Radar Usage and Plotting

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Radar is an important tool on board in all conditions of visibility in navigation and collision avoidance. If radar
is fitted on board, it must be operated at all times. When visibility is reduced, or at night when small crafts or
objects (ice) are expected, a second radar should be operated if fitted. One of them dedicated to anti-collision
(S-band) in sea stabilized mode and a second for navigation (X-band) in ground stabilized mode. Note that
radar is designed for long operation so frequent switching on and off can damage their components.

Collisions have frequently occurred due to failures in making effective use of radar and radar plotting aids in
both restricted visibility and good visibility. Common errors noted are, altering course based on insufficient
information, and maintaining speed in excess of the safe speed that may be required, particularly when a
close-quarters situation is developing. A good reference material on the subjects is MGN 379 and MGN 369.

Radar Setup / Tuning

Use mnemonic to remember: Big Randy Girls Take Cock. After turning the set on, do the following:
1. Brilliance: set the brightness for your display. Dim it during the day.
2. Range: match to the desire area, usually middle range (e.g. 12NM).
3. Gain: turn up until you get white background speckles, usually around 70%.
4. Tuning: tune the receiver to get the best display (clearest and brightest), this is normally done
automatic. It is similar to tuning frequencies in old radio.
5. Clutter: tune sea and rain clutter as required to reduce noise. If you use it too much, it’s possible you
won’t be able to see small or even large contacts. Be careful.
• Sea clutter: Suppresses reflection from waves near the ship (it reduces sensitivity of the receiver).
The clutter should be suppressed and echoes become distinguishable. If the control is set too high,
both sea clutter and echoes will disappear. When there is no sea clutter visible on the display, turn
the control fully counter clockwise.
• Rain clutter: Suppresses reflected echoes from rain, hail and snow (does not display leading edge of
the rain). When rain clutter masks the display, adjust the control so that the clutter just disappears;
too much A/C rain action may shrink or erase the echoes from legitimate targets.
6. Heading: heading marker is not off, if it is means radar could be compromised
7. After around 10 minutes, re-check the gain control and re-tune. This is because as the radar warms up
the transmitter frequency is likely to have changed slightly. Check gain, clutter controls and tuning
again after every hour or so of operation as the set may gradually drift out of tune.

How to verify if the radar tuning is good?

• In sight of land, tune to a radar contact.
• Out of sight of land, tune to the sea clutter. All anti-clutter controls should be either off or placed at
their minimum. Also, one of the shorter-range scales should be used.
• If on a calm day and there is no sea clutter then tune to your own wake. Produce a wake by turning the
vessel. It won’t work on a small boat.

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Radar setup for collision avoidance (recommendation):
• North-up.
• Relative motion display: own ship remains stationary at the center and targets moving in relation to
own ship; stationary objects appear to be moving; it is the same as if you visually observe with your
eyes.
• Sea stabilized: using speed through water, showing correct aspect of targets, therefore, applicable to
ColReg rules. For collision avoidance we don’t need course and speed of targets in relation to the
ground but in relation to the body of water.
Radar setup for navigation (recommendation):
• North-up.
• True motion display: own ship moves across the radar screen, targets show their actual movement
relative to the ground, stationary objects remain fixed.
• Ground stabilized: using speed over ground, showing true course and speed of targets over the ground,
not showing the correct aspect of targets, therefore, not useful for ColRegs.

Pre-departure Radar Checks

☐ Switch it on.
☐ Check performance by using Performance Monitor (before departure and every 4h whist the radar is being
maintained). When radar is switched on it does self-test automatically. It checks the power
output/transmitter (how well the magnetron is transmitting):
• Switch radar rings on to 12 NM.
• Press button performance monitor P.M.
• Plume comes in the front.
• Record every 4h how far the plume went, if the plume range reduces with time, it means the
performance is deteriorating. It tells how well the magnetron is and if it needs replacement.
☐ Check VRM (Variable Range Marker) against radar rings.
☐ Check EBL (Electronic Bearing Line) against compass bearing of a known fixed object. Ensures navigational
consistency between radar and compass systems.
☐ Check EBL against target that you can see visually. Confirms the radar display reflects real-world
observations accurately.
☐ Check heading marker alignment:
• Check the heading marker is aligned with the true compass heading of the ship.
• Check the heading marker is aligned with the fore and-aft line of the ship. This is done by selecting a
conspicuous but small object with a small and distinct echo which is clearly identifiable and lies as near
as possible at the edge of the range scale in use. Measure simultaneously the relative visual bearing
with a compass of this object and the relative bearing on the display with EBL. Any misalignment must
be removed in accordance with the instructions in the equipment manual.

☐ Check shadow sectors and blind spots:

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 • Shadow sectors are areas of reduced radar visibility (sensitivity) produced by obstructions (e.g. mast)
presenting a narrow profile when viewed from the scanner. It is blocking the radar view but only in
narrow profile. Targets which are in line with the scanner and the mast will be subjected to a
weakened pulse due to absorption by the obstruction or reflection from it, and provide a weakened
echo return over a very narrow sector (still can see but the sensitivity is reduced).
• Blind sectors will make it unable to see certain angles/segment. Rain or land masses can produce blind
sectors.
• Information about shadow sectors and blind spots should be present in the radar manual. Best and
easiest method is to check it in rough sea. Alternatively, you can drive a tender around the boat and
mark down where you cannot see.
☐ Tune the radar (see previous section).

Radar Best Practices

• Review the operating manuals of your radar set on board and be familiar with their capabilities and
limitations.
• Radar if fitted should be in continuous use at all times and all radars should be operated in high traffic
areas, in restricted visibility and at night when small craft or ice may be encountered.
• Radars are designed for constant use. Frequently switching radar on and off can actually damage it.
• If two or more radars are fitted (mandatory for ships of 3000 GT and over), it is good practice,
especially in restricted visibility or in congested waters, for one to be designated for anticollision work
while the other is used to assist navigation. The radars should be set on different range scales. S band
(10 cm/3 GHz) for detecting vessels and landfalls due to their greater range and ability to penetrate
precipitation, and X band (3 cm/9 GHz) for coastal navigation and pilotage due to their higher
directivity and definition of targets.
• When two radars are in operation, it is recommended that the one fitted with ARPA is used for
collision avoidance and the other is used for navigation.
• ARPA should be used with sea stabilized mode (STW - speed through water as input) and relative
motion (RM) for collision avoidance as it would show the correct aspect of targets. For this ARPA has to
have a feed from the speed log, not SOG. Accuracy of the ARPA plots depend on accuracy of measuring
own ships track (feed of accurate gyro heading and speed through the water).
• For ARPA the following data for each selected target should be clearly and unambiguously identified
and displayed immediately and simultaneously outside the radar area:
o Present range and bearing to the target
o CPA and TCPA
o True course and speed of the target (W-A)
• Don't use true vectors for collision avoidance. This is because an inaccurate compass heading or speed
input will greatly reduce the accuracy of true vectors using ARPA.
• Ensure that the range scale in use is appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
• Use long range scanning periodically to detect targets and landfalls, and when approaching high traffic
areas.

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 • It may sometimes be appropriate to operate the radar off-centre for a better view ahead whilst
maintaining the benefits provided by a smaller range scale.
• Re-tune radar regularly to ensure that it is optimized for the prevailing conditions.
• Ensure that the radar pulse length is optimized for the range scale in use. Shorter pulse lengths for
lower ranges, longer pulse lengths for higher ranges. Remember that long pulse lengths have poor
range discrimination (ability to make accurate detection) and may cause targets on the same bearing
to merge if they are close to each other.
• Use the manual clutter controls and use the automatic clutter controls regularly to ensure that targets
are not being masked by sea or rain clutter, or by the anti-clutter feature.
• Use the performance monitor to check the radar at regular intervals (every 4 hours).
• Check the alignment of the heading marker with the master gyro periodically, applying any gyro
compass error to determine the true heading.
• Ensure that the heading marker is aligned with the vessel’s fore and aft line by comparing the visual
and radar relative bearings of a small but distinct target.
• Check the accuracy of functions ELB and VRM at frequent intervals.
• Turn off the heading marker and range rings regularly to ensure that they are not obscuring small
targets.
• Use Parallel Indexing (PI) whenever possible to continuously monitor the vessel’s position relative to
the pre-planned track in conjunction with other position fixing methods.
• Where possible set, verify and use electronic bearing clearing lines and range ring clearing distances to
help monitor the vessel’s progress along the pre-planned course.
• When fixing the vessel’s position, remember that radar ranges are far more accurate than radar
bearings.
• Bear in mind that beamwidth distortion may stretch the ends of headlands and similar features causing
errors in radar bearings. The effect of beamwidth distortion may be reduced by turning down the gain
temporarily.
• All radar targets must be positively identified prior to use for position fixing. Ideally buoys should not
be used for this purpose as they can be off position and are bad reflectors. However, if unavoidable,
their charted positions should be verified prior to use.
• Be aware of any radar blind or shadow sectors caused by masts or other obstructions. Post plans
showing these sectors near the radar, updated following any structural changes.
• When taking over the watch, check settings of radars in use as they may have been changed in the
meantime by previous watch.

What if you hear a fog signal but don’t see anything on the radar?

• A small boat may not have a radar reflector or may produce a weak radar echo.
• Some buoys emit sound signals in fog but most buys do not appear clearly on radar.
• Radar might be affected by sea clutter, rain, or interference.
• The object may be obscured by a blind sector.

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Radar Modes and Displays
Radar modes (see video):
• Sea stabilized:
o Used for collision avoidance.
o Using Speed Through Water (STW) and gyro/heading feeds. Need to select speed over water in
radar to activate sea stabilized mode.
o True course and speed of targets and own ship in relation to water (STW). Tides are ignored.
o Shows correct aspects of targets so it can be used for applying ColReg rules.
o Fixed objects leave trails in ARPA if there is a tide (set and rate equal to A-W)/
• Ground stabilized:
o Used for navigation and pilotage.
o Use speed over ground (SOG) and gyro/heading feeds. Need to select SOG in radar to activate
ground stabilized mode.
o Has no usage in ColRegs as aspect of targets is not shown correctly.
o True course and speed of targets is in relation to the ground (COG and SOG).
Display modes:

Mode Display Use Advantages Disadvantages

Head-up • Heading point upward Narrow passages • Easier to • Unstabilized display
• Unstabilized display and port understand as the making it difficult
• Bearings are relative to approaches. But heading marker to accurately
ships heading many still find it matches with determine the
• Typically used with better to use what you see relative bearings
Relative motion (RM). North Up mode outside because the entire
• Bearings are radar image will
directly relative to rotate due to the
the ship's heading, "yaw" or due to
simplifying changing of the
collision avoidance course
• Can function • As the vessel turns,
without a the display rotates,
gyrocompass / which can be
heading feed disorienting
• Difficult to
correlate radar data
with charts
• Cannot be used for
PI (Parallel Index)
to check track
against

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 predetermined
route
North-up • Oriented with true north Open waters • Everything stays • Not as natural as
at the top of the screen north up the head-up one
• Can use sea or ground orientated so can • Navigation in
stabilized display be used to narrow passages
• Bearings are true reference against and approaches
charts could be more
• Can be used for PI difficult
• Easier to
determine
bearings
Course-up • Current course (based Collision • Similar to head up • The display may
on heading) points avoidance, better but stabilized need frequent
upward than head up • Ability to obtain a updates if the
• Can use sea or ground because it’s true bearings course changes
stabilized display stabilized directly • Relies on heading /
• Only moving heading • Easier to compare gyro or course data
marker radar data with to orient the
• Bearings are true the intended route display
• Targets are
displayed relative
to the current
course

Recommendations: North-up mode would be recommended to use in most situations. Course-up mode may
be used for collision avoidance. Head-up mode should be avoided.

If radar is unstabilized, own ship’s heading indicated by the heading marker is usually adjusted to point at
000o. Gyro / compass or speed over water or speed over ground is not fed into the display. The target trails
are usually smeared if the vessel heading yaws in a seaway.

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Type of Radars
Many ships are fitted with both X and S band radars and good bridge management should ensure that the
differences, as well as the pros and cons of each type of radar are known.

The choice of range scale is important on any radar set, and periodic scanning at a longer-range scale will
allow advance warning of hazards.

X-Band Radar S-Band Radar

Better for navigation Better for collision avoidance
More power and better resolution / discrimination Better in rain and longer range, worse definition /
(ability to detect small targets), can take bearings discrimination of targets but can detect targets at greater
more accurately range
3 cm, 9 GHz 10 cm, 3 GHz
Ability to detect a 9GHz SART Improved target detection in heavy weather (works better
in heavy rain)
Improved small target detection Improved longer range detection (6 NM and more)
Higher resolution image due to high frequency, Improved sea clutter response
improving coastline identification during
navigation

What makes a good radar conspicuous object

Mnemonic: MAST
• Material (M): materials that conduct electricity provide good reflection, e.g. steel. Fiberglass and wood
are poor reflectors, stone and concrete provide moderate echos
• Aspect (A): flat surface is a good reflector only when it is at exactly the right angle to the radar beam. A
ship that is broadsided-on for instance, is likely to be a
• better reflector than one which is at an angle or bow to.
• Size (S): the larger the object /ship the more likely for it to return good echo. Height is often more
important than width.
• Texture (T): rough surfaces are good reflectors. It makes a weaker but much more reliable echo than a
smooth surface
Note that buoyage and longhouses are bad reflectors as they are round and small. Also beach / sand is not the
best reflector so make allowance for that when navigating close to the shore.

Radar Limitations
• Heading marker must be correctly aligned otherwise you can get misleading interpretations.
• Small vessels and objects (ice, floating logs or containers) may not be detected by the radar.
• Video processing techniques (e.g. rain clutter) should be used with care.
• Echoes may be obscured by sea or rain clutter.
• Mast or other structural features may cause shadow sectors on the display.
• Radar cannot penetrate solid obstacles like landmasses, cliffs, or large ships, leaving blind sectors.

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 • Targets may not be detected at long-range especially on X-band radar. Radar signals weaken as they
travel farther, reducing detection capability for distant targets.
• Bearing resolution: Radar may struggle to distinguish between two targets that are close together on
the same bearing.
• Range Resolution: Targets close together at slightly different distances might appear as one, depending
on the radar's pulse length.
• Beam Width: A wide horizontal beam may cause small or closely spaced targets to blend together or
not be detected.
• Target Aspect and Speed: Targets oriented bow-on or stern-on present a smaller radar cross-section
and may be harder to detect.
• Nearby radars operating on the same or similar frequencies can cause radio interference, resulting in
false or unclear signals.
• Skilled interpretation is required to identify targets correctly and avoid mistaking side echoes, clutter,
or false returns as real targets.
• Incorrect tuning of gain, range, or clutter suppression settings can reduce radar's effectiveness.
• Multipath reflections, side-lobe interference, or environmental conditions can create ghost targets or
false echoes.

Radar Errors
• Misalignment of heading marker
• Shadow sectors and blind sectors caused by masts or other obstructions.
• Inaccuracy of EBL and VRM: check the accuracy of the Electronic Bearing Line (EBL), Variable Range
Marker (VRM) and the bearing cursor at frequent intervals.
• Side lobe effects: small lobs can be produced by radar in all directions, sidelobes may pick up
interfering signals, and increase the noise level in the receiver.
• Spurious echoes and Effects: false or misleading radar signals that do not correspond to actual physical
objects
• Radar Interference: Interference from other radars in vicinity. They can interfere constructively,
destructively, or produce a resultant of zero.
• Indirect echoes: false radar signals caused by reflections from secondary surfaces like ship structures or
nearby objects.
• Multiple echoes: radar signal reflects back and forth between the radar carrying ship and a nearby
target multiple times before returning to the radar receiver. This phenomenon creates false targets on
the radar display.
• Radar horizon: maximum detection range limited by the Earth's curvature and the height of the radar
antenna.

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Detecting SART by Radar
If you want to increase the chance of detecting SART on your Radar X-band:
• Set sea clutter to min
• Set rain clutter to match conditions
• Detune the radar
• Set radar range scale to 6 or 12 M

The SART should have sufficient battery capacity to operate in the stand-by condition for 96 h and, in addition,
following the stand-by period, to provide transponder transmissions for 8 h when being continuously
interrogated with a pulse repetition frequency of 1 kHz.

If SART is detected:
• It appears on the radar screen as a series of twelve dots with a gap of 0.6 miles between them, with
the first dot representing the SART’s position and the others extending in a straight line toward the
edge of the screen.
• As you approach the SART’s location, the dots on the radar display transform into short arcs, which
increase in size as the vessel gets closer.
• Once you get in close proximity, the side lobes of the radar antenna activate the SART permanently,
and the twelve dots will appear as complete circles on the radar screen, indicating that you reached
the SART’s location.

Radar Plotting
We use radar plotting (manual or automatic like ARPA) to find out if risk of collision is deemed to exist. To
estimate risk of collision with another vessel the Closest Point of Approach (CPA) must be established (how
close we will get to each other if we keep the same course and speed). Even with automatic radar plotting it is
still important to understand the mechanics and how to resolve an OAW triangle.
Using the radar plotting we can work out CPA and TCPA (Time to Closest Point of Approach) as well as
determine the true course and speed of targets and their aspects. For determining these we need at least 3
plots of a target to get a trend. We take the echoes in intervals of 3 or 6 minutes to ease the plotting, e.g. if a
ship is doing 10 kt, it will make 10 NM in 1 h hence 1 NM in 6 minutes.
Examples:

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Collision avoidance actions:
• If in sight of one another then under Rule 15 (Crossing situation) ), you are the "keep out of the way" (give way) vessel and you
shall sound one short blast on the whistle of about one second duration, make a bold alteration of course to starboard of about 40
to 60 degrees. You will then monitor the situation until its past and clear and then return to original course.
• If in restricted visibility then under Rule 19 (Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility): You shall avoid alteration of course to port
for a vessel forward of the beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken. Therefore, you could slow down or make a bold
alteration of course to starboard and continue to use appropriate fog signal. We don’t sound maneuvering signals in restricted vis!

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Collision avoidance actions: same as before.
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 Collision avoidance – situations for power-driven vessels

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Interpretation of ColReg rule 19 for conduct of vessels in restricted visibility.

Rule 19 applies to vessels not in sight of one another when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
If risk of collision (ROC) or a close-quarters situation is developing then appropriate avoiding action must be
taken. Note that there are no stand-on vessels in restricted visibility under rule 19. All participants are
required to take appropriate avoiding action.

As far as possible the following shall be avoided:

a) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam, other than for a vessel being
overtaken
b) an alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the beam

Note that Colregs doesn’t actually provide a definition of what overtaking means in restricted visibility. The
closest interpretation would probably be that you are overtaking if you approach another vessel abaft her
beam.

Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not exist, every vessel which hears
apparently forward of her beam the fog signal of another vessel, or which cannot avoid a close-quarters
situation with another vessel forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to the minimum at which she can
be kept on her course. However, the minute you see the other vessel, the normal sailing rules would apply.

You can also use a decision support tree.

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ARPA Interpretation
What you can see in the ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) display will depend on the radar setup, e.g.
• True or Relative motion. In Relative motion own ship does not have trail and vector.
• Vectors (prediction) or Trails (historical info – more accurate).
• For collision avoidance use North-up mode and Relative Motion (RM). Don't use True Motion (TM) for
collision avoidance. This is because an inaccurate compass heading or speed input will greatly reduce
the accuracy of true vectors using ARPA.
• For navigation use North-up mode and True Motion (TM).

True trail or true vector of own vessel, provide true speed and course of own ship.
Relative trail or relative vector of stationary objects, provide true speed and course of own ship.

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For collision avoidance we must use sea stabilized mode. If your ship’s vector does not line up with the
heading marker, the radar is setup in the ground stabilized mode!

Note that True Motion (TM) on radar does not automatically mean the system is using ground stabilization.
These are independent things.

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