12 Reacting masses 中/EN

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 1 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ In daily life, some special units are used to describe

the quantity of items.
➢ e.g. eggs are often packed in dozens

a dozen = 12 pieces

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  2 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ In daily life, some special units are used to describe

the quantity of items.
➢ e.g. papers are often packed in reams

a ream = 500 sheets

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  3 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ Unlike eggs and papers, particles (i.e. atoms, ions

and molecules) are too small to be seen.
⚫ It is impossible to count these particles one by
one.

Question:
How do chemists
count the particles?

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  4 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ Chemists use a special unit called mole (摩爾) to

describe the quantity of particles in a substance.
abbreviation: mol
⚫ Reference unit for the mole:
the number of atoms in exactly 12.0 g of carbon-12

=
6.02  1023

Avogadro constant (亞佛加德羅常數)

(symbol: L; unit: mol–1)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  5 
12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ As a pure substance can be represented by a

formula, its simplest unit is called a formula unit.
⚫ One mole of any substance contains 6.02  1023
formula units of that substance.
Substance Formula unit
Copper Cu
Carbon C
Water H2O
Sodium chloride NaCl
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  6 
12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ This diagram gives us ideas on how much one

mole of some substances are:
1 mole of copper metal 1 mole of carbon
contains 6.02  1023 Cu contains 6.02  1023
atoms C atoms

Cu− ion
Cu C H2O
[ Na+ ion
atom atom molecule

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  7 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ This diagram gives us ideas on how much one

mole of some substances are: 1 mole of sodium chloride
contains 6.02  10 NaCl
23
1 mole of water
formula units (or contains
contains 6.02  1023
1 mole of Na+ ions and 1
H2O molecules
mole of Cl– ions)

Cu− ion
Cu C H2O
[ Na+ ion
atom atom molecule

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  8 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

⚫ Chemists define mole in the following way:

Key point
One mole is the amount of a substance that
contains the same number of formula units
as the number of atoms in exactly 12.0 g of
carbon-12.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  9 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
Calculating the number of moles from the
number of formula units and vice versa
(a) A sample of nitrogen contains 1.024  1024
molecules. Calculate the number of moles of
nitrogen molecules in the sample.
(b) Calculate the number of atoms in 3 mol of
nitrogen.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  10 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
(a) A sample of nitrogen contains 1.024  1024
molecules. Calculate the number of moles of
nitrogen molecules in the sample.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Number of moles number of N2 molecules
=
of N2 molecules Avogradro constant (mol−1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  11 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
(a) A sample of nitrogen contains 1.024  1024
molecules. Calculate the number of moles of
nitrogen molecules in the sample.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Number of moles 1.024  10 24
=
of N2 molecules 6.02  1023 mol−1
= 1.70 mol
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  12 
12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
(b) Calculate the number of atoms in 3 mol of
nitrogen.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Number of N2 molecules
= number of moles of N2 molecules (mol)
 Avogadro constant (mol–1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  13 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
(b) Calculate the number of atoms in 3 mol of
nitrogen.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Number of N2 molecules
= 3 mol  6.02  1023 mol−1
= 1.806  1024

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  14 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
(b) Calculate the number of atoms in 3 mol of
nitrogen.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Since there are two N atoms in one N2 molecule,
number of N atoms
= 2  1.806  1024
= 3.612  1024
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  15 
12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
Self-test 12.1
(a) Calculate the number of formula units in 1.5 mol
of potassium chloride.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Number of formula units
= 1.5 mol  6.02  1023 mol−1
= 9.03  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  16 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Example 12.1
Self-test 12.1
(b) Calculate the number of ions in 1.5 mol of
potassium chloride.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
There are two ions in each formula unit of KCl.
Hence, number of moles of ions in 1.5 mol of KCl
= 1.5 mol  2  6.02  1023 mol−1
= 1.806  1024
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  17 
12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Class practice 12.1

1. A sample of oxygen gas contains 0.5 mol of
oxygen molecules.
(a) Calculate the number of oxygen molecules in
the sample.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Number of oxygen molecules
= 0.5  6.02  1023
= 3.01  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  18 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Class practice 12.1

1. A sample of oxygen gas contains 0.5 mol of
oxygen molecules.
(b) Hence, calculate the number of oxygen atoms
in the sample.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Number of oxygen atoms
= 3.01  1023  2
= 6.02  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  19 

12.1 The mole and Avogadro constant

Class practice 12.1

2. Given that a sample contains 2.408  1024 sodium
atoms, calculate the number of moles of sodium
atoms present.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Number of moles of sodium atoms
2.408  1024
=
6.02  1023 mol−1
= 4 mol

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  20 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

⚫ In Chapter 5, we have learnt that the relative

atomic mass of carbon-12 is 12.0.
⚫ Scientists found that one mole of 12C has a mass
of 12.0 g.
⚫ The mass of one mole of a substance is called its
molar mass (摩爾質量).

unit: gram per mole (g mol−1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  21 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Substances consisting of atoms

molar mass
= relative atomic mass Question:
expressed in g mol−1
Which has a greater mass,
1 mole
Substance Symbol Relative of iron
atomic atoms
mass or 1mass
Molar
mole of gold atoms? −1
Carbon C 12.0 12.0 g mol

Iron Fe 55.8 55.8 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  22 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Substances consisting of molecules

molar mass
= relative molecular mass expressed in g mol−1
Relative molecular
Substance Formula Molar mass
mass
Oxygen O2 16.0  2 = 32.0 32.0 g mol−1

Water H2O 1.0  2 + 16.0 = 18.0 18.0 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  23 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Substances consisting of ions

molar mass
= formula mass expressed in g mol−1
Substance Formula Formula mass Molar mass
Calcium
CaCl2 40.1 + 35.5  2 = 111.1 111.1 g mol−1
chloride

Learning tip
Relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass and
formula mass carry no units.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  24 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

1. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following
substances.
(a) Silver
(Relative atomic mass: Ag = 107.9)
Molar mass of Ag
= 107.9 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  25 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

1. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following
substances.
(b) Fluorine
(Relative atomic mass: F = 19.0)
Molar mass of F2
= 19.0  2 g mol−1
= 38.0 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  26 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

1. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following
substances.
(c) Ammonia
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0)
Molar mass of NH3
= (14.0 + 1.0  3) g mol−1
= 17.0 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  27 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

1. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following
substances.
(d) Ethanol (C2H5OH)
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0,
O = 16.0)
Molar mass of C2H5OH
= (12.0  2 + 1.0  6 + 16.0) g mol−1
= 46.0 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  28 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

1. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following
substances.
(e) Iron(III) sulphate
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, S = 32.1,
Fe = 55.8)
Molar mass of Fe2(SO4)3
= [(55.8  2) + (32.1 + 16.0  4)  3] g mol−1
= 399.9 g mol−1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  29 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

2. Calculate the mass of each of the following
substances.
(a) 1 mol of sodium sulphate
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Na = 23.0,
S = 32.1)
Mass of 1 mol of Na2SO4
= (23.0  2 + 32.1 + 16.0  4) g
= 142.1 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  30 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.2

2. Calculate the mass of each of the following
substances.
(b) 0.5 mol of tetrachloromethane (CCl4)
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, Cl = 35.5)
Mass of 0.5 mol of CCl4
= [0.5  (12.0 + 35.5  4)] g
= 77.0 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  31 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Relationship between number of formula units,

number of moles and mass
÷ Avogadro constant  molar mass

number of number of
mass
formula units moles

 Avogadro constant ÷ molar mass

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  32 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Key point
Number of moles mass (g)
=
(mol) molar mass (g mol−1)
Number of moles number of formula units
=
(mol) Avogadro constant (mol−1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  33 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
Calculating the mass and number of formula
units from the number of moles
A vessel contains 1.85 mol of methane (CH4).
(a) Calculate the mass of methane in the vessel.
(b) Calculate the number of methane molecules in
the vessel.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  34 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
(a) Calculate the mass of methane in the vessel.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)
Solution
Molar mass of CH4 = (12.0 + 1.0  4) g mol–1
= 16.0 g mol–1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  35 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
(a) Calculate the mass of methane in the vessel.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)
Solution
Mass of CH4 (g) = number of moles of CH4 (mol)
 molar mass of CH4 (g mol–1)
= 1.85 mol  16.0 g mol–1
= 29.6 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  36 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
(b) Calculate the number of methane molecules in
the vessel.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
Number of CH4 molecules
= number of moles of CH4 (mol)
 Avogadro constant (mol–1)
= 1.85 mol  6.02  1023 mol–1
= 1.11  1024
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  37 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
Self-test 12.2
Consider a 0.175 mol sample of magnesium hydroxide.
(a) Calculate the mass of magnesium hydroxide in the
sample.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3)
Molar mass of Mg(OH)2
= [24.3 + (16.0 + 1.0)  2] g mol–1 = 58.3 g mol–1
Mass of 0.175 mol of Mg(OH)2
= 0.175 mol  58.3 g mol–1 = 10.2 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  38 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.2
Self-test 12.2
Consider a 0.175 mol sample of magnesium hydroxide.
(b) Calculate the number of hydroxide ions in the
sample.
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Number of OH– ions
= 0.175 mol  2  6.02  1023 mol–1
= 2.11  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  39 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
Calculating the mass of a particle of a
substance
Calculate the mass of
(a) 1 Na atom.
(b) 1 H2O molecule.
(c) 1 formula unit of NaCl.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0,
Cl = 35.5; Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  40 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
(a) 1 Na atom
(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
molar mass (g mol−1)
Mass of 1 formula unit =
Avogadro constant (mol−1)
23.0 g mol−1
Mass of 1 Na atom =
6.02  1023 mol−1
= 3.82  10−23 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  41 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
(b) 1 H2O molecule
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
molar mass (g mol−1)
Mass of 1 formula unit =
Avogadro constant (mol−1)
(1.0  2 + 16.0) g mol−1
Mass of 1 H2O molecule =
6.02  1023 mol−1
= 2.99  10−23 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  42 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
(c) 1 formula unit of NaCl
(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Solution
molar mass (g mol−1)
Mass of 1 formula unit =
Avogadro constant (mol−1)
(23.0 + 35.5) g mol−1
Mass of 1 formula unit of NaCl =
6.02  1023 mol−1
= 9.72  10−23 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  43 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
Self-test 12.3
Calculate the mass of
(a) 1 Mg atom.
(Relative atomic masses: Mg = 24.3;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Mass of 1 Mg atom
24.3 g mol−1
= = 4.04  10−23 g
6.02  1023 mol−1
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  44 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
Self-test 12.3
Calculate the mass of
(b) 1 Br2 molecule.
(Relative atomic masses: Br = 79.9;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Mass of 1 Br2 molecule
79.9  2 g mol−1
= = 2.65  10−22 g
6.02  1023 mol−1
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  45 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Example 12.3
Self-test 12.3
Calculate the mass of
(c) 1 formula unit of CaCO3.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Mass of 1 formula unit of CaCO3
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0  3 g mol−1
= = 1.66  10−22 g
6.02  1023 mol−1
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  46 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

1. Complete the following table by filling in the
appropriate numbers.
(a) Sodium hydroxide
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0,
Na = 23.0; Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Molar mass No. of moles No. of formula
Mass / g
/ g mol−1 / mol units

40.0 10.0 0.250 1.51  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  47 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

1. Complete the following table by filling in the
appropriate numbers.
(b) Helium
(Relative atomic mass: He = 4.0;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Molar mass No. of moles No. of formula
Mass / g
/ g mol−1 / mol units

4.0 0.20 0.05 3.01  1022

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  48 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

1. Complete the following table by filling in the
appropriate numbers.
(c) Sulphur dioxide
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, S = 32.1;
Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Molar mass No. of moles No. of formula
Mass / g
/ g mol−1 / mol units

64.1 320.5 5 3.01  1024

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  49 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

1. Complete the following table by filling in the
appropriate numbers.
(d) Compound X
(Avogadro constant = 6.02  1023 mol–1)
Molar mass No. of moles No. of formula
Mass / g
/ g mol−1 / mol units

46.0 23.0 0.5 3.01  1023

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  50 

12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

2. Which of the following gases contains the
greatest number of molecules?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0,
O = 16.0, F = 19.0, Cl = 35.5, Ar = 40.0)
A. 50.0 g of argon
B. 50.0 g of fluorine
C. 50.0 g of hydrogen chloride
D. 50.0 g of nitrogen monoxide D
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  51 
12.2 The mole and molar mass

Class practice 12.3

3. Calculate the mass of chlorine which contains the
same number of molecules as there are in 1.20
mol of water.
Mass of chlorine
= 1.20  (35.5  2) g
= 85.2 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  52 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

⚫ From the formula of a compound, we can work out

the percentage by mass (質量百分比) of each
element in the compound.

Key point
Percentage by mass of element A in a compound
relative atomic mass of A
 number of atoms of A in the formula  100%
=
formula mass of the compound

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  53 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.4
Calculating the percentage by mass of an
element in a compound
Bauxite is an ore of aluminium. It contains mainly
aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Calculate the percentage
by mass of aluminium in aluminium oxide.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Al = 27.0)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  54 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.4

Solution
Formula mass of Al2O3
Al2 O3
= 27.0  2 + 16.0  3
= 102.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  55 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.4

Solution
Percentage by mass of Al in Al2O3
relative atomic mass of Al
=  number of atoms of Al in the formula  100%
formula mass of Al2O3
27.0  2
=  100%
102.0
= 52.9%

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  56 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.4
Self-test 12.4
Sodium hydroxide is an active ingredient of drain
cleaners. Calculate the percentage by mass of sodium
in sodium hydroxide.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
Percentage by mass of Na in NaOH
23.0
=  100%
23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0
= 57.5%
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  57 
12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.4

1. Calculate the percentage by mass of sulphur in
the compound Na2S.
(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0, S = 32.1)
Percentage by mass of S in Na2S
32.1
=  100%
23.0 × 2 + 32.1
= 41.1%

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  58 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.4

2. Calculate the percentage by nitrogen in the
compound (NH4)2HPO4.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0,
O = 16.0, P = 31.0)
Percentage by mass of N in (NH4)2HPO4
14.0  2
=  100%
14.0 + 1.0  4  2 + 1.0 + 31.0 + 16.0  4
= 21.2%

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  59 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.4

3. Calculate the percentage by magnesium in
magnesium chloride-6-water MgCl2 • 6H2O.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0,
Mg = 24.3, Cl = 35.5)
Percentage by mass of Mg in MgCl2 • 6H2O
24.3
=  100%
24.3 + 35.5  2 + (1.0  2 + 16.0)  6
= 12.0%

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  60 

12.3 Calculating percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.4

4. Given that an oxide of iron has 69.9% of iron by
mass and the formula mass of the oxide is 159.6,
how many iron atoms are there in a formula unit
of the oxide?
(Relative atomic mass: Fe = 55.8)
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4 B
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  61 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

⚫ The mass of an element in a compound can be

calculated from
➢ the mass of the compound
➢ the percentage by mass of the element in that
compound

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  62 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.5
Calculating the mass of an element in a
compound
How many grams of aluminium can be extracted
from 2000 g of aluminium oxide?

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  63 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.5

Solution
From Example 12.4, we know that the percentage by
mass of Al in Al2O3 is 52.9%. That means for every
gram of Al2O3, there is 0.529 g of Al in it.
 mass of Al in 2000 g of Al2O3
= 2000 g  52.9%
= 1058 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  64 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6
Calculating the mass of copper in hydrated
copper(II) sulphate
Calculate the mass of copper in 15.0 g of copper(II)
sulphate-5-water (CuSO4 • 5H2O).
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1,
Cu = 63.5)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  65 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6

Solution
Formula mass of CuSO4 • 5H2O
= 63.5 + 32.1 + 16.0  4 + 5  (1.0  2 + 16.0)
= 249.6
water of crystallization
Learning tip
Crystals of some salts contain water molecules as
part of their structure. These water molecules are
called water of crystallization e.g. CuSO4 • 5H2O.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  66 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6

Solution
Percentage by mass of Cu in CuSO4 • 5H2O
relative atomic mass of Cu
=  number of atoms of Cu in the formula  100%
formula mass of CuSO4 • 5H2O
63.5
=  100%
249.6
= 25.4%

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  67 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6

Solution
That means for every gram of CuSO4 • 5H2O, there is
0.254 g of Cu in it.
 mass of Cu in 15.0 g of CuSO4 • 5H2O
= 15.0 g  25.4%
= 3.81 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  68 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6
Self-test 12.6
Calculate the mass of potassium in 7.91 g of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7).
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, K = 39.1, Cr = 52.0)
Percentage by mass of K in K2Cr2O7
39.1  2
=  100%
39.1  2 + 52.0  2 + 16.0  7
= 26.6%
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  69 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Example 12.6
Self-test 12.6
Calculate the mass of potassium in 7.91 g of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7).
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, K = 39.1, Cr = 52.0)
Mass of K in 7.91 g of K2Cr2O7
= 7.91 g  26.6%
= 2.10 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  70 

12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.5

1. Calculate the mass of calcium in 206 g of calcium
oxide.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)
Percentage by mass of Ca in CaO
40.1
=  100% = 71.5%
40.1 + 16.0
Mass of Ca in 206 g of CaO
= 206 g  71.5% = 147 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  71 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.5

2. Calculate the mass of oxygen in 40.0 g of carbon
dioxide.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Percentage by mass of O in CO2
16.0  2
=  100% = 72.7%
12.0 + 16.0  2
Mass of O in 40.0 g of CO2
= 40.0 g  72.7% = 29.1 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  72 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.5

3. A sample of sodium nitrate contains 100 g of
sodium. Calculate the mass of nitrogen present
in this sample.
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, O = 16.0,
Na = 23.0)
Let the mass of NaNO3 be y g.
Percentage by mass of Na in NaNO3
23.0
=  100%
23.0 + 14.0 + 16.0  3
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  73 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.5

3. A sample of sodium nitrate contains 100 g of
sodium. Calculate the mass of nitrogen present
in this sample.
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, O = 16.0,
Na = 23.0)
Mass of Na in NaNO3
23.0
= 100 = y 
23.0 + 14.0 + 16.0  3
y = 369.57
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  74 
12.4 Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

Class practice 12.5

3. A sample of sodium nitrate contains 100 g of
sodium. Calculate the mass of nitrogen present
in this sample.
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, O = 16.0,
Na = 23.0)
Mass of N in NaNO3
14.0
= 369.57 g   100%
23.0 + 14.0 + 16.0  3
= 60.9 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  75 
12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

⚫ The relative atomic mass of an element may be

calculated from
➢ the formula of the compound
➢ the percentage by mass of that element in the
compound

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  76 

12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Example 12.7
Calculating the relative atomic mass of an
element
The chloride of metal M has the formula of MCl3 and
contains 34.4% by mass of M. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of M.
(Relative atomic mass: Cl = 35.5)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  77 

12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Example 12.7

Solution
Let the relative atomic mass of M be a.
Percentage by mass of M in MCl3
relative atomic mass of M
=  number of atoms of M in the formula  100%
formula mass of MCl3

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  78 

12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Example 12.7

Solution
Math tip
a To solve a,
34.4% =
a + 35.5  3 a
 100% 0.344 = 1
a + 35.5  3
a = 55.8 0.344a + 36.6 = a
 the relative atomic 0.656a = 36.6
mass of M is 55.8. a = 55.8

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  79 

12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Example 12.7
Self-test 12.7
The bromide of metal X has the formula of XBr2 and
contains 25.6% by mass of X. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of X.
(Relative atomic mass: Br = 79.9)
Let the relative atomic mass of X be a.
a
25.6% =  100%
a + 79.9  2
a = 55.0
 the relative atomic mass of X is 55.0.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  80 
12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Class practice 12.6

1. A metal oxide MO contains 79.87% by mass of M.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of M.
(Relative atomic mass: O = 16.0)
Let the relative atomic mass of M be a.
a
79.87% =  100%
a + 16.0
a = 63.5
the relative atomic mass of M is 63.5.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  81 
12.5 Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

Class practice 12.6

2. 26.88 g of a metal chloride MCl contains 5.68 g of
chlorine. Calculate the relative atomic mass of M.
(Relative atomic mass: Cl = 35.5)
Let the relative atomic mass of M be a.
5.68 35.5
=
26.88 a + 35.5
a = 132.5
the relative atomic mass of M is 132.5.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  82 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

What is empirical formula?

⚫ The empirical formula (實驗式) of a compound is
defined as the formula that shows the simplest
whole number ratio of the atoms or ions present
in the compound.
➢ Ionic compounds:
The empirical formulae are the same as the
chemical formulae.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  83 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

What is empirical formula?

⚫ The empirical formula (實驗式) of a compound is
defined as the formula that shows the simplest
whole number ratio of the atoms or ions present
in the compound.
➢ Molecular substances:
The empirical formulae may or may not be the
same as the chemical formulae.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  84 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

What is empirical formula?

Key point
The empirical formula of a compound is the
formula which shows the simplest whole
number ratio of the atoms or ions present.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  85 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

What is empirical formula?

⚫ The empirical formula of a compound can be
determined from its composition by mass (質量
組成).
the mass of each element
present in a known mass of
the compound
⚫ The composition of a compound has to be
determined by experiments.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  86 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
⚫ To determine the empirical formula of an oxide of
copper, we have to find the ratio by mass of copper
and oxygen in the compound in an experiment.

Experiment 12.1 (video)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  87 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
⚫ A set-up for conducting the experiment:

hole
oxide of copper

town gas excess town

supply gas burns
here
heat combustion tube

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  88 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
Put a known mass of the
oxide of copper (black) inside
a combustion tube.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  89 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper

Pass town gas into the

tube while heating the
oxide strongly.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  90 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide in
the town gas reduce the oxide of
copper to copper (reddish brown).

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  91 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper

Keep heating the solid in the

combustion tube until there is no
further colour change in the solid.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  92 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper

Then find the mass of the

solid (copper) remained.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  93 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
Item Mass / g

Mass of combustion tube 18.100

Mass of combustion tube

18.701
+ oxide of copper
Mass of combustion tube
18.579
+ copper
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  94 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Determining the empirical formula of an oxide of

copper
Item Mass / g
18.579 − 18.100
Mass of copper in the oxide
= 0.479
18.701 − 18.579
Mass of oxygen in the oxide
= 0.122
⚫ From the experimental results, we can work out
the empirical formula of the oxide of copper.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  95 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

Determining the empirical formula of a
compound
The steps showing how to determine the empirical
formula of the above oxide of copper are as follows:

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  96 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

❶ Write the mass of each element.

Cu O
Mass / g 0.479 0.122

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  97 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

❷ Write the relative atomic mass of each element.
(After some practice, you will be able to skip
this step.)
Cu O
Relative atomic mass 63.5 16.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  98 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

❸ Calculate the number of moles of each kind of
atoms.
Cu O
Number of moles of atoms 0.479 0.122
/ mol 63.5 16.0
mass (g) = 0.00754 = 0.00763
(= )
molar mass (g mol−1)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  99 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

❹ Calculate the simplest whole number mole
ratio of atoms.
Cu O
Simplest whole number 0.00754 0.00763
mole ratio of atoms 0.00754 0.00754
(divided by the smallest =1 = 1.01
number of moles) ≈1

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  100 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

❹ Calculate the simplest whole number mole
ratio of atoms.
Cu O
(multiplied by the smallest 0.00754 0.00763
possible whole number to 0.00754 0.00754
turn all the values into =1 = 1.01
whole number if necessary) ≈1
 the empirical formula of the oxide of copper is CuO.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  101 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Problem-solving strategy 12.1

Due to experimental error, the number(s) obtained
for the simplest mole ratio when determining the
empirical formulae may have a small difference
from a whole number.
It is acceptable to ‘round off’ the value(s) to the
nearest whole number(s). However, we must be very
cautious when doing so.
For example, 1.01 can be rounded off to 1, but 1.2 is
usually not rounded off to 1.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  102 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8
Determining the empirical formula of a
compound from the percentage by mass
An oxide of lead contains 92.7% of lead by mass.
Determine the empirical formula of this oxide.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Pb = 207.2)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  103 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8

Solution
Pb O
Mass / g 92.7 7.3

Learning tip
Assume that there is 100 g of X. Then there are
92.7 g of Pb and 7.3 g of O.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  104 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8

Solution
Pb O
Relative atomic
207.2 16.0
mass

Number of moles 92.7 7.3

of atoms / mol = 0.447 = 0.456
207.2 16.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  105 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8

Solution
Pb O
Simplest whole 0.456
0.447 = 1.02
number mole =1 0.447
0.447
ratio of atoms ≈1

 the empirical formula of the oxide is PbO.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  106 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8
Self-test 12.8
Compound Y contains 26.95% sulphur, 13.44%
oxygen and 59.61% chlorine by mass. Determine the
empirical formula of Y.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, S = 32.1, Cl = 35.5)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  107 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8
Self-test 12.8
S O Cl

Mass / g 26.95 13.44 59.61

Relative atomic
32.1 16.0 35.5
mass

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  108 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Example 12.8
Self-test 12.8
S O Cl
26.95 13.44 59.61
Number of moles 32.1 16.0 35.5
of atoms / mol = 0.840 = 0.840 = 1.68
Simplest whole 0.840 0.840 1.68
number mole 0.840 0.840 0.840
ratio of atoms =1 =1 =2
the empirical formula of Y is SOCl2.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  109 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.7

1. A compound has the empirical formula CxHy. On
analysis, 1.000 g of this compound was found to
contain 0.857 g of carbon. Calculate the values of
x and y.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  110 

12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.7

1. C H
1.000 − 0.857
Mass / g 0.857
= 0.143
Number of moles 0.857 0.143
= 0.0714 = 0.143
of atoms / mol 12.0 1.0
Simplest whole
number mole 0.0714 0.143
=1 =2
0.0714 0.0714
ratio of atoms
x = 1, y = 2
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  111 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.7

2. A 16.28 g sample of a metal oxide, MO, upon
reduction, gives 13.08 g of the metal M. Which of
the following is the relative atomic mass of M?
(Relative atomic mass: O = 16.0)
A. 24.3
B. 40.1
C. 63.5
D. 65.4 D
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  112 
12.6 Determining empirical formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.7

3. HKDSE 2015 Paper 1B Q3b(i) (Refer to p.80)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  113 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Consider ethene:

⚫ It has two C and four H atoms in each molecule.

⚫ Its empirical formula is CH2.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  114 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Consider ethene:

⚫ The empirical formula cannot show the actual

numbers of C and H atoms in an ethene molecule.
⚫ We have to use the molecular formula to
represent their actual numbers.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  115 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Key point
The molecular formula (分子式) of a
substance shows the actual number of
each kind of atoms in one molecule of
the substance.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  116 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

⚫ The application of the concepts of empirical
formula and molecular formula to different
substances:

Empirical formula Molecular formula

✓ Ionic compounds ✓ Molecular substances
✓ Covalent compounds

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  117 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

⚫ Note that the empirical and molecular formulae of
a compound may be the same or different.
⚫ The molecular formula is the empirical formula
multiplied by an integer (1, 2, 3, etc.).

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  118 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Empirical Molecular
Compound
formula formula
Carbon dioxide CO2 CO2
Ethanol C2H6O C2H6O

empirical and molecular

formulae are the same

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  119 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Empirical Molecular
Compound
formula formula
Ethene CH2 C2H4
Propene CH2 C3H6
Glucose CH2O C6H12O6

empirical and molecular

formulae are different
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  120 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

What is molecular formula?

Empirical Molecular
Compound
formula formula
Magnesium
MgCO3 /
carbonate

Silicon dioxide SiO2 /

concept of molecular formula does not

apply to ionic and covalent compounds
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  121 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Determining the molecular formulae of covalent

compounds
⚫ We can determine the molecular formula of a
compound once we know
➢ the empirical formula of the compound
➢ the relative molecular mass of the compound

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  122 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.9
Determining molecular formula from
empirical formula and relative molecular
mass
A covalent compound has an empirical formula of
CH2 and a relative molecular mass of 42.0.
Determine its molecular formula.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  123 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.9

Solution
Let the molecular formula of the compound be
(CH2)n, where n is an integer.
n  (12.0 + 1.0  2) = 42.0
n=3
 the molecular formula of the compound is (CH2)3,
i.e. C3H6.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  124 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.10
Determining empirical formula and molecular
formula from percentage by mass
Compound X was found to contain 80% carbon and
20% hydrogen by mass. Given that X has a relative
molecular mass smaller than 35.0, what are the
empirical formula and molecular formula of X?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  125 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.10

Solution
C H
Mass / g 80 20

Learning tip
Assume that there is 100 g of X. Then there are
80 g of C and 20 g of H.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  126 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.10

Solution
C H
Relative atomic
12.0 1.0
mass

Number of moles 80 20
of atoms / mol = 6.67 = 20.0
12.0 1.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  127 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.10

Solution
C H
Simplest whole
number mole 6.67 20.0
=1 =3
6.67 6.67
ratio of atoms

 the empirical formula of X is CH3.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  128 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.10

Solution
Let the molecular formula of X be (CH3)n, where n is
an integer.
Math tip
n  (12.0 + 1.0  3) < 35.0 The symbol ‘<’
n < 2.33 means ‘smaller
(i.e. n = 2) than’.
 the molecular formula of X is C2H6.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  129 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11
Determining empirical formula and molecular
formula from masses of combustion
products
Compound Z contains only carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. 2.43 g of Z burns completely to give 3.96 g
of carbon dioxide and 1.35 g of water. Determine
the empirical formula of Z. If the relative molecular
mass of Z is 162.0, determine its molecular formula.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  130 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
Since all the C in CO2 and H in H2O come from Z,
mass of C in Z
12.0
= 3.96 g 
12.0 + 16.0  2
= 1.08 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  131 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
mass of H in Z
1.0  2
= 1.35 g 
1.0  2 + 16.0
= 0.15 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  132 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
The rest of the mass of Z must come from oxygen.
 mass of O in Z
= (2.43 − 1.08 − 0.15) g
= 1.20 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  133 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
Now go on to find the empirical formula of Z as
follows:
C H O
Mass / g 1.08 0.15 1.20
Relative
12.0 1.0 16.0
atomic mass
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  134 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
C H O

Number of 1.08 0.15 1.20

moles of 12.0 1.0 16.0
atoms / mol = 0.090 = 0.15 = 0.075

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  135 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
C H O
Simplest 0.090 0.15 0.075
whole 0.075 0.075 0.075
number = 1.2 =2 =1
mole ratio
of atoms 1.2  5 = 6 2  5 = 10 15=5
 the empirical formula of Z is C6H10O5.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  136 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.11

Solution
Let the molecular formula of Z be (C6H10O5)n,
where n is an integer.
n  (12.0  6 + 1.0  10 + 16.0  5) = 162.0
n=1
 the molecular formula of Z is C6H10O5.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  137 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
Determining the number of water of
crystallization in a hydrated salt
5.60 g of a hydrated copper(II) sulphate CuSO4 • nH2O
is heated in a crucible to remove the water of
crystallization. The white residue is anhydrous
copper(II) sulphate, which is found to have a mass of
3.59 g.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  138 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12

Hydrated copper(II) sulphate Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate

Experiment 12.2 (video)

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12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(a) Deduce, from the experimental results, a
reasonable value for n.
Solution
Mass of water of crystallization
= (5.60 − 3.59) g
= 2.01 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  140 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(a) Deduce, from the experimental results, a
reasonable value for n.
Solution
CuSO4 H2O
Mass / g 3.59 2.01

Formula mass 159.6 18.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  141 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(a) Deduce, from the experimental results, a
reasonable value for n.
Solution
CuSO4 H2O
Number of moles
of formula units 3.59 2.01
= 0.0225 = 0.112
159.6 18.0
/ mol

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  142 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(a) Deduce, from the experimental results, a
reasonable value for n.
Solution
CuSO4 H2O
Simplest whole
number mole 0.0225 0.112
=1 = 4.98
ratio of formula 0.0225 0.0225
units
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  143 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(a) Deduce, from the experimental results, a
reasonable value for n.
Solution
Since n should be a whole number, a reasonable
value of n would be 5.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  144 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Example 12.12
(b) Suggest a reason why the value of n deduced in
(a) differs slightly from the value calculated.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1,
Cu = 63.5)
Solution
The experimental value of n (4.98) is smaller than 5. This
might be because not all water of crystallization has been
removed from the hydrated salt during the heating process.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  145 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

1. A compound contains only carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. 0.81 g of the compound gives 1.32 g of
carbon dioxide and 0.45 g of water upon complete
combustion. Given that the relative molecular
mass of the compound is 320.0, determine its
(a) empirical formula.
(b) molecular formula.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0,
O = 16.0)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  146 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) empirical formula
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Mass of C in the compound
12.0
= 1.32 g  = 0.36 g
12.0 + 16.0  2
Mass of H in the compound
1.0  2
= 0.45 g  = 0.05 g
1.0  2 + 16.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  147 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) empirical formula
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Mass of O in the compound
= (0.81 − 0.36 − 0.05) g = 0.40 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  148 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) empirical formula
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
C H O
Mass / g 0.36 0.05 0.40

Number of 0.36 0.05 0.40

moles of atoms 12.0 1.0 16.0
/ mol = 0.03 = 0.05 = 0.025

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  149 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) empirical formula
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
C H O
0.03 0.05 0.025
Simplest whole 0.025 0.025 0.025
number mole = 1.2 =2 =1
ratio of atoms
1.2  5 = 6 2  5 = 10 1  5 = 5
 the empirical formula of this compound is C6H10O5.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  150 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(b) molecular formula
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Let the molecular formula of this compound be
(C6H10O5)n, where n is an integer.
n  (12.0  6 + 1.0  10 + 16.0  5) = 320
n = 1.98 ≈ 2
 the molecular formula of this compound is
C12H20O10.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  151 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

2. In an experiment to determine the number of
water of crystallization in a hydrated salt of
magnesium sulphate, 2.50 g sample of the salt
was heated gently in a crucible until there was no
further change. The results are tabulated below:
Item Mass / g
Mass of crucible 24.30
Mass of crucible and MgSO4 • nH2O 26.80
Mass of crucible and salt after heating 25.52
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  152 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) Calculate the mass of water evaporated from the
sample.
(b) Calculate the mass of MgSO4.
(c) Calculate the mass ratio of MgSO4 to H2O.
(d) State the empirical formula of the hydrated
MgSO4.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3,
S = 32.1)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  153 
12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(a) Calculate the mass of water evaporated from the
sample.
(26.80 – 25.52) g
= 1.28 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  154 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(b) Calculate the mass of MgSO4.
(25.52 – 24.30) g
= 1.22 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  155 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(c) Calculate the mass ratio of MgSO4 to H2O.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3,
S = 32.1)
1.22 1.28
:
24.3 + 32.1 + 16.0  4 1.0  2 + 16.0
= 0.0101 : 0.0711
= 1 : 7.04

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  156 

12.7 Determining molecular formulae from experimental data

Class practice 12.8

(d) State the empirical formula of the hydrated
MgSO4.
MgSO4 • 7H2O

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  157 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Relationship between mole ratio and stoichiometric

coefficients a chemical equation
⚫ A balanced chemical equation provides us
information about the relative numbers of
particles of reactant(s) and the product(s) taking
part in a reaction.
Learning tip
The quantitative study of reactants and
products in a reaction is called stoichiometry.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  158 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Relationship between mole ratio and stoichiometric

coefficients a chemical equation
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2 Mg atoms react 1 O2 molecule to 2 formula units of
with form MgO
 6.02  1023  6.02  1023  6.02  1023
2  6.02  1023 react 1  6.02  1023 to 2  6.02  1023
Mg atoms with O2 molecules form formula units of
MgO

Particle ratio
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  159 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Relationship between mole ratio and stoichiometric

coefficients a chemical equation
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2 Mg atoms react 1 O2 molecule to 2 formula units of
with form MgO
 6.02  1023  6.02  1023  6.02  1023
2 moles of react 1 mole of to 2 moles of
Mg atoms with O2 molecules form formula units of
MgO

Mole ratio
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  160 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Relationship between mole ratio and stoichiometric

coefficients a chemical equation
2Mg(s) + 1 O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
⚫ The stoichiometric coefficients in the equation
indicate the mole ratio of reactants and products
in the reaction.

Mole ratio of Mg : O2 : MgO = 2 : 1 : 2

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  161 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Conservation of mass
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
 24.3 g mol−1 react  32.0 g mol−1 to  40.3 g mol−1
= 48.6 g of Mg with = 32.0 g of O2 form = 80.6 g of
atoms molecules formula units
of MgO

Total mass of Total mass of

reactants: = products:
48.6 g + 32.0 g = 80.6 g 80.6 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  162 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Conservation of mass
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
 24.3 g mol−1 react  32.0 g mol−1 to  40.3 g mol−1
= 48.6 g of Mg with = 32.0 g of O2 form = 80.6 g of
atoms molecules formula units
of MgO
⚫ This is called conservation of mass.
⚫ Mass is conserved because the numbers of the
different kinds of atoms remain unchanged before
and after a reaction.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  163 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.13
Understanding conservation of mass
Lead(II) oxide reacts with carbon powder to give lead
and carbon dioxide.
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
w grams of PbO(s) react with x grams of C(s) to give
y grams of Pb(s) and z grams of CO2(g). Express y in
terms of w, x and z.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  164 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.13

Solution
Total mass of the reactants at the start = (w + x) grams
Total mass of the reactants at the end = (y + z) grams
According to the conservation of mass, w + x = y + z
y=w+x−z

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  165 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.13

Learning tip
The stoichiometric coefficients in the equation
shows the quantitative relationship (i.e. mole
ratio), but not the mass relationship among the
species in a reaction.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  166 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Calculating reacting masses from chemical

equations
⚫ Chemists often want to know the amount of
product(s) that can be produced from a given
amount of reactant(s).

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

Calculating reacting masses from chemical
equations
Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed when
2.43 g of magnesium burns completely in air.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

❶ Write the chemical equation for the reaction.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

❷ Convert the mass(es) of the given substance(s)
into the number of moles.
Number of moles of Mg (mol)
mass of Mg (g)
=
molar mass of Mg (g mol−1)
2.43 g
=
24.3 g mol−1
= 0.100 mol

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

❸ Calculate the number of moles of the substance
asked in the question.
From the equation,
mole ratio of Mg to MgO = 2 : 2 (or simply 1 : 1)
 number of moles of MgO formed = 0.100 mol

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

❹ Convert the number of moles of that substance
into mass.
Mass of MgO (g)
= number of moles molar mass of MgO

of MgO (mol) (g mol−1)
= 0.100 mol  (24.3 + 16.0) g mol–1
= 4.03 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  172 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

Try it now
Calculate the mass of copper formed when 15.9 g of
copper(II) oxide reacts completely with hydrogen.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Cu = 63.5)
❶ CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
❷ Number of moles of CuO
15.9
= mol = 0.200 mol
63.5 + 16.0
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  173 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.2

Try it now
Calculate the mass of copper formed when 15.9 g of
copper(II) oxide reacts completely with hydrogen.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Cu = 63.5)
❸ From the equation, mole ratio of CuO to Cu
= 1 : 1.
 number of moles of Cu formed = 0.200 mol
❹ Mass of Cu = 0.200  63.5 g = 12.7 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  174 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

The steps for calculating the reacting masses from a

chemical equation: Mass of the
Known (A represents the substance asked in
chemical formula of the question
mass of A
a given substance.)
multiplied by
divided by molar molar mass of
mass of A that substance
Number of moles
Number of by mole ratio of the substance
moles of A (shown in the asked in the
equation) question
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  175 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14
Calculating the mass of a product from the
mass of a reactant
Calculate the mass of iron formed when 1.60 g of
iron(III) oxide reacts completely with excess carbon
monoxide.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Fe = 55.8)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14

Solution
❶ Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
❷ Number of moles of Fe2O3 used
1.60 g
=
(55.8  2 + 16.0  3) g mol−1
= 0.0100 mol

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  177 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of Fe2O3 to Fe = 1 : 2.
number of moles of Fe
= 0.0100  2 mol
= 0.0200 mol

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  178 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14

Solution
❹ Mass of Fe formed
= 0.0200 mol  55.8 g mol−1
= 1.12 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  179 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14
Self-test 12.14
Calculate the mass of lead produced when 2.23 g of
lead(II) oxide reacts completely with excess carbon.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Pb = 207.2)
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Number of moles of PbO used
2.23
= mol = 9.99  10−3 mol
207.2 + 16.0
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  180 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.14
Self-test 12.14
Calculate the mass of lead produced when 2.23 g of
lead(II) oxide reacts completely with excess carbon.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Pb = 207.2)
From the equation, mole ratio of PbO to Pb = 1 : 1.
∴ number of moles of Pb = 9.99  10−3 mol
Mass of Pb formed = 9.99  10−3  207.2 g = 2.07 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  181 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.15
Calculating the mass of a reactant from the
mass of a product
A sample of lead ore contains 75% by mass of lead(II)
sulphide and 25% impurities. It is known that there
are no other lead-containing compounds in the
impurities. Calculate the mass of the ore required to
extract 20.72 g of lead.
(Relative atomic masses: S = 32.1, Pb = 207.2)

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  182 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.15

Solution
❶ The extraction of lead involves two steps:
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.15

Solution
❷ Number of moles of Pb to be extracted
20.72 g
=
207.2 g mol−1
= 0.1000 mol

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.15

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of Pb to PbO to PbS = 1 : 1 : 1.
 number of moles of PbS required
= 0.1000 mol

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.15

Solution
❹ Mass of PbS required
= 0.1000 mol  (207.2 + 32.1) g mol–1 = 23.93 g
As the ore contains 75% by mass of PbS, mass of
the ore required
23.93 g
=
75%
= 31.91 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  186 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.9

1. Upon strong heating, silver oxide decomposes to
silver and oxygen:
2Ag2O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g)
Calculate the mass of silver obtained when 6.96 g
of silver oxide is strongly heated in air.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Ag = 107.9)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.9

1. Number of moles of Ag2O used
6.96
= mol = 0.0300 mol
107.9  2 + 16.0
From the equation,
mole ratio of Ag2O to Ag = 1 : 2.
 number of moles of Ag
= 0.0300 mol  2 = 0.0600 mol
Mass of Ag formed = 0.0600  107.9 g = 6.47 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  188 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.9

2. Aluminium powder reacts with finely divided
iron(III) oxide according to the following equation:
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
Calculate the mass of finely divided iron(III) oxide
needed to produce 10.55 g of iron.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Fe = 55.8)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.9

2. Number of moles of Fe produced
10.55
= mol = 0.189 mol
55.8
From the equation,
mole ratio of Fe to Fe2O3 = 2 : 1.
 number of moles of Fe2O3
0.189
= mol = 0.0945 mol
2
Mass of Fe2O3 needed
= [0.0945  (55.8  2 + 16.0  3)] g = 15.1 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  190 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Calculations involving limiting reactant

⚫ Consider the reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen to form water:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
H2 molecule H2O molecule
O2 molecule

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Calculations involving limiting reactant

2 H2 molecules + 2 H2O molecules +

2 O2 molecules 1 O2 molecule

H2 molecule H2O molecule

O2 molecule

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  192 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Calculations involving limiting reactant

All the hydrogen Oxygen is

has reacted. in excess.

H2 molecule H2O molecule

O2 molecule

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Calculations involving limiting reactant

⚫ The amount of water produced is limited by the
amount of hydrogen used.
⚫ Hydrogen is called the limiting reactant (限量反應
物) in this case.
⚫ The limiting reactant limits the amount of the
product formed in a reaction.
⚫ The reaction stops when the limiting reactant is
used up.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

Determining the limiting reactant in a reaction
In the extraction of zinc from zinc oxide, 8.14 g of
zinc oxide is heated with 6.50 g of carbon powder.
Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Zn = 65.4)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

❶ Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
2ZnO(s) + C(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

❷ Calculate the number of moles of each reactant.
Number of moles of ZnO
8.14 g
= −1 = 0.100 mol
(65.4 + 16.0) g mol
Number of moles of C
6.50 g
= −1 = 0.542 mol
12.0 g mol

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

❸ Calculate, if all of a reactant is used up, the
number of moles of the other reactant that will
be needed for complete reaction.
2ZnO(s) + C(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
0.100 mol 0.542 mol
(from ❷) (from ❷)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

❸ From the equation, mole ratio of ZnO to C is 2 : 1.
0.100
(a) 0.100 mol of ZnO requires mol
2
= 0.0500 mol of C for complete reaction
(b) 0.542 mol of C requires 0.542 mol  2
= 1.084 mol of ZnO for complete reaction

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

❹ Identify the reactant that is in limited amount
i.e. not in excess. This reactant will first be used
up in the reaction.
In 3(a), only 0.0500 mol of C is needed to react
with all of the ZnO (i.e. 0.100 mol). As there is
0.542 mol of C available, C is in excess. Thus ZnO
is the limiting reactant.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  200 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

Try it now
In an experiment, 6.54 g of zinc is heated with 3.84 g
of oxygen. Which one is the limiting reactant?
❶ 2Zn(s) + O2(g) → 2ZnO(s)
6.54
❷ Number of moles of Zn = mol = 0.100 mol
65.4
3.84
Number of moles of O2 = mol = 0.120 mol
32.0

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  201 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

Try it now
In an experiment, 6.54 g of zinc is heated with 3.84 g
of oxygen. Which one is the limiting reactant?
❸ From the equation, mole ratio of Zn to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.100
(a) 0.100 mol of Zn requires mol =
2
0.0500 mol of O2 for complete reaction.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  202 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

Try it now
In an experiment, 6.54 g of zinc is heated with 3.84 g
of oxygen. Which one is the limiting reactant?
❸ From the equation, mole ratio of Zn to O2 = 2 : 1.
(b) 0.120 mol of O2 requires 0.120 mol  2 =
0.240 mol of Zn for complete reaction.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  203 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Problem-solving strategy 12.3

Try it now
In an experiment, 6.54 g of zinc is heated with 3.84 g
of oxygen. Which one is the limiting reactant?
❹ In (a), only 0.0500 mol of O2 is needed to react
with all of the Zn (i.e. 0.100 mol). As there is
0.120 mol of O2 available, O2 is in excess. Thus,
Zn is the limiting reactant.

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  204 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16
Calculating reacting masses involving
limiting reactant
Calculate the mass of water formed when 5.4 g of
hydrogen is heated with 3.2 g of oxygen.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16

Solution
❶ 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
5.4 g
❷ Number of moles of H2 =
(1.0  2) g mol−1
= 2.7 mol
3.2 g
Number of moles of O2 =
(16.0  2) g mol−1
= 0.10 mol
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  206 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of H2 to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.10 mol of O2 requires only 0.10 mol  2
= 0.20 mol of H2 for complete reaction.
 H2 is in excess while O2 is the limiting reactant.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of O2 to H2O = 1 : 2.
Number of moles of H2O formed
= 0.10 mol  2 = 0.20 mol
Mass of H2O formed
= 0.20 mol  (1.0  2 + 16.0) g mol−1 = 3.6 g

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16
Self-test 12.16
Calculate the mass of nitrogen dioxide formed when
26.58 g of nitrogen monoxide reacts with 8.06 g of
oxygen according to the following equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, O = 16.0)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16
Self-test 12.16
Number of moles of NO
26.58
= mol
14.0 + 16.0
= 0.886 mol
Number of moles of O2
8.06
= mol
16.0  2
= 0.252 mol
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  210 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16
Self-test 12.16
From the equation, mole ratio of NO to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.252 mol of O2 requires only 0.252 mol  2
= 0.504 mol of NO for complete reaction.
 NO is in excess while O2 is the limiting reactant.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.16
Self-test 12.16
From the equation, mole ratio of O2 to NO2 = 1 : 2.
 number of moles of NO2 formed
= 0.252 mol  2
= 0.504 mol
Mass of NO2 formed
= 0.504  (14.0 + 16.0  2) g
= 23.2 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  212 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Concept check
⚫ The reactant which is in the least number of
moles must be the limiting reactant.
⚫ A limiting reactant is NOT necessarily the one
which is in the least number of moles. It is the
one that is not in excess and is first used up in a
reaction.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Theoretical yield, actual yield and percentage yield

the maximum amount
of product expected if
Theoretical yield
the reaction proceeds
(理論產量)
exactly as shown in the
chemical equation

the amount of product

Actual yield
actually obtained at the
(實際產量)
end of the reaction

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Theoretical yield, actual yield and percentage yield

⚫ The actual yield of a reaction is often smaller than
the theoretical yield because:
➢ the reaction may not complete.
➢ impurities are present in the reactants i.e. the
actual mass of the reactant(s) used is smaller
than expected.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Theoretical yield, actual yield and percentage yield

⚫ The actual yield of a reaction is often smaller than
the theoretical yield because:
➢ there are side reactions which give unwanted
side products.
➢ some product is lost in some of the experimental
processes, such as purification.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Theoretical yield, actual yield and percentage yield

⚫ The efficiency of a chemical reaction can be
expressed by the percentage yield (百分產率).

Key point
actual yield
Percentage yield =  100%
theoretical yield

⚫ The higher the percentage yield, the more efficient

is the chemical reaction.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  217 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17
Calculating the theoretical yield and actual
yield of a product
In an experiment, 31.8 g of copper(II) oxide was
heated with 6.0 g of carbon powder.
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of copper.
(b) Given that the percentage yield of copper is 82%,
calculate the actual yield of copper.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Cu = 63.5)
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  218 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17

(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of copper.

Solution
❶ 2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17

(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of copper.

Solution
31.8 g
❷ Number of moles of CuO =
(63.5 + 16.0) g mol−1
= 0.400 mol
6.0 g
Number of moles of C = −1 = 0.50 mol
12.0 g mol

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  220 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17

(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of copper.

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of CuO to C = 2 : 1.
0.400
0.400 mol of CuO only requires mol
2
= 0.200 mol of C for complete reaction.
 C is in excess while CuO is the limiting reactant.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  221 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17

(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of copper.

Solution
❸ From the equation,
mole ratio of CuO to Cu = 1 : 1.
 number of moles of Cu = 0.400 mol
Theoretical yield of Cu = 0.400 mol  63.5 g mol–1
= 25.4 g
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  222 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.17

(b) Given that the percentage yield of copper is 82%,

calculate the actual yield of copper.
Solution
Actual yield of Cu (g)
= theoretical yield of Cu (g)  percentage yield of Cu (%)
= 25.4 g  82%
= 20.8 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  223 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18
Calculating the total mass of ions in a cube
of sodium chloride crystal
Sodium chloride is one of the
most abundant minerals on
the Earth. It can be extracted
from sea water or some ores
in the Earth’s crust. Crystals
of sodium chloride have a Sodium chloride crystals
giant ionic structure.
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  224 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(a) Outline how to obtain crystals of sodium chloride

from a muddy sea water sample in the school
laboratory.
Solution
Filter the sea water sample to get rid of the mud.
Then heat the filtered sea water until it becomes
saturated.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(a) Outline how to obtain crystals of sodium chloride

from a muddy sea water sample in the school
laboratory.
Solution
After that, allow the hot saturated sea water to cool
slowly to room temperature. Crystals of sodium
chloride will form gradually.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(a) Outline how to obtain crystals of sodium chloride

from a muddy sea water sample in the school
laboratory.
Solution
Finally, separate the crystals of sodium chloride from
the remaining sea water by filtration.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(a) Outline how to obtain crystals of sodium chloride

from a muddy sea water sample in the school
laboratory.
Solution
Learning tip
The crystals obtained are not completely pure.
They also contain other salts e.g. CaCl2, MgSO4, etc.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(b) Suggest a method for extracting sodium from

sodium chloride.
Solution
Electrolysis of the molten sodium chloride

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(c) The diagram below shows a part of the structure

of sodium chloride crystal with some ions missing.

Na+ ion
Cl− ion

Complete the diagram by filling in the missing

ions.
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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

Solution

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) From an experiment, it is found that there are 4

Na+ ions and 4 Cl– ions in a cube of sodium
chloride crystal, and the length of each side of
the cube is 5.65  10–8 cm.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (i) Express the total mass of 4 Na+ ions and 4

Cl– ions in terms of the Avogadro constant, L.
(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5)
Solution
23.0 g mol −1
Mass of 1 Na+ ion = −1 ;
L mol
35.5 g mol −1
Mass of 1 Cl– ion =
L mol−1
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  233 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (i) Express the total mass of 4 Na+ ions and 4

Cl– ions in terms of the Avogadro constant, L.
(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5)
Solution
Total mass of 4 Na+ ions and 4 Cl– ions
23.0 g mol−1 35.5 g mol−1 234
=4 −1 +4 −1 = g
L mol L mol L

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (ii) Calculate the volume of the cube of sodium

chloride crystal.
Solution
Volume of the cube of sodium chloride crystal
= (5.65  10–8 cm)3
= 1.80  10–22 cm3

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (iii) Hence, determine the value of the Avogadro

constant, L, given that the density of sodium
chloride is 2.17 g cm–3.
Solution
Mass of the cube of NaCl crystal
= 2.17 g cm–3  1.80  10–22 cm3
= 3.906  10–22 g

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  236 

12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (iii) Hence, determine the value of the Avogadro

constant, L, given that the density of sodium
chloride is 2.17 g cm–3.
Solution
Mass of the cube of NaCl crystal
= total mass of 4 Na+ ions and 4 Cl– ions in the cube
of crystal

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(d) (iii) Hence, determine the value of the Avogadro

constant, L, given that the density of sodium
chloride is 2.17 g cm–3.
Solution
234
 L g = 3.906  10–22 g
L = 5.99  1023

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

(e) Refer to the following chemical reaction:

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
n moles of Na(s) are allowed to react with 2n
moles of Cl2(g) under suitable conditions until
the reaction stops. Calculate the number of
moles of NaCl(s) formed in terms of n.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Example 12.18

Solution
From the given equation,
mole ratio of Na to Cl2 to NaCl = 2 : 1 : 2.
n
 n moles of Na requires only moles of Cl2 for
2
complete reaction. Hence, Na(s) is the
limiting reactant.
 number of moles of NaCl formed = n moles
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  240 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

1. Iron reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid
according to the following equation:
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
0.5 mol of iron is added to an aqueous solution
containing 0.8 mol of hydrochloric acid. Which of
the following statements is correct?

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

1. A. 0.5 mol of hydrogen forms.
B. 0.8 mol of iron(II) chloride forms.
C. Iron is in excess by 0.1 mol.
D. Hydrochloric acid is in excess by 0.3 mol.

C
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8  242 
12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

2. HKDSE 2021 Paper 1B Q3c(ii) (Refer to p.95)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

3. A student performed an experiment to prepare
calcium hydroxide. 1.50 g of calcium granules
was added to a sufficient amount of water. The
calcium hydroxide precipitate formed was then
filtered off, washed and dried.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

3. (a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction
of calcium with water.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

3. (b) Calculate the theoretical yield of calcium
hydroxide.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0,
Ca = 40.1)
1.50
Number of moles of Ca = mol
40.1
= 0.0374 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of Ca to Ca(OH)2
= 1 : 1.
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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

3. (b) Calculate the theoretical yield of calcium
hydroxide.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0,
Ca = 40.1)
 theoretical yield of Ca(OH)2
= 0.0374  [40.1 + (16.0 + 1.0)  2] g
= 2.77 g

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Class practice 12.10

3. (c) The actual yield of calcium hydroxide was
much smaller than the theoretical yield.
Suggest a reason why there was such a
difference.
Any one of the following:
⚫ The calcium used was impure/was covered

with an oxide layer on its surface.

⚫ Some calcium hydroxide was lost during

filtration, washing and/or drying.

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Activity 12.1
Determining the chemical reaction occurring in the
thermal decomposition of baking soda
Sodium hydrogencarbonate (commonly called
baking soda) is a main ingredient of baking powder.
Baking powder is used in bread-making to ensure
that the bread can ‘rise’ during baking. When the
temperature of the bread mixture reaches about
50C, the sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) in
the powder decomposes and carbon dioxide evolves.
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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Activity 12.1
Sodium hydrogencarbonate is proposed to have undergone
the following three decomposition reactions during the
baking process. In fact, only one of these reactions actually
occurs.
⚫ sodium hydrogencarbonate → sodium hydroxide

+ carbon dioxide
⚫ sodium hydrogencarbonate → sodium oxide
+ carbon dioxide + water
⚫ sodium hydrogencarbonate → sodium carbonate
+ carbon dioxide + water
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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Activity 12.1

Baking powder

Experiment 12.3 (video)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Activity 12.1
Tasks
Form groups of two to answer the following
questions.
1. Transcribe the above word equations into
chemical equations. (Hint: except carbon dioxide
and water, all substances are solids in these
reactions.)

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12.8 Reacting masses from chemical equations

Activity 12.1
2. To identify the chemical reaction that has taken
place during the baking process, 2.53 g of sodium
hydrogencarbonate was heated until there was
no further changes. It was found that 1.59 g of a
solid remained at the end of the experiment.
Which of the above reactions matches with the
result?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0,
O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
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