is continuous if the
preimage of every open set in Y is an open set in X. This is a generalization of the
epsilon-delta definition of continuity from calculus.
● Connectedness: A topological space is connected if it cannot be written as the union of
two disjoint non-empty open sets. The interval [0,1] is a connected set, while [0,1]∪[2,3]
is not.
● Compactness: A topological space is compact if every open cover of the space has a
finite subcover. This is a generalization of the Heine-Borel theorem.
● Homeomorphism: A homeomorphism is a continuous bijection between two
topological spaces with a continuous inverse. Two spaces are homeomorphic if they are
topologically equivalent. A coffee mug and a donut are homeomorphic.
📝 Page 5: Differential Geometry
Introduction to Differential Geometry
Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that uses the tools of differential calculus
and integral calculus to study problems in geometry. It is essential for modern physics,
particularly general relativity.
Manifolds
A differentiable manifold is a topological space that "locally" resembles Euclidean space.
For example, the surface of the Earth is a 2-dimensional manifold; although globally it is a
sphere, any small patch of it looks like a flat plane.
● Tangent Space: At each point on a manifold, there is a tangent space, which is a vector
space that captures all possible "tangent directions" at that point. It is a linear
approximation of the manifold at that point.
Curvature
Curvature is a central concept in differential geometry. It measures the extent to which an
object (e.g., a curve, a surface, or spacetime) deviates from being "flat."
● Gaussian Curvature: For a surface, Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic measure of
curvature that can be determined by measurements within the surface itself, without
reference to the surrounding space. It is positive for a sphere and zero for a cylinder or
plane.
● Riemannian Manifolds: A Riemannian manifold is a differentiable manifold equipped
with a metric tensor, which defines an inner product on each tangent space. This allows
for the definition of geometric concepts like length, angle, and volume on the manifold.
The metric tensor is the central object of study in Riemannian geometry.
● Geodesics: A geodesic is the "straightest possible" line in a curved space. On a sphere,
the geodesics are great circles.
