Switchgear and Protection (20EE33P)

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION THEORY (20EE33P)

III SEM ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

NAME OF STUDENT:

REGISTER NUMBER:

ROLL NUMBER :

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Academic years 2021-2022 To 2025-2026.

WEEK-1

1. Meaning of Switch gear, Types-Indoor type and Outdoor type,

It is the apparatus used for switching, controlling & protecting the electrical circuit & related equipment. It
works for switching & interrupting currents either under normal condition or abnormal condition. e.g. for
low voltage circuit ordinary switch with the fuse and For the high rating circuit high rupturing capacity
(HRC) fuse with switch is used. For high voltage rating (33 KV) CB & relays are made use.

TYPES OF SWITCHGEAR
1. Indoor Type. 2. Outdoor Type.
Indoor Type: Used for voltages below 66 KV because of economical consideration. Here all live parts are
enclosed in an earthed metal casing & in indoor type faults identification is becomes much easier
Outdoor Type: Used for voltages above 66 KV because of high voltage clearance between the conductors
is required. Space require for switches, circuit breakers & transformers is really high & it becomes
Uneconomical to install all these Indoor.
Deference between Indoor & Outdoor type switch gear:
Indoor type Outdoor type
Used for voltages below 66 KV Used for voltages above 66 KV
It occupies less space It occupies more space
Cost of Indoor switch gear is comparatively less Cost of Outdoor switch gear is more
Components are completely enclosed in a metal Components of outdoor switch gear are open to
clad switchboard air
Repair work is difficult Repair work is easy
Fault location is difficult Fault location is easier

Essential features of Switchgear, List most commonly used Switchgear equipment and Protective
Devices for switching and interruption of current.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF SWITCHGEAR

1. Reliability: It means the switchgear must ready to function correctly at all times and under all
conditions of faults in the switchgear system.
2. Simplicity: Simple the switchgear scheme and lesser the number of relays, circuits and contacts,
greater will be the reliability.

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3. Selectivity: It means it should be able to detect the point at which the fault occurs & cause the opening
of CBs nearest to the fault with minimum or no damage to the system.
4. Sensitivity: It is the function of volt-ampere input to the relay coil necessary to the fault with minimum
or no damage to the system.
5. Speed of operation: It means the switchgear system should disconnect the faulty section as quick as
possible due to reduction in amount of damage incurred.
6. Provision for Manual control :This necessarily may arise under repair work and maintenance
7. Provision for Instruments: Such as Ammeter, Voltmeter, CTs, and PTs etc.
TYPES OF SWITCHGEAR OF SWITCHGEAR EQUIPMENT
1. Switch: It is a device which is used to open or close an electric circuit in a convenient way under load
or no load condition.
1) Air break switch
2) Isolator switch
3) Oil switches
Usually used for low voltage (LV) circuit
2. Fuse: It is a short piece of strip which melts when excessive current flows through it for sufficient time
& it always put in series with circuit to be protected. Under normal operating condition the fuse element
carries normal current without overheating. When the short circuit occurs the current though the fuse
element increase beyond its rated capacity and this rises its temperature & the fuse element melts this
disconnecting the circuit.
3. Circuit Breaker: It is equipment which can open or close the circuit under all condition. It is designed
that it can be operated manually under normal condition at automatically with the help of relays under the
fault conditions.
4. Relays: It detects the fault & supplies the information to the breakers for circuit interruption.

Importance of power system protection and Necessity of Protective Devices.

NECESSITY OF PROTECTION SYSTEM

1. To protect the system from damage due to undue currents and slash form abnormal voltages caused by
the faults.
2. To work against the abnormal condition such as over load, under voltage, open phase, unbalanced phase
etc. reversal of power; under –over frequency, over temperature, power swings, instability etc.
3. The main constituent of protection system is fuses, circuit breakers, and relays etc.

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2. Sources of Faults, Types of faults, Harmful Effects of short circuit current, Symmetrical and
unsymmetrical faults on three-phase systems.
SOURCE OF FAULT POWER
1. Generator: these are driven by prime movers and when short circuit occurs generators continue to
run at normal speed and excitation is also maintained this results in normal voltage to be generated and
this feeds the current at fault point which is limited by the impedance of the generator and that of the
circuit up to fault point.
2. Synchronous motor: On the occurrence of fault the voltage gets reduced and supply to the motor
is switched off as a result motor slows down but the inertia of the motor prevents this and instead drives
it as prime mover as the dc excitation is still maintain it starts working like synchronous generator thus
feeds the fault point.
3. Induction motor: It behaves in similar manner as synchronous motor without dc excitation and
works as induction generator till stator flux decays on the occurrence of fault. Both synchronous motor
and induction motors acts as generator only for short intervals but they differentially produce sufficient
power to operate the circuit breakers.
TYPES OF FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM
A Fault in an electrical equipment is defined as a defect in it due to which the current is diverted from its
intended path. The immediate effect of the fault is increase in the current or reduction of impedance and
the consequence is the insulation strength get reduced
In a 3  AC power circuit the short circuit faults are as given below.
1. Single phase to ground fault (L-G): Due to the breakdown of insulation between one of the phases and
the earth
2. Phase to phase Fault ( L-L) : Due to the breakdown of insulation between either of the two phase .
3. Two Phase to Ground Fault (L-L-G): Due to the breakdown of insulation between either of the two
phase and the earth –
4. Phase to phase and third phase to ground Fault: Due to the breakdown of insulation between one of
the phase and the earth or the breakdown of insulation between either of the phase
5. All The phase to ground (L-L-L-G): Due to the breakdown of insulation between all phases as well as
earth.
6. All 3  short circuited:
1. The first four types are unsymmetrical in nature & gives rise to Unsymmetrical currents i.e. different
currents in different phases.

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2. the last two are symmetrical in nature and gives rise to symmetrical currents in with 120 degree
displacement.
3. The L-G fault is common type of fault.
4. The balanced 3  fault (either 5 or 6 ) is very rare in occurrence but is the severest ( Dangerous) of all
types of faults & imposes most severe duty on circuit breakers & is used in determining the circuit
breaker ratings.
5. The Symmetrical Faults generally occur due to the carelessness of operating personnel.
Symmetrical fault & Unsymmetrical fault
Faults in 3 phase systems can be classified into two main categories:
a) Symmetrical fault: These faults give rise to equal fault current with 1200phase displacement in three
phases are called Symmetrical fault.
• All the three phases to ground fault
• All the three phases short circuited
b) Unsymmetrical fault: These faults give rise to unequal fault current with to unequal phase
displacement in three phases are called Unsymmetrical fault.
• Single line to ground fault
• Line to line or Phase to Phase fault
• Double line to ground or Two Phases to ground fault
• Phase to phase and Third phase to ground fault.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SORT CKT FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEM
1. The heavy currents due to short ckt cause excessive heating which may result in fire or explosion.
2. The arc due to short circuit may cause considerable damage to the equipment if not cleared quickly.
3. The fault may create unbalance in the whole system.
4. Stability of the system is adversely affected and it may end up in complete shutdown of the system.
5. Due to the fault there is reduction in voltage which may be so large that the relays tend to fail.
6. Reduction in the voltage will cause drawing of high currents & starters of motors get switched off. If it
is so it may result in loss of industrial production since motors have to be restarted again.
7. The fault is accompanied by falling of voltage or frequency which affects te other motors operating on
the same supply.
8. There may be an interruption in power supply to the consumer due to short circuit.

3. Fuse- Meaning, List the types of fuses with applications, Fuse Element Materials, Desirable
features of Fuse elements, Characteristics of fuse.

It is a short piece of strip which melts when excessive current flows through it for sufficient time & it
always put in series with circuit to be protected. Under normal operating condition the fuse element carries
normal current without overheating. However, when the short circuit occurs the current though the fuse
element increases beyond its rated capacity and this rises its temperature & the fuse element melts this
disconnecting the circuit.

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TYPES OF FUSES

DC Fuses;1. CARTRIGE FUSES used in electronics circuits

2. AUTOMOTIVE FUSES

These fuses are specifically designed for automotive systems that run up to 32V and occasionally 42V. They
come in ‘blade’ form (a transparent plastic envelope with flat contacts) and are color coded according to rated
current.
3. RESETTABLE FUSES/POLYFUSE; They contain carbon black particles embedded in organic polymers When a
large current flows, heat is generated which expands the organic polymer.

4. SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES: These fuses are usually used to protect semiconductor switching devices that are
sensitive to even small current spikes.

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5. OVERVOLTAGE SUPPRESSION; Sometimes voltage spikes can be harmful to circuits too, and often an
overvoltage protection device is used with a fuse to protect against both voltage and current spikes.

AC FUSES

1. HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES: These fuses are used in high voltage AC transmission lines where voltages
can exceed several hundreds of kilovolts.
2. HRC (High Rupture Current) fuses: HRC fuses are cartridge type fuses consisting of a transparent
envelope made of steatite (magnesium silicate). The fuse is filled with quartz that acts as an arc
extinguishing agent. These fuses are used for very high fault currents.
3. Expulsion Fuses: These fuses are filled with chemicals like boric acid that produce gases on heating.
These gases extinguish the arc and are expelled from the ends of the fuse. The fuse element is made of
copper, tin or silver.
4. LOW VOLTAGE FUSES: These fuses are used in the relatively low voltage distribution networks.
5. Cartridge fuses: They are very similar to cartridge DC fuses. They consist of a transparent envelope
surrounding the fuse element. They can be plugged in (blade type) or screwed into a fixture (bolt type).
6. Drop out fuses: They contain a spring-loaded lever arm that retracts when a fault occurs and must be
rewired and put back in place to resume normal operation.
7. Rewireable fuses: They are a simple reusable fuse used in homes and offices. They consist of a carrier
and a socket. When the fuse is blown, the carrier is taken out, rewired and put back in the socket to resume
normal operation. They are somewhat less reliable than HRC fuses.
8. Striker fuse: These fuses are provided with a spring-loaded striker that can act as a visual indicator that
the fuse has blown and also activate other switchgear.
9. Switch fuse: A handle that is manually operated can connect or disconnect high current fuses
FUSE ELEMENT MATERIAL
Commonly used fuse element is Pb, Su and Ag for currents up to 10A, is alloy of tin and load [67%, 37%]
is used and above 10A tinned copper and silver are used. The silver is used despite of its high cost since
silver is
1 Comparatively free from oxidation.
2 Does not deteriorate when used in open air.
3 Conductivity is high so less metal is required which permits fast operation.
4 The co efficient of expansion is less, thus long life.
5 Low specific heat resulting in fast operation.
6 Vaporizes at much lower temperature.
DESIRABLE CHARACTERSTICS OF FUSE
1) Low melting point such as tin and lead ( Sn , Pb)
2) High conductivity such as Silver & copper ( Ag , Cu )
3) Free from deterioration due to oxidation.
4) Low cost such as lead , tin and copper,

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Important Terms: Current Rating of Fuse element, fusing current, fusing factor, Prospective current,
cut off current, Pre-Arcing Time, Arcing Time, Breaking Capacity, Total Operating Time.
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Current ratings of fuse element: It is the current at which the fuse element can normally carry without
over heating or melting.
2. Fusing current: It is the minimum current at which the fuse element melts and thus disconnects the circuit,
The fusing current depends on Material of fuse element. Inversely proportional to length, Diameter Size
and location of the terminal
3. Fusing factor: It is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating of the fuse element.
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑭𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
Fusing factor = > 1 The value is always less than one.
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆

4. Prospective current: It is determined as the rms value of first loop of the fault current obtained, if the fuse
is replaced by an ordinary conductor of negligible resistance.
5. Cut off current: It is the maximum value of the fault current actually reached between the fuse melts on
occurrence of fault.

6. Pre-arcingtime: It is the time between the commencement of fault and instant when cut off occurs.
The time from commencement of fault to the instant the arc is initiated is called pre arcing time.
7. Arcing time: It is the time between end of pre arcing time and the instant when the arc is extinguished.
8. Total operating time: It is sum of pre arcing time and arcing time. And is usually 0.002 sec.
9. Breaking capacity: It is the rms value of AC component of maximum prospective current that a fuse can
deal with at the rated service voltage.

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HRC fuses –list the types and applications, general construction and working, Merits and demerits.
Types of HRC Fuse; these fuses are available in three types which include the following

1. NH Type Fuse
2. Din Type Fuse
3. Blade Type

NH Type Fuse; This kind of fuse gives the protection of short circuit and overload for low & medium
voltage. These fuses give protection for starters of the motor as well as other devices which are against
overload and short circuit

Din Type Fuse: These are accessible to different levels of voltages and used to protect the transformer.
These are used in air & mining, feeder sectionalizing, gas-insulated switchgear, and transformers.

Blade Type Fuse; these are used in lo voltage to give protection from short circuits, wiring, and used in
motors for backup protection

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Construction of HRC Fuse: HRC fuse consists of cylindrical body of ceramic material. The fuse element
is fitted inside the body and surrounding area filled with pure powdered quartz. The two ends of the fuse
element are connected to the metal end caps which are screwed to the ceramic body to withstand the
pressure developed under short circuit conditions. The contact blade is welded to metal end caps.

Working Principle of HRC Fuse

Under normal working conditions, the HRC fuse link carries a normal rated current, the heat energy
developed is not sufficient to melt the fuse element.

But under short circuit conditions or when the fault occurs, a high fault current starts flowing through the
fuse link and it melts before the fault current reaches its first peak.

As the element melts it vaporized and scattered, as an arc form the chemical reaction between element
vapor and quartz powder, forming a high resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc thus fault
current interrupts.

Advantages of HRC Fuse

1. Fast operation
2. Has the capacity of clearing high-fault current
3. Not deterioration for a long period
4. No maintenance
5. Reliable operation
6. Consistent performance
7. HRC fuse is cheaper compared to other circuit breakers
Disadvantages
1. It required replacement after each operation.
2. Interlocking is not possible
Application
1. Protection of low voltage distribution system
2. Protection of motor
3. Protection of bus bar
4. Protection of semiconductor devices
5. Use as backup protection to the circuit breaker.

WEEK2

1. Circuit Breaker – Meaning, Classification of Circuit Breakers, list the types -LV, HV types with
Applications.
It is a protective device which can Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under
normal conditions. Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions. Make a circuit either manually or
by remote control under fault conditions.

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Classification of circuit breakers

The classification of circuit breakers can be based on several factors such as application, mode of
operation, voltage levels, the medium for arch quenching, interrupting rating, The widest classification
is based on the electrical system type and can be either alternating current (AC) circuit breakers or direct
current (DC) circuit breakers.

list the types -LV, HV types with applications.

1. ELCB [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

1. ELCB or Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is a protection device that protects against earth leakage.
Initially, the earth leakage circuit breaker was voltage detection devices, now they are switched to current
sensing devices.

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2. MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB); MCB or Miniature Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker which is
used for protection against short circuit, over load. It can be used up to 125A circuits .

3. MOTOR PROTECTION CIRCUIT BREAKER (MPCB): MPCBs are used specially for motor protections. MPCB as
a standalone device offers protection against Overload, Short Circuit & Single Phasing, thus is used
specifically for motor applications.4. MCCB: MCCB is an automatic electrical device used to protect
the electrical equipment from overload, short circuit, instantaneous over current and earth fault. It
is available from 32 Amps to 1600 Amps with the voltage range of 230V to 1.1kV.

5. RESIDUAL CURRENT CIRCUIT BREAKER (RCCB);RCCBs as the name suggests offer protection against Earth
Leakage. It is used in homes, offices & industries according to the current sensitivity required as per
application. In case of current leakage it senses the same & trips thus, saving the human & circuit from
shock & adverse effects of current leakage.

HV CIRCUIT BREAKER
1. Air circuit breaker
2. Air blast circuit breaker
3. Oil circuit breaker
4. Vacuum circuit breaker
5. Sulphur Hexafluoride circuit breaker

1. Air Circuit Breaker: An air circuit breaker (ACB) is designed for low and medium-voltage protections.
This circuit breaker is used in lighting systems, distribution systems, and motor circuits. It can be used in
AC circuits or DC circuits for maintaining indoor applications.

2. Air Blast Circuit Breaker: it is mostly used in industrial plants, especially for the main
power distribution and transmission.

3. Oil Circuit Breaker: oil circuit breaker is used in lo and medium voltages

4. Vacuum Circuit Breaker: VCB is used for medium-voltage ratings (like 11KV and 33KV). It is
widely used for the substation for the overload or high current protection. And it is used for
transformer switching, reactor switching, capacitor bank switching, etc.

5. Sulfur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker: The SF6 circuit breaker is widely used in electrical grids,
power stations, transmission, and distribution systems.

Explain the terminologies – Circuit Breaker Rating, Arc-Voltage, Arching Time, Pre –Arcing Time,
Prospective Current, TRV, Recovery Voltage, RRRV,Total Break Time, Making current,Breaking
current, Short circuit rating and Short-time current rating.

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1. Arc Voltage: It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of CBs during the arcing period. At the
current zero the voltage increases rapidly to peak value & this peak voltage to maintain the arc .
2. Restriking Voltage: It is transient voltage that appears across the contact at or near current Zero during
the arcing period.
3. Recovery Voltage: It is the normal frequency RMS voltage that appears across the contacts of CB after
final arc extinction & is nearly equal to the system voltage.
4.R.R.R.V. ( Rate of Rise of R.V. : It is expressed in terms of Kv / [Link] Rate of Rise of Recovery
Voltage (RRRV) is defined as peak transient recovery voltage divided by the total time from zero voltage
to peak voltage.
[Link] capacity :It is the RMS current that a CB is capable of breaking at given recovery voltage &
under specified conditions like RRRV [Link] is expressed in MVA by taking into account the rated breaking
current & rated service voltage

6. Making Capacity: It is the capacity of the breaker to make the circuit & hence remain closed
successfully against forces which are proportional to square of maximum instantaneous current on closing.
7. Short Time Rating: It is the period for which the CB is able to carry fault current while remaining closed
8. Normal Current Rating: It is the RMS value of the current which the CB is capable of carrying
continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions. It is limited by the temperature rise of current
carrying parts.
[Link] breaker Time (Total break Time) : It is time elapsed between the instant of closer of trip circuit
and final current zero. OR it is sum of the time required for the operating mechanism to open the contacts
& the arcing time.
2. Construction, working principle and applications of ELCB, RCCB, MCCB and MPCB.
Concept of ACCL (automatic changeover with current limiter).

ELCB or Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is a protection device that protects against earth leakage.
Initially, the earth leakage circuit breaker is a current sensing device.

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Working Principle: One of the terminals of the relay coil is directly connected to the earth while the other
terminal is connected to the body of the equipment. The coil can sense the voltage difference between the
earth & the body of the equipment.
If the live wire breaks or its insulation fails & comes in contact with the body of the equipment, a voltage
difference appears across the terminals of the coil. As a result, the current starts to flow through the coil &
it is energized. The relay starts to generate electromagnetic force. When the current exceeds a certain limit,
the relay produces sufficient force to pull the latch. By doing so, the latch break opens the contacts &
disconnects the power supply to the equipment & prevents electrical shock.

Applications of ELCB
ELCB is used for protection against current leakage. The current leakage causes electrical shock and faults
in the system. It breaks the circuit instantly to prevents damage to the connected circuits. They are essential
in wet locations having increased risks of electrical shocks.

RCCB

Working principle; When there is no fault in the circuit, the phase and neutral will carry an equal current. As
the equal current flows in both phase and neutral coil, they will produce the same amount of magnetic flux and

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as they are wound in the opposite direction to each other, the resultant magnetic flux will be zero. As the resultant
flux is zero, there will be no current flow in the sensing coil or to the relay.

When earth leakage or earth fault occurs, the current will start flowing from the phase to the ground. So, an
unbalanced current starts flowing through the phase and neutral. As, the unbalance current flows, the magnetic
flux produced by the phase and neutral coil also be unequal. So a resultant flux will produce which cause to
produce an emf in the sensing coil. As the sensing coil is in a closed circuit with the relay, a current will start
flowing through the sensing coil and relay. The relay will send a signal to the circuit breaker to break the contact
to disconnect the power supply or trip the RCCB.

Application and Uses of RCCB

1. RCCB is used in domestic as well as industrial wiring for the protection of electrical shock.
2. RCCB is used for the protection against earth leakage fault.
3. RCCB used in Home, Offices, building to prevent electrical shock as well as leakage current fault
protection. Generally, 30mA sensing current RCCBs are used to prevent electrical shock.
MCCB
Moulded case circuit breaker is a full form of MCCB in electrical. MCCB is an automatic electrical
device used to protect the electrical equipment from overload, short circuit, instantaneous over current and
earth fault. It is an advanced version of MCB (Miniature circuit breaker). It is available from 32 Amps to
1600 Amps with the voltage range of 230V to 1.1kV.

Working Principle: The MCCB working principle is simple. Let us take three different fault conditions such
as Overload, short circuit, and earth fault.
Overload trip: A flow of current that exceeds the rated current with predefined time limit such The
bimetallic contact involves in overload operation of the breaker; under the normal condition, it allows the
current flow. If the current flow exceeds the predefined value, then it will get bend and finally, it will
engage the tripping mechanism. The trip mechanism opens the breaker

Also, bimetallic contact will not allow the breaker to reset instantly. Since it takes some time to reach its
original state. Over Load, the setting will be 80% to 100% of the full load current and the dame depending
upon your load demand. But the time delay will be 10 to 15secs.

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Short circuit / instantaneous/earth fault trip:An electromagnetic coil involves short

circuit/instantaneous/earth fault protection of the breaker. Under normal conditions, the CT generates less
current hence the electromagnetic field is generated by the coil is not enough to pull the plunger. Therefore,
the breaker does not trip.
During short circuit fault conditions, the CT generates high current and the coil creates a strong magnetic
field. Hence the coil pulls the plunger and it will trip the circuit [Link] typical setting of a short
circuit will be 2.5Times of the overload setting and the time delay will be 0.2 to 0.5 secs.
Earth Fault leakage trip: The output of the current transformer will be connected in star. Under normal
conditions, the current flow through the star’s neural point will be zero. if the leakage found in the line
means, the same will be sensed at the star terminal. if the leakage flow is higher than the allowable limit
means, the MCCB trip the circuit.

Applications of MCCB
1. Protecting Generators.
2. Protecting Electric Feeders. ...
3. Welding Machines. ...
4. Protecting Capacitor Banks. ...
5. Protecting Motors. ...
6. Adjustable trip settings for applications with low currents.

MPCB
MPCB is nothing but a Motor Protection Circuit Breaker. It contains thermal overload protection, short
circuit fault protection, unbalance load, and phase loss fault protection. Motor Protection Circuit Breaker
is a widely used circuit breaker for both static and dynamic electrical [Link] normal condition,
it does not trip the circuit. Let see the working principle:
Overload tripping: each conductor has some resistance. So as the current passes through that conductor
causes power loss in terms of heat. The heat produced in the conductor is directly proportional to the
value of the current. Hence the bimetallic strip is designed to bend the particular value of the current.
Under normal conduction, the strip releases a small amount of heat and it bends slightly. During the high
current, the strip bends higher and touches the tripping mechanism.
Short circuit: The short circuit fault will be cleared by the magnetic trip. The CT reads the exact current
flow and under short circuit fault condition, the CT reads higher current. It sends the tripping signal to the
tripping coil and the coil pulls the plunger associated with the tripping mechanism.
Unbalance & Phase loss protection: the MPCB’s unbalance protection does not work immediately, it is
depending upon the current level. It is a very simple concept that while decreasing the voltage the current
will increase.
Application:

1. Induction Motor starting (DOL/Star-delta).

2. Lighting circuit applications
3. Direct starting applications

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3. MCB- Types, Classification based on trip curves and their application, General construction and
working, Characteristics of MCB.

Types of MCB based on Number of Poles;

1. Single Pole (SP) MCB; A single-pole MCB provides switching and protection only for one single
phase of a circuit.
2. Double Pole (DP) MCB; A two Pole MCB provides switching and protection both for a phase and
the neutral.
3. Triple Pole (TP) MCB; A triple/three phase miniature circuit breaker provides switching and
protection only to three phases of the circuit and not to the neutral.
4. Three Pole with Neutral [TPN (3P+N) MCB];A TPN MCB has switching and protection to all
three phases of the circuit and additionally Neutral is also part of the MCB as a separate pole.
5. Four Pole (4P) MCB:A 4 pole MCB is similar to TPN but additionally, it also has a protective
release for the neutral pole.

MCB or Miniature Circuit Breaker is an electromechanical device that protects an electric

circuit from an overcurrent. The over current in an electrical circuit may result from short circuit, overload
or faulty design.

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Whenever continuous over current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending.
This deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a mechanical latch.

As this mechanical latch is attached to the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker
contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. To restart the flow of current
the MCB must be manually turned ON. This mechanism protects from faults arising due to over current or
overload and short circuits.

But during short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly, causing electromechanical displacement of the
plunger associated with a tripping coil or solenoid. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing the immediate
release of the latch mechanism consequently opening the circuit breaker contacts

An MCB is very simple, easy to use, to replace. The trip unit is the main part, responsible for its proper working.
There are two main types of trip mechanisms. A bi-metal provides protection against overload current and an
electromagnet provides protection against electric short-circuit current.

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WEEK-3

1. HV Circuit Breaker- working [Link]- Working principle, Construction, Merits, Demerits

& Applications.
Principle: When the contacts gets separated air blast is established by opening of the air blast valve.
This air blast cools te arc & sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases di-
electrical strength of the medium between contacts & prevents re-establishing of arc hence the arc is
quenched.

1. Axial Blast ABCB :

Construction:The fixed and moving contacts are held in closed position by spring pressure under normal
[Link] reservoir is connected to arcing chamber through air valve. It remains closed under normal
condition but opens automatically by tripping pulse when a fault occurs in the system.
Working:During fault condition the opening of air valve connects the air reservoir to the arcing chamber.
This causes high pressure air pushing moving contact against spring pressure .An arc is struck between
contacts at the same time high pressure air blowing auxiliary(along the arc path) takes way the ionized
gases along with it thus the arc is quench and current is interrupted.
Advantages of Air blast circuit breakers
[Link] risk of the fire is eliminated.
[Link] compared to oil circuit breaker for successive operations no replacement.
[Link] growth of the dielectric strength is so rapid
[Link] arcing time is very small and hence there is less burning of contacts.
[Link] supplied for the arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is independent of current
to be interrupted.
Disadvantages of Air blast circuit breaker:
1. The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.
2. Very much sensitive to the variations in RRRV.
3. Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which supplies the air blast.

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2. VACUUM CB- Working principle, Construction, Merits, Demerits & Applications.

Principle of operation: When the contacts of Circuit breaker are opened in vacuum, an arc is struck
between them which quickly condense on the surface of breaker contacts resisting in quick recovery of
dielectric strength.
Construction:It consists of fixed, moving contact and an arc shield mounted inside vacuum
[Link] contact is connected to the control mechanism using stainless steel bellows.
The glass or vacuum vessel is used as the outer covering.

Working: When the breaker operates moving contact get separated from the fixed contact and an arc is
struck. The strength of the arc depends very much on the material used for the contacts. The arc gets diffused
quickly and seized by the surface of moving and fixed contacts thus helping in arc quenching.
Merits:
1. It is self contained and doesn’t require filling of oil or gas.
2. Rapid recovery of very high dielectric strength.
3. No restriking of arc because current is interrupted at the first current zero itself.
4. Pollution free.
5. Compact, non explosive and silent operation.
6. Long life suitable for repeated operation.
Demerits:
1. Requires high end technology for the production.
2. Its cost is affected by the production volume and hence un economical for small scale production.
3. Loss of vacuum during transient period or the failure makes the entire circuit breaker useless and it can
be repaired at site (location).
Application:
1. Used as high speed making switch in many industrial application.
2. Superior to oil or air circuit breaker where voltages are high and low current values.
3. Can be used where over all clearance time is less than 40 ms on phase fault.
4. Best suitable in rural area because of least requirement of maintenance.

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3. SF6 CB- Working principle, Construction, Merits, Demerits & Applications.

Construction
1. It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a chamber called arc interruptions chamber
containing SF6gas which is intern connected to SF6gas reservoir.
2. When the contacts of circuit breaker get opened, the valve permits high pressure of SF6gas from the
reservoir to flow towards arc interruption chamber.
3. The fixed is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with arcing horn.
4. Moving contact is also hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in the sides to permit SF6gas to let out
through these holes after doing the required work.
5. The tips of the contacts and the arcing horn are coated with copper tungsten material since SF6gas is
costly it is recondition and reclaimed after each operation of circuit breaker by suitable auxiliary system.
Working
1. In the closed position of circuit breaker the contacts remain surrounded by SF6gas at a pressure of 2.8
kg/cm2.
2. When the breaker operates, M-C is moving away from F-Cand arc is struck between the contacts.
3. The movement of M-C is synchronized with the opening of valve to admit SF6gas inside the chamber at
a pressure of 14 kg/cm2
4. This high pressure SF6gas quickly absorbs the free electrons in the arc to form immobile negative ions
which are in affective charge carriers. The result is that high dielectric strength of the medium is quickly
built up and arc is extinguished.
5. After required operation the valve is closed with the help of springs.
Merits:
1. Due to the superior arc quenching properties, SF6CB have very short arcing time.
2. Since the dielectric strength of this SF6 is 2 to 3 times larger than that of air, these can interrupt large
currents.
3. Provide noiseless operation and no pollution of atmosphere.
Demerits:
1. Costly
2. Additional equipments required for reconditioning.
Applications: They are found to be suitable for high power high voltage service.

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Concept of RMU (Ring main unit) and LBS (Load Break Switch)

Ring Main Unit, RMU is a compact, enclosed and sealed type of Switchgear used for medium voltage
power distribution. It is complete Switchgear in itself. Complete Switchgear means, assembly of required
switching devices, protection device as well as metering device. RMU of different voltage (mostly 12 kV
and 24 kV) and current ratings are available. Indoor as well as outdoor types of Ring Main Units are
available.

Ring Main Unit comprises of one incomer feeder and one or more outgoing feeder. The incomer feeder is
either Vacuum Circuit Breaker or SF6 Circuit Breaker with associated Disconnect Switch and Earth Switch.
This incomer feeder is given with the provision of bushing protruding from the enclosure of RMU for
supply cable connection. A typical Ring Main Unit is shown in figure below.

Outgoing feeder comprises of Load Break Switches with associated Disconnect Switch and Earth Switch.
Provision for cable connection is provided in outgoing feeder. The Load Break Switch is nothing but an
isolator having the capability of breaking the circuit during on load condition. A simplified schematic
diagram of RMU is shown in figure below.

Applications of Ring Main Units

The Ring Main Units are used in underground cable distribution network at the load connection and junction
points of a ring-type distribution network. Compact secondary substations
1. Wind power plants
2. Solar power plants
3. Small industries
4. Hotels, office buildings, residential housing complex, shopping centers, business centers, hospitals, airports etc.

LBS

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Load Break Switch: A load break switch is a device that disconnects the electrical current from an electric
device or circuit when the current exceeds the nominal value. They are tripped by the magnetic field in the
major power system and re-close when the electrical demand decreases, reducing current peaks in low
impedance circuits. These switches are very simple to use and assemble and they are applicable in public
distribution, industrial sector, distribution panels, motor feeders, and emergency switching.

Working Principle: The working principle of the load break switch is to switch the current by moving
their contacts mechanically with a suitable speed to make or break the current supply. These switches are
exposed to different stresses like thermal, dielectric, and mechanical throughout the switching operation.
These switches give protection to the transformer and it is an alternative to the two-pole structure.

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WEEK-4

1. Protective Relay- Definition, Types of relays, Classification of protective relaying with applications,

RELAY: The relay is the device that opens or closes the contacts to cause the operation of the other electric
control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned area and gives the commands
to the circuit breaker to disconnect the affected area. Thus protects the system from damage.

Types of relays

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Meaning of Primary and back up protections,

Types of protection:

1. Primary protection
2. Back-up protection

Primary protection
1 It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect the component parts of the power system.
2 In fig. each line has an over-current relay that protects the line.
3 If a fault occurs o any line, it will cleared by its relay and circuit breaker.
4 This forms the primary or main protection and serves as the first line of defense.
5 The service record of primary relaying is very high with well over ninety percent of all operations
being correct.
6 However, sometimes fault are not cleared by primary relay system because of trouble within the relay,
wiring system or breaker. Under such conditions, back-up protection does the required job.

Bach-up protection:

1 It is the second line of defense in case of failure of primary protection.

2 It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given enough time
to function if it is able to.
3 In fig, Relay A provides back-up protection for each of the four lines.
4 If a line fault is not cleared by its relay and breaker. The relay A on the group breaker will operate after
a definite time delay and clear the entire group of lines.

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5 It is evident that when back up relaying functions, a larger part is disconnected then when primary
relaying functions correctly. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better maintenance
of primary relaying.

Desired qualities of Protective Relaying, General Features of protective relays.

1 Selectivity
2 Speed
3 Sensitivity
4 Reliability
5 Simplicity
6 Economy
Selectivity: it is the ability of the protective system to select correct part of system in trouble and disconnect
the fault part without disturbing the rest of the system.
Speed: Relay system should disconnect the fault section as fast as possible to avoid damage to electrical
apparatus, To decrease the possibilities of development of one type of fault into the other more severe type.
Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity
(VA).Sensitivity of the relay is a function of the volt amp (VA) input to the coil of the relay necessary to
cause its operation. Smaller the VA required, more is the sensitivity of relay.
Reliability: Ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions. Without reliability,
protection becomes largely ineffective.

Simplicity: Relay system must be simple for easy maintenance. Reliability is closely related to simplicity.
Economy: Protective system should not cost more than 5% of total cost.
Features of relay
1. Detect abnormal condition
2. Disconnect abnormal part so as to prevents the subsequent fault
3. Disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability, performance and service
continuity
4. Improve the transient stability

Important Terms: pick up VA, Hold-on VA, drop out VA and Burden Pickup current, current
setting, PSM, TSM, Time -PSM Curve.

1. Pick up current: it is the Minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate. When
the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pick-up value, the relay operates to energize the trip coil
which opens the circuit breaker.
2. Current setting:

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• Adjusting the Pickup current value to a required value is known as current setting.
• This is done by providing the tapings on the relay operating coil.
• A plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the relay coil.
• This changes torque on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay.
• Tapings provided are in terms of percentage of full load rating of CT.
3. Current setting and Pick-up:
Pick-up current = Rated Secondary Current of CT x Current setting
Eg: Current setting = 125 %
CT Rating = 400 / 5
Pick-up Current = 5 x 1.25 = 6.25 A
Normal range provided will be from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for over current relays, and for earth
leakage relays this range is 10% to 70% in steps of 10%.
4. Plug setting Multiplier (P.S.M.)
Ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current.

𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
Plug setting Multiplier (P.S.M) =
𝑷𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
=
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒇𝑪𝑻𝒙𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

Eg: current setting = 150 %

CT rating = 400/5
Primary fault Current = 2400 A
Pick-up Current = 5 x 1.50 = 7.5 A
Fault Current in the relay coil = 2400 x (5/400) = 30A
P.S.M = 30/7.5 = 4

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[Link] Setting Multiplier

• It is a setting provided to adjust the time of operation of the relay.

• Time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec.
• Actual time of operation is calculated by multiplying the time setting multiplier with the time
obtained from time / P.S.M curve of the relay.
Time setting = 0.1
Time obtained from time / P.S.M curve = 3 seconds
Actual relay operating time = 3 x 0.1 = 0.3 seconds
[Link] / P.S.M Curve:

• Curve between time of operation and plug setting multiplier (P.S.M) of a relay.
• P.S.M represents the number of times the relay current is in excess of the current setting.
• Curve shows, for lower values of over currents, time of operating varies inversely with the current.
• As the over current reaches 20 times the full load value, operating time of relay tends to remain
constant.
[Link]. Working principle and application of Earth Leakage relay.
An earth leakage relay checks that there is no significant leakage between the electrical supply and the
earth, which means it checks the flowing current through the phase conductor and neutral conductor of the
electrical circuit.

Electrical circuits and devices are in a domestic wiring, single phase, there are equal windings on a solenoid,
from both phase and neutral connections.

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Earth leakage relay just checks the phase and neutral current, if the two currents are equal and balanced,
there is no net magnetic force generated in the solenoid. Relay no need operation.

But, if there is a leak to earth at any point of the circuit, the currents pass through anywhere. The current in
the phase and neutral will not be balanced during this situation. A net magnetic force will be generated
which is used to operate the relay and trip the breaker.

Meaning of ZCT (Zero-Phase Current Transformers),

A ring-type current transformer (CT), known as a Zero Sequence CT (ZCT), detects the existence of zero
sequence current during a short circuit fault situation resulting in an unbalanced 3-phase system.

The zero phase CTs are differential sensors passing both line & grounded neutral conductors into the CT
aperture so as to make a zero-phase sequence in the case of leakage current or fault current on the line.

Typical applications include electric shock prevention from earth leakage breakers, short-circuit relays, and
ground fault circuit interrupters.

CBCT (Core balance CT) - construction, working and application.

A core balance current transformer (also termed as CBCT) is a ring-type current transformer (CT)
through the center of which either three single-core cables or a single three-core cable of three-phase system
passes. That three-core cable forms the primary winding of CBCT. In other words, we can define A zero
sequence CT (ZCT) (also known as core balance CT) as a special type of current transformer (CT) that

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detects the presence of zero sequence current during a short circuit fault (such as LG fault) condition that
causes unbalance in a 3-phase system.

Core balance Current Transformer (CBCT) works on the concept of balancing zero sequence current
in a three-phase system. That’s why it is also known as a zero sequence current transformer
(ZCT). Core balance CT is generally used for earth fault protection (or earth leakage protection) for
medium voltage electrical systems. A typical CBCT is as shown in the below figure.

Working Principle: A core balance current transformer (CBCT) works on the principle of balancing
zero sequence current in a 3-phase system. Hence it is also called a zero-sequence current transformer
(ZCT). The basic principle of working of zero sequence current transformers is Kirchhoff’s current
low: that is the sum of current at any node of the electrical circuit will be equal to zero.

During the normal operation of three three-phase systems, the vector sum of its phase current ( Īa + Īb + Īc =
0 ) is zero. Therefore, no residual zero sequence current will present in the primary winding of CBCT.
Therefore, there will not be any flux developed in the Core of CBCT. Hence no current will flow in the
secondary circuit of CBCT.

Whereas in abnormal conditions, the sum of phase current will not be zero. Then due to the unbalancing of
phase current, a zero-sequence current will flow in the secondary circuit of CBCT. Hence earth fault relay
connected with the secondary CBCT will get energized and it isolates the healthy system with the help of
a circuit breaker

3. Construction. Working principle and application of Induction type Electromechanical

Over Current and Overvoltage Relays. Merits and Demerits of Electro- Mechanical relays.

CONSTRUCTION:
1 it Has a metallic (aluminum) disc, free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets.
2 Upper magnet has both primary and secondary winding.
3 The primary winding is connected to secondary of CT in the line to be protected and it is tapped at
intervals.
4 The tapings are connected to a plug setting bridge, where the number of turns on the relay operating
coil can be varied and desired current setting is obtained.
5 Secondary winding gets energized by Induction from primary winding.
6 Secondary winding is connected in series with the winding on lower magnet.
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7 Controlling torque is provided by the spiral spring,

8 Spindle on the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts when disc rotates through
predetermined angle.
9 Fixed contacts are connected to trip circuit.
10 Angle of rotation of the disc can be adjusted to any value from 0o to 360o before it bridges the contacts.
11 Relay operation can be given any desired time setting by adjusting the angle of rotation (i.e. travel of
the moving contact) of the disc.

OPERATION:
1 The driving torque developed on the disc is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring.
2 Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque on the disc,
hence the disc remains stationary.
3 When the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater
than the restraining torque.
4 Now the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts.
5 The trip circuit operates the CB to isolate the fault section.

merit and demerit

1 Simple, cheap. Does not require a PT.
2 Can grade with fuses.
3 Only applicable to simple radial circuits.
4 Becomes quite slow after a few grading levels.
5 Too slow for transmission due to system stability requirements.
6 Cannot be applied to meshed circuits –too many grading combinations.
List and explain different Testing Methods for Relays
1. Acceptance test
2. Installation test or commissioning test
3. Manufacturer test
4. Maintenance test
5. Repair test
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Acceptance test: acceptance tests are generally performed in the laboratory. on new relay intensive testing
is done to prove characteristics. Acceptance tests are done in the presence of the customer
Installation test; installation tests are field tests to determine that the relay operates in actual service. these
tests are performed by means of portable test set.

maintenance test; maintenance test is done in th field periodically like continuously, daily, monthly, yearly.
The requirements such as sensitivity, selectivity, reliability is satisfied through miniatous.

Repair test: repair test involves recalibration and performed after repairs. these are usually done in
laboratory. Minor repairs done in the field.

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WEEK-5

1a. Block diagram and working of Microprocessor/ Microcontroller based Over current Relay.

1. Current is taken from C.T. and given to I to V converter because many electronics circuits require
voltage signal for operation.
2. The A.C. voltage is converted into D.C. voltage by using rectifier.
3. This D.C. voltage is proportional to load current only.
4. The output of rectifier is given to Multiplexer.
5. The Multiplexer gives output to A/D Converter where Analog DC voltage is converted to Digital form
(in form of O and 1 i.e. binary form).
6. Microprocessor understands only codes in 0 and 1 form.
7. HP (Microprocessor) gives S/C (start of conversion) signal to A/D converter (I.e. analog to digital
conversion is started and HP gives permission to A/D convertor for this by sending S/C)
8. When converting from analog to digital is over (finish) then A/D converter sends E/C signal to HP
(E/C – End of Conversion).
9. When work of A/D is over then up compare the magnitude of this incoming current with required
current value (I.e. set value or reference value).
If incoming value is more – fault is occurring and trip signal is send to CB circuit breaker.

1b. Causes of over voltages and under voltages, Effects of OV/UV.

Under voltage conditions are usually caused by undersized or overloaded utility and facility transformers.
During peak demand periods and/or when the utility is experiencing problems, the demand for power
exceeds the capability of the transformer and as a result the voltage drops

Over voltage due to external causes

1. Lightning: Lightning over voltage is a very serious issue in a power system. It can damage the
connected equipment in the substation. To protect the substation equipment, lightning surge arresters
are used in substations and transmission lines to protect the system.
2. Atmosphere: Electrostatically induced voltage can generate due to the presence of charged cloud
around the long transmission line. Due to changes in weather conditions, the capacitance with the

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ground can increase and it will create over-voltage during the switch of the transmission line. Over
voltage due to the atmosphere may not be as high as the lightning over voltage.

Over voltage due to internal causes

• Switching over voltage: switching over voltage is commonly observed in long-length transmission
line. Due to high ground capacitance in long length transmission line, over-voltage was observed in
the transmission line. A line reactor installs in the transmission line to control the switching over
voltage.
• Resonances Effects: When inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are equal in the power
system, the resonance occurs. Due to the resonance of the circuit, the over voltage found in the
system.
• Restriking or Transient Over Voltage: During the opening of the circuit breaker in at load or fault
condition, transient over voltage is found across the CB contacts. It will heavily affect the circuit
breaker and due to restriking voltage, the circuit breaker can damage.

Effects of under voltages

Common symptoms of under voltage include: motors run hotter than normal and fail prematurely, dim
incandescent lighting and batteries failing to recharge properly. Operating in Under voltage conditions for
long periods of time can drastically reduce the life of the equipment and eventually lead to premature
failure.

Effects of Overvoltage

Overvoltage in power systems can have far-reaching effects. They strain equipment, leading to premature
failure and downtime. Insulation breakdown poses safety hazards. Voltage-sensitive devices malfunction,
affecting operations. System instability triggers outages, disrupting services. Mitigation is crucial to prevent
damage and ensure reliability.

2a. Construction, working and application of Static relays- OV/UV relay and OCR relay.

The static relay block diagram is shown below. The static relay components in this block diagram mainly
include a rectifier, amplifier, o/p unit & relay measuring circuit. Here, the measuring circuit of the relay
includes the level detectors, logic gate & the comparators like amplitude & phase.

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In the above block diagram, the transmission line is simply connected to the current transformer (CT)
or potential transformer (PT) so that the transmission line provides the input to the CT/PT.
The output of the current transformer is given as an input to the rectifier which rectifies the input AC signal
into the DC signal. This DC signal is given to the measuring unit of a relay.
The measuring unit relay performs the most significant action necessary within the static relay system by
detecting the input signal level throughout the level detectors and evaluating the magnitude & phase of the
signal throughout the comparators to perform the logic gate operations.

In this relay, two kinds of comparators are used amplitude and phase comparators. The main function of
the amplitude comparator is to compare the input signal’s magnitude whereas the phase comparator is used
to compare the phase variation of the input quantity.
The relay measuring unit o/p is given to the amplifier so that it amplifies the signal’s magnitude & transmits
it to the o/p device. So this device will strengthen the trip coil so that it trips the CB (circuit breaker). For
the operation of the amplifier, the measuring unit of the relay & the o/p device requires an extra DC supply.
So this is the main drawback of this static relay.

Static Relay Working Principle: The working of the static relay is, first, the current transformer/potential
transformer receives the input voltage/current signal from the transmission line & gives it to the rectifier.
After that, this rectifier changes the AC signal into DC and this is given to the measuring unit of the relay.

Now, this measuring unit identifies the input signal level after that it comparators the magnitude & the
phase of the signal with the available comparator in the measuring unit. This comparator compares the i/p
signal to make sure whether the signal is defective or not. After that, this amplifier amplifies the signal’s
magnitude & transmits it to the o/p device to activate the trip coil to trip the circuit breaker.

2b. Lightning arresters & surge absorbers - Construction and principle of operation.

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A Lightening Arrester is protective equipment that protects electrical equipment from high
voltage surges caused by lightning strikes. They are usually installed at the top of
transmission poles and buildings and provide an easy path for the surge voltage from
lightening to flow to ground.

Types of lightning arresters.

1. Rod Gap Arrester

2. Sphere Gap Arrester
3. Horn Gap Arrester
4. Multiple-Gap Arrester
5. Impulse Protective Gap Arrester
6. Electrolytic Arrester
7. Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester
8. Valve Type Lightning Arresters
9. Thyrite Lightning Arrester
10. Auto valve Arrester
11. Oxide Film Arrester
12. Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester

Construction and principle of operation.

The above diagram shows the basic construction of lightning arresters (Surge arresters). This arrester
consists of a spark gap in series with a nonlinear resistor which provides high resistance to normal voltage
and low resistance for surge voltage

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The connection of lightning arresters on the transmission line is shown in the diagram. one end of the
diverter is connected to the terminal of the apparatus to be protected and the other end of the arrester is
connected to the ground through Nonlinear resister series with a spark gap.

The length of the gap is set that the normal line voltage is not sufficient to cause the breakdown of air
between the gap and to form an arc. But high surge voltage will break down the air insulation and form an
arc between the gap and series-connected nonlinear resistor offer low resistance to high surge voltage.

Working; Lightning arrester working principle is, under the normal operating condition, a lightning
arrester does not conduct any current to earth. But on the occurrence of overvoltage due to lightning or
other means, the air between the spark gap breaks down and arc formed. Providing a low resistance path
for the surge to ground hence excess charge on the line due to surge is conducted through the arrester to
earth.

The purpose of nonlinear resister is in the operation of a lightning arrester is as gap spark over due to surge
voltage, the arc would be a short circuit on the power system and may cause power to follow current in
arrester. Since the characteristics of nonlinear resister are providing high resistance to high voltage/current
in. it prevents the effect of the short circuit after a surge over. The resister offers high resistance to make
the gap not conducting.

Surge Absorber

A surge absorber is a protective device that absorbs the high voltage surges and reduces the steepness of
the surge wavefronts. The surge diverter diverts the surge voltage to the earth by restricting it from entering
the equipment, while the surge absorber absorbs energy contained in the surge voltage.

Types of Surge Absorbers:

The most commonly used surge or lightning absorbers are,

1. Condenser or capacitor surge absorber.

2. Inductor and resistance combination surge absorber.
3. Ferranti surge absorber.
In this type of surge absorption, a capacitor is connected between the line and the earth as shown in figure
(a) below. This arrangement acts as a surge absorber. When connected across transformer winding, it
prevents the transformer from damage.

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We know that the capacitor reactance Xc is inversely proportional to the frequency i.e., Xc ∝ 1/f. At high
frequency i.e., under fault conditions, the capacitor reactance will be low and act as a short circuit to the
surges shown in figure (b) and neutralize them to the ground. At low frequency i.e., under normal operating
conditions, the capacitive reactance is high and acts as an open circuit as shown in figure (c). Therefore,
line current flows to the device.

Surge Absorption Using Parallel Combination of Inductor and Resistance :

Surge absorption using a parallel combination of choke and resistance in series with the line is as shown in
figure (a) below. Here, the choke is nothing but the inductor.

We know that, in the case of an inductor, XL = 2πfL. At high frequency, XL is more and hence it acts as an
open circuit as shown in figure (b). When the inductor is open-circuited, the surge has got only one path
i.e., through the resistor referring to figure

When the surge passes through the resistor, they are dissipated as heat owing to the property of the resistor.
Under normal operating conditions, if the frequency is less, then XL is also less and acts as a short circuit
as shown in figure (c) to the line currents, and the current flows to the power line.

Ferranti Surge Absorber:

In this type of absorber, an inductor is connected in series with the line as shown in figure below. The
inductor is air-cored and insulated with a metallic sheet that is grounded. This insulated metal sheet acts as
a dissipater. This type of setup is equivalent to the transformer whose secondary is earthed i.e., short-
circuited. Its primary winding is formed by the inductor and secondary winding is formed by the dissipater.

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3a. Construction, working and applications of Numerical Relays.

Numeric relays are the evolved form of a static and electromagnetic relay. They are basically a device
used for measuring electric parameters in an electrical network and convert them into numerical data which
undergoes mathematical and logical analysis to decide on tripping an electrical network.
The main purpose of a numerical relay is to protect the electrical network from unexpected fault currents.
Numerical relays are mostly preferred because of their versatile characteristics. A single Numerical relay
can monitor multiple parameters like current, voltage, Frequency, onset time, offset time, etc. And
the same relay can be used for analyzing and monitoring multiple faults such as over current, over fluxing,
different current and more.

Comparison of Static Relays with Electro-Magnetic Relays and microprocessor/microcontroller-

based relays.

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3b. Concept of Multifunction Protection numerical relays.

WEEK-6

Transformer protection:
1a. Explain Abnormalities & List different types of Faults.

Common Faults in Transformer are

i) Open Circuit
ii) Over Heating
iii) Winding Short circuit (Earth Fault of L-L Fault& Inter Turn Fault)

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1b. Construction and working of Circulating Current Scheme for Transformers Protection.
Merz-price circulating current scheme for the protection of a 3 phase delta/delta power transformer against
phase to phase & phase to ground faults.

Construction: CT’s are connected on the two sides of transformer & are connected in [Link] is
connected by pilot wires & one relay is used for each pair of CT’s.
Operation: During normal operating conditions the secondaries of CT’s carry same currents. Therefore
the current entering & leaving the pilot wires at both ends are the same & no current flows through the
relays. During ground or phase to phase faults the current in the secondary’s of CT’s will be not equal hence
the differential current flowing through the relay & hence relay operates opens the CB. This protection also
provides protection for short circuit between turns of same phase winding. When a short circuit occurs
between the turns, the turn's ratio of the power transformer is changes & causes unbalance between the
current transformer pairs, then differential current flows through the relay & relay operates.
2a. Construction and working of Earth Fault or Leakage Protection Systems for Transformer.

Earth fault is a breakdown of winding insulation to earth. The resulting leakage current is less than short
circuit current. If earth fault continue for a long time & cause damage so transformer has to be protected.

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An earth fault relay is over current relay of low setting & operates when earth fault develops. The protection
of transformer against earth fault is by using Core Balance Leakage Protection.
Construction: The three leads of the primary winding of a power transformer are taken through the core
of a current transformer which carries secondary winding. The operating coil of a relay is connected to this
secondary.
Operation: Under normal conditions, the vector sum of three phase currents is zero (IR+IY+IB=0)& there
is no resultant flux in the core of CT. Therefore no current flows through the relay & it remains inoperative.
Under fault condition, the vector sum of three phase currents is not zero. The resultant current sets up the
flux in the core of CT. This energizes the relay to trip the CB and disconnect faulty transformer from the
system.

3a. Construction and working of Buchholz Relay.

Buchholz relay is gas actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for protection against all kind
of faults. It is used to give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e. slow developing) faults in the transformer & to
disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of serious faults. It is usually installed in the pipe
connecting the conservator to the main tank. These relays are used having rating access of 750 KVA oil
immerse transformers.
Construction: Buchholz relay is placed in the connecting pipe between the main tank & conservator. The
device consists of two elements. The upper element consists of a mercury switch attached to float. The
lower element contains mercury mounted on a hinged type flap located in direct path of flow of oil from
transformer main tank to conservator. The upper element closes an alarm circuit during incipient faults
where as the lower element is arranged to trip the CB in case of major faults.

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Operation: In case of incipient fault within the transformer, the heat due to fault causes the decomposition
of some transformer oil on the main tank. The products of decomposition contain more than 70% of
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into conservator & process gets entrapped in upper
part of relay chamber. When pre-determined amount of gas gets accommodated, it exits sufficient pressure
on the float and then float gets filled & closes the contacts of mercury switch which is attached to it. This
completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm.
If a serious fault occurs in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the main tank. The
oil in the main tank rushes towards the conservator via Buchholz relay. While going, it lifts the flap to close
the contacts of mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the
transformer.

3b. Transformer oil – Electrical properties, desired properties and applications of Transformer oil ,
BDVT.
Definition: The transformer oil can be defined as a special kind of oil that has outstanding electrical
insulating properties. It is also known as insulating oil. At high temperature, this is stable and it is used in
electrical power transformers to prevent arcing, dissolve the heat of the transformer. So, this kind of oil acts
as a coolant protects the windings and core of the transformer because these two are submerged within the
oil.

Different Types

There are two types of transformer oil that include the following.
1. Naphthenic Oil
2. Paraffinic Oil
Properties of oil
1. Power loss is less due to excellent dielectric properties
2. Better insulation values will be there between windings due to high resistivity.
3. High performance
4. Evaporation losses will be reduced due to thermal stability and high flash point.
5. Outstanding aging characteristics even in severe conditions
6. Temperature range is wider
7. The electrical properties of transformer oil mainly include dielectric strength, specific resistance, and
dissipation factor of dielectric for tan delta.
8. The chemical properties of transformer oil mainly include acidity, water content, etc
9. The physical properties of transformer oil mainly include pouring point, flash point, and viscosity

BDV Test
The BDV of transformer oil is breakdown voltage of transformer oil. The BDV or dielectric strength of oil
is the maximum voltage withstands capacity of the oil without breakdown. BDV test of transformer oil oil
is very important for trouble free operation of transformer. Therefore, periodical testing of the transformer
oil BDV is compulsory for ensuring healthiness of the transformer oil. As per IEC, the minimum BDV of
transformer oil should be 30 KV as per transformer oil BDV test standard.

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Applications of a good insulating oil :The transformer oil is used in

1. Minimum oil circuit breaker.
2. Bulk oil circuit breaker.
3. Oil fuse switches.
4. Rheostats.
5. Starters/controllers.
6. Regulators.
7. ON-load tap-changers.
8. Isolators.
9. Transformers.

WEEK-7

1. Alternator Protection-Types of Protection, Explain Abnormalities and List different types of Faults.
The most serious Fault in alternator is Internal Fault in Windings. Some of the faults which occur on
alternator are
1) Failure of Prime Mover 2) Failure of Field
2) Over Current 4) Over Speed
5) Over Voltage 6) Unbalanced loading
7) Stator winding faults.
1). Failure of Prime Mover: When the input to the prime movers fails Alternator runs as a synchronous motor
and draws current from the line this condition is called inverted running
a). In Turbo alternators If Steam supply fails leads to inverted running if steam supply is gradually restored the
alternators picks up load without any disturbance if delayed leads to machine can be supplied steam by control room.
This condition is not so serious. Thus, protection is not required.
b). In Hydro generator set the inverted running is prevented by providing mechanical devices .if water supply is less
the alternators can be disconnected from the hence protection is not required.
c). In Diesel Gen-Sets draws heavy current from the system hence protection is required in case of inverted running.

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2). Failure of Field: The chances of field failure are less .even in case it occurs it is less likely to damage
the system hence can be controlled from control room. Thus Automatic protection is not required.
3). Over Current: It occurs due to partial breakdown of winding or due to over load on the supply system.
It is uneconomical to protect alternator against over voltage due to a).Modern alternators are designed with
heavy reactance such that they can withstand S.C. at their terminals. For considerable time.b).this also leads
to disconnect alternator even for transients (Short duration Faults).
4). Over Speed: The main reason for over speed is sudden drop in load. But modern alternators are provided
with mechanical centrifugal governors to control the speed.
5) Over Voltage: Over voltage occurs if the speed of the alternator increases which is controlled by
centrifugal governors.
6) . Unbalanced loading: unbalanced loading is due to fault to earth or fault between phases in external
circuit of the alternator. If unbalanced current allowed for more time leads to burning of mechanical fixtures
or damage to field winding. This unbalancing is controlled by Zero Sequence current
7). Stator winding faults: These occur due to insulation failure may leads to faults between i) phase to
ground ( LG) between two phase (LL) iii) Inter Turn Fault of same winding.
Alternator Protection-Types of Protection,
1. Differential protection of alternator or merz-price circulating current scheme
2. Balanced earth fault protection
3. Stator inter turn protection
2. Construction and working of Differential protection for Alternators.

This system is also called circulating current method in this current in the two ends of protection section
are compared. Under normal condition the currents are equal and became unequal under fault condition.
The difference of current under fault condition is passed through the operating coil of the relay then relay
isolates the faulty section the other name for those protection is Merzs Price Protection.

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Construction: CT1 and CT2 are placed on either side of the each side of the stator winding. The secondary
of CTs are connected in star and the connecting two group of star are connected together by four pilot
wires there is an individual path for circulating current in each pair of CTs
The relay coils are also connected in star with neutral connected to common of CTs neutral .The
relays are connected at equipotential points of each pilot wires..The relays are usually electromagnetic type
and are arranged for instantaneous action
Operation: The relays are connected in shunt across each circulating path. Under normal operating
conditions the currents at both the ends of each winding will be equal thus there is balanced circulating
current in the pilot wires and no current flows through the operating coil of relays.
But when earth fault or phase to phase fault occurs the differential current flows through the relay coils
which activate trip circuit.
3. Construction and working of Balanced Earth Fault Protection for Alternators.
Schematic arrangement: Fig shows the schematic arrangement of a Balanced Earth Fault Protection for a
3-phase alternator. It consists of three line current transformers, one mounted in each phase, having their
secondary's connected in parallel with that of a single current transformer in the conductor joining the star
point of the alternator to earth. A relay is connected across the transformers secondaries. The protection
against earth faults is limited to the region between the neutral and the line current transformers.

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Operation: Under normal operating conditions of Balanced Earth Fault Protection, the currents flowing in
the alternator leads and hence the currents flowing in secondaries of the line current transformers add to
zero and no current flows through the relay. Also under these conditions, the current in the neutral wire is
zero and the secondary of neutral current transformer supplies no current to the relay.

If an earth-fault develops at F2 external to the protected zone, the sum of the currents at the terminals of the
alternator is exactly equal to the current in the neutral connection and hence no current flows through the
relay. When an earth-fault occurs at F1 or within the protected zone, these currents are no longer equal and
the differential current flows through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to
disconnect the alternator from the system.

3. Construction and working of stator inter turn Fault Protection for Alternators.
Inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn alternator such as hydro-electric alternators. These
alternators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each phase winding is divided into two halves) owing to
the very heavy currents which they have to carry. Advantage may be taken of this necessity to protect inter-
turn faults on the same winding. Fig, shows the schematic arrangement of inter-turn protection of a 3-phase
double wound generator. The relays RC provide protection against phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase
faults whereas relays R1 provide protection against inter-turn faults.

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Fig. Shows the duplicate stator windings S1 and S2 of one phase only with a provision against inter-tum
faults. Two current transformers are connected on the circulating-current principle. Under normal
conditions, the currents in the stator windings S1 and S2 are equal and so will be the currents in the
secondaries of the two CTs. The secondary current round the loop then is the same at all points and
no current flows through the relay R1. If a short-circuit develops between adjacent turns, say on S1, the
currents in the stator windings S1 and S2 will no longer be equal. Therefore, unequal currents will be
induced in the secondaries of CTs and the difference of these two currents flows through the relay R1. The
relay then closes its contacts to clear the alternator from the system.

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WEEK-8

Feeder Protection:
1a. Explain abnormalities and list different types of Faults.

Common Faults are

i) Open Circuit
ii) Over Heating
iii) Winding Short circuit ( Earth Fault of L-L Fault& Inter Turn Fault )

1b. Time Graded over Current Protection on transmission line.

In this scheme of Time Graded Over current Protection, time discrimination is incorporated. In other words,
the time setting of relays is so graded that in the event of fault, the smallest possible part of the system is
isolated.
1. Radial feeder: The main characteristic of a radial system is that power can flow only in one
direction, from generator or supply end to the load. Time Graded Over current Protection of a radial
feeder can be achieved by using

• Definite time relays and

• Inverse time relays.

(i) Using definite time relays: Fig shows the over current protection of a radial feeder by definite time
relays. The time of operation of each relay is fixed and is independent of the operating current. Thus relay
D has an operating time of 0.5 second while for other relays, time delay is successively increased by 0.5
second. If a fault occurs in the section DE, it will be cleared in 0.5 second by the relay and circuit breaker
at D because all other relays have higher operating time. In this way only section DE of the system will be
isolated. If the relay at D fails to trip, the relay at C will operate after a time delay of 0.5 second i.e. after 1
second from the occurrence of fault.

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(ii) Using inverse lime relays: Fig shows over current protection of a radial feeder using inverse time
relays in which operating time is inversely proportional this arrangement, the farther the circuit breaker
from the generating operating time.

The three relays at A, B and C are assumed to have inverse-time characteristics. A fault in section BC will
give relay times which will allow breaker at B to trip out before the breaker at A.

2a. Construction and working of Differential Pilot – Wire Protection.

The Differential Pilot Wire Protection is based on the principle that under normal conditions, the current
entering one end of a line is equal to that leaving the other end. As soon as a fault occurs between the two
ends, this condition no longer holds and the difference of incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to
flow through a relay which operates the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty line. There are several
Differential Pilot Wire Protection schemes

1. Merz-Price voltage balance system

2. Translay scheme

1. Men-Price voltage balance system: Fig shows the single line diagram of MerzPrice voltage balance
system for the protection of a 3-phase line. Identical current transformers are placed in each phase at both
ends of the line. The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay in such a way that under,
normal conditions, their secondary voltages are equal and in opposition i.e. they balance each other.

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Under healthy conditions, current entering the line at one-end is equal to that leaving it at the other end.
Therefore, equal and opposite voltages are induced in the secondaries of the CTs at the two ends of the line.
The result is that no current flows through the relays. Suppose a fault occurs at point F on the line. This will
cause a greater current to flow through CT1 than through CT2. Consequently, their secondary voltages
become unequal and circulating current flows through the pilot wires and relays. The circuit breakers at
both ends of the line will trip out and the faulty line will be isolated.
a) Translay Scheme:
Construction: The relays used in the scheme are essentially over current induction type relays. Each relay
has two electromagnetic elements. The upper element carries a winding (11 or 19) which is energized as a
summation transformer from the secondary line CI’[Link] upper magnet also carries a secondary winding
(12 & 12a) which is connected in series with operating winding (13 & 13a) on the lower magnet. The
secondary winding 12, 12a & operating windings 13 & 13a are connected in series in such a way that
voltages induced on them oppose each other.

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Operation:
▪ When the feeder is under normal condition then currents at its two ends are equal so secondary currents
in both the sets of CT’s are equal. Hence current flowing in the relays primary winding 11 & 11a will
be equal & induce equal voltages in the secondary windings 12 & 12a. Since these windings are
connected in opposition, no current flows in operating windings 13 &13a.
▪ In the event of fault then the line current of the CT’s will be unequal. The result is that voltage induced
in secondary windings 12 & 12a will be different & current will flow through the operating coils 13,13a
& pilot circuit. The operation of the relays will open the circuit breaker at both the ends of the line.

2b. Discuss Basic principle of Distance Protection.

Distance protection is commonly used for transmission lines, where faults are more likely to occur due to
the high voltage and current levels which helps to minimize damage to the power system and prevent power
outages.

Working Principle Distance protection

Distance protection is a type of protection relay that operates on the principle of impedance measurement
to detect and isolate

Impedance measurement: Distance protection relays measure the impedance of the power system using
the voltage and current signals at the relaying point. Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current in a circuit,
and it varies depending on the distance between the relay and the fault.

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1. Fault detection: When a fault occurs in the power system, the impedance measured by the relay
changes, and the impedance characteristic is used to determine the location of the fault. The relay
compares the measured impedance to the impedance characteristic and operates if the measured
impedance falls outside the characteristic.

2. Fault clearing: When the relay operates, it sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker to isolate the fault.
The trip signal is sent after the time delay set by the zone settings has elapsed. The circuit breaker
opens, and the fault is cleared.

The application of distance relays for the protection of transmission lines is shown in the below figure. G
is generating station, substations S1, S2, and S3 are in series. Let the impedance of line GS1 be Z1. S1S2 be
Z2, S2S3 be Z3. The relays at G, S1, S2, and S3 are set to operate for impedance less than Z1, Z2, Z3, and
Z4 respectively.

Suppose a fault takes place at point P between substations S2 and S3. The total fault loop impedance from
generating station up to fault point is Z1 + Z2 + Z, from substation S1 to fault is Z2 + Z, and from substation
S2 to fault is Z.

Therefore the relays at generating station and substation S1 will not operate, but the fault loop impedance
for the relay at substation S2 becomes less than Z3 (because Z is less than Z3), therefore, the relay at
substation S2 will operate. Similarly, in case of a fault occurring between S1 and S2, the relay at S1 will
operate. Thus, in this way, instantaneous protection can be achieved for all conditions of operation.

Bus–Bar Protection:
3a. Explain Abnormalities & List different types of Faults.
Bulbar Faults
1. Failure of insulation due to material deterioration.
2. Earth fault due to failure of support insulator.
3. Flashover due to sustained excessive over voltages.
4. Earthquake and mechanical damage.

3b. Construction and working of Differential Protection of Bus -Bars.

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1) Differential Protection:

.Construction:
1 Figure shows the single line diagram of current differential scheme for a station bus bar.
2 The bus bar is fed by a generator & supply load to two lines.
3 The secondary of current transformer in the generator lead, in line1 & line2 are all connected in parallel.
4 The protective relay is connected across this parallel connection.
5 All CT’s must be of the same ratio.
Operation:
1Under normal load conditions the sum of currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving it & no
current flows through the relay.
2 If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the currents entering the bus is not equal to those leaving it.
The difference of these currents will flow through the relay & cause the opening of the generator CB
& the line circuit breakers.
WEEK-9

1. List Testing methods of Circuit Breaker, Explain type test and routine test & maintenance.

List Testing methods of Circuit Breaker

Type tests can be broadly classified as the mechanical performance test, thermal test, dielectric or insulating
test, short circuit test for checking the making capacity, breaking capacity, short time rating current and
operating duty.
1. Mechanical Test– It is mechanical ability type test involving the repeated opening and closing of the
breaker. A circuit breaker must close and open at proper speed and do its allocated job and function without
any failure.

2. Thermal Test– Thermal tests are carried out to check the thermal behavior of the circuit breakers. Due to
the streaming of rated current through its pole in a rated condition, the breaker under test undergoes steady-
state temperature rises. The temperature rise for rated current should not exceed 40° for current less than
800A normal current and 50° for normal value of current 800A and above.

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3. Dielectric Test– These tests are performed to check power frequency and impulse voltage withstand
capacity. Power frequency tests are kept on a new circuit breaker; the test voltage changes with a circuit
breaker rated voltage. In impulse tests, impulse voltage of particular value is employed to the breaker.
4. Short -Circuit Test– Circuit breakers are subjected to sudden short-circuits in short-circuit test
laboratories, and oscillograms are taken to know the behavior of the circuit breakers at the time of switching
in, during contact breaking and after the arc extinction. The oscillograms are studied with particular
reference to the making and breaking currents, both symmetrical and asymmetrical restriking voltages, and
switchgear is sometimes tested at rated conditions.

5. Routine Tests of a Circuit Breaker

These tests are performed on the manufacturers’ premises. Routine tests confirm the proper functioning of
the circuit breaker. The routine tests confirm the proper functioning of the circuit breaker.
Preventative Maintenance of Circuit Breaker, Inspection, and Testing
Preventative maintenance depend operating conditions for circuit breakers. Primary inspections of CB
(circuit breakers) will look at particulate matter that’s contaminating the inner workings of the CB.

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Maintenance Services Include:

• Evaluate, Clean, Service and Test

• Insulating parts which include bushings should be wiped down and cleaned
• Check fault operations
• Trip Testing to ensure manufacturer standards
• Inspection of alignment conditions and stationary contacts
• Remove damaged parts
• Reset breaker operation mechanism to manufacturer’s instruction book
• Primary and Secondary Testing
• On Site Evaluation of breakers, bus ducts, and fuses

2. List & Explain Testing methods of CT’s & PT’s and Maintenance of Relays.
Below is the list of Major tests conducted on CT & PT
Insulation Resistance Test
• Polarity Test
• Secondary/Loop Resistance Test
• Burden Test (optional test)
• Magnetization Curve Test (optional test)
• Hysteresis Curve Test
• Turns Ratio Test (optional test)
• Primary Injection Test
• High Voltage Test

3.2. Insulation Resistance Test

The voltage shall be applied between:
Primary to secondary plus ground (covered during switchgear test).
Secondary to primary plus ground.

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Secondary core to core.

Test voltage limits 1000v to 5000v. The ambient temperature shall be noted down during test

3.3. Polarity Test

Polarity test is to confirm the polarity marking on the CT primary and secondary and verify it is matching
with drawing.
Isolate CT secondary from the load and make circuit connection .Close and open the battery switch
connected on the primary. Observe the pointer is moving +ve direction, while closing and –ve
direction while opening for correct polarity
3.4 secondary/ loop resistance test

Secondary resistance test is to verify the CT secondary winding resistance with specified one and no
discontinuity in the winding. This value can be used in other calculations.
Loop resistance to ensure load is connected properly and circuits not left [Link] the dcresistance
value and record. The same shall be done for all taps and cores
Measure the dc resistance including CT and load, phase by phase and values can be compared between
them.

Figure 2 – CT resistance / Loop Resistance Test

3.5 Burden Test (optional test)

Burden test is to ensure the connected burden to CT is with in the rated burden, identified on the nameplate.
Injected the rated secondary current of the CT, from CT terminals towards load side by isolating the CT secondary
with all connected load and observe the voltage drop across the injection points. The burden VA can be calculated
as Burden VA = Voltage drop x rated CT sec. Current.

3.6. Magnetization Curve Test (optional test)

The primary should be open during test.

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Demagnetisation
Before start the test demagnetize the core by Inject voltage on secondary terminals and increase
up to where considerable increment in current with small voltage increment. Now start
decreasing the voltage to zero, the rate at which increased.
Magnetisation test
Now increase the voltage and monitor the excitation current up to the CT reaching near to
saturation point. Record the reading of voltage and current at several points

3.7. Turns ratio Tests (optional test)

This test is to ensure the turn’s ratio of CT at all taps. The primary current of minimum of 25%
rated primary current to be injected on primary side of CT with secondaries shorted and the
secondary current can be measured and recorded for all cores.

3.8. High Voltage Test

Objective of HV test is to determine the equipment is in proper condition to put in service, after
installation for which it was designed and to give some basis for predicting whether or not that
a healthy condition will remain or if deterioration is underway which can result in abnormally
short life.

Potential Transformer Tests:

The three Potential Transformer Tests are namely,

1. Polarity check,
2. Ratio check and
3. Phasing check.

Polarity check: Polarity check in Potential Transformer Tests is performed in the same way as that for
a CT. If the PT is of the capacitor type then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the
capacitor stack should be checked.

Ratio check: A simple test for ratio can be made by connecting voltmeters to the primary and
secondary, one of the voltmeters sometimes being used in conjunction with a potential divider to
read high primary voltages.

Another method is the comparative method. If a second PT of standard accuracy and the same ratio as the
test PT is substituted for the potential divider then a fixed fraction of the primary voltage is delivered from
its secondary.

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When this is applied in opposition to the secondary voltage of the test transformer, a difference voltage is
obtained which is a measure of the difference in errors of the two transformers.

Phasing check: The incoming secondary connections for a three-phase PT or bank of three single-phase
PTs must be carefully checked for phasing. With the main circuit alive the secondary voltages between
phases and neutral must be measured to verify that the phase relationship is correct. The phase rotation
should then be checked with a phase rotation meter connected across the three phases as shown in Fig

3. Explain Substation Earthing (Solid, Resistance and Reactance Earthing), -Neutral Earthing-
Importance and types –
Earthing is defined as the process of connecting a non–current carrying metallic parts of electrical
equipment or the neutral of the supply system to the earth

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The earthing is importance because of the following reasons.

1. Earthing protects the personnel from an electric shock.
2. Earthing minimize the risk of fire.
3. Equipment protection: An earthing system aids in preventing damage to electrical equipment from
overvoltage or short-circuit situations.
4. Operational safety for electrical systems
5. Protection against lightning

Solid grounded system; A solid grounded system is one in which the neutral conductor of power
transformers, grounding transformers, or alternators is directly connected to the ground. Since the neutral
is directly grounded, this system allows connection to line to neutral (Single phase connections). Moreover,
ground faults can be detected easily using zero sequence or residual current relays.

Resistance grounded system: In this type of grounding, the neutral conductor of power transformers,
grounding transformers or alternators is directly connected to the ground through a resistor. By grounding
a system through a resistor, the damages caused to equipment during ground faults can be reduced. This
can also limit the momentary voltage drops caused in a system Low resistance grounding is done by
connecting the neutral to the ground through a low resistance. The value of resistance used for grounding
can be calculated using the formula: during faults.

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Reactance grounded system: Reactance grounding is achieved by grounding the system through a
reactor. Unlike resistance grounding, the ground fault currents in the system of this type shall be higher.
Under arcing ground fault situations, this inductive reactance to ground resonates with the system’s shunt
capacitance to ground and generates extremely high transient overvoltage on the system.

Neutral Grounding: In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system or rotating system or
transformer is connected to the ground. The neutral grounding is an important aspect of power system
design because the performance of the system regarding short circuits, stability, protection, etc., is greatly
affected by the condition of the neutral. A three phase system can be operated in two possible ways

1. With ungrounded neutral

2. With a grounded neutral
Ungrounded Neutral System: In an ungrounded neutral system, the neutral is not connected to the
grounded. In other words, the neutral is isolated from the ground. Therefore, this system is also known the
isolated neutral system or free neutral system shown in the figure below.

Grounded System: In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system is connected to the ground.
Because of the problems associated with ungrounded neutral systems, the neutrals are grounded in most of
the high-voltage systems.

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Some of the advantages of neutral grounding are as follows

1. Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.
2. Surge voltage due to arcing grounds is eliminated.
3. The overvoltage due to lightning discharged to ground.
4. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
5. It provides improved service reliability.

Explain Principle and applications Peterson coil.

Peterson coils are used in ungrounded 3-phase grounding systems to limit the arcing currents during ground
faults. The coil was first developed by W. Petersen in 1916.
When a phase to earth fault occurs in ungrounded 3 phase systems, the phase voltage of the faulty phase is
reduced to the ground potential. This causes the phase voltage in the other two phases to rise by √3 times.
This increase in voltage causes a charging current, Ic between the phase-to-earth capacitances. The current
Ic, which increases to three times the normal capacitive charging current, needs to complete its circuit. This
causes a series of restrikes at the fault locations known as arcing grounds. This can also lead to overvoltage
in the system.

Construction Petersen coil consists of an iron-cored reactor connected at the star point of a three phase
system. In the event of a fault, the capacitive charging current is neutralized by the current across the reactor
which is equal in magnitude but 180 degrees out of phase. This compensates for the leading current drawn
by the line capacitances. The power factor of the fault moves closer to unity. This facilitates the easy
extinguishing of the arc as both the voltage and current have a similar zero-crossing.

IC=3I=3Vp/(1/ωC) =3VpωC

Where IC is the resultant charging current that is three times the charging current of each phase to ground.
Consider a Petersen coil connected between the star-point and the ground with inductive reactance ωL, then

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WEEK-10

1. Control Panel –Meaning,Types/various forms, construction of typical control panel.

Control panel is used to accommodate instruments for the purpose of measurement, monitoring,
protection, detection, control and manage the processes. The panels are located in a control room for
operational convenience.
Types of Electrical Control Panels

1. Industrial Panels:
PCC panel: PCC is a short form of Power Control Centre. This is a heart of the control circuit. The output
of the generators or transformers is given to PCC. The major power circuit equipment will be installed in
this panel. It consists of circuit breakers, Busbar, PTs (Potential Transformer), CTs (Current Transformer),
insulators etc. Major protection circuits will be installed in this panel to protect transformers, Motors,
Generators etc. The output Power from the PCC panel will be distributed to MCC panels via feeders.

MCC Panel: MCC is a short form of Motor control center. It consists of Feeders. And feeder contains
motor’s starter, SFU, MCB, MCCB, MPCBs, Control transformer, meters etc. Once you open the door of
the MCC panel doors you can access all the circuit breakers or fuses. Usually one of these panels feeds all
the circuits in the power plant or other electrical applications

AUTO MAINS FAILURE (AMF) PANEL: Auto Main Failure (AMF) Panels are designed to restore power
during power failures and are installed in between the generators and main power supply. When the main
supply failure occurs, the panel disconnects the main from the load, activates the generator and shifts load
to generator output. On restoration of main supply, the generator automatically stops, gets disconnected
and the load is again transferred to the mains.

APFC PANEL: Automatic Power Factor Control or APFC Panels are mainly used for the improvement
of Power Factor and sustain at 0.99 Lag. Power Factor is the ratio of active power to apparent power and it
is a major component in measuring electrical power consumption. Power factor means: Power Factor
defines the ratio of true power used in a circuit to the apparent power delivered to the load circuit.

Function of APFC Panel

Function of APFC panel is improve the power factor. Most of the electric load is reactive, resulting in poor
power factor. Companies distributing electricity encourage consumers to improve power [Link]
Panel has microcontroller based programmable controller which switches the capacitor banks of suitable
capacity automatically in multiple stages by directly reading the reactive load (KVAR) which works in the
principle of VAR sensing tends to keep up the PF to 0.99 Lag

2. Domestic Panels:

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Lighting DB Panel: Every construction project must include lighting distribution panels, which must be
planned, manufactured, and installed in line with safety regulations

Motor Starter Panel: electrical device known as a starter regulates the electrical power used to start a
motor. These electrical devices are also used for the purpose of stopping, reversing and protecting electric
motors.

Various form of control panel

Form 1, 2, 3 and 4 control panels, tailored to the exact needs of each project – right down to the
color of your panel.
Power gears- Isolators, SFU (switch fuse unit), change over switch, selector switch.

Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch that isolates the faulty section of substation. It is used to
separate faulty section for repair from a healthy section in order to avoid the occurrence of severe faults. It
is also called disconnector or disconnecting switch.
SWITCH FUSE UNIT (SFU) It is Switched Fuse Unit. It has one switch unit and one fuse unit. When we
operate the breaker, the contacts will get close through switch and then the supply will passes through the
fuse unit to the output. Whereas in Fuse Switch Unit there is no separate switch and fuse unit.

A changeover switch is an electrical switch that allows a load to be changed from one electrical source to another
and vice versa, either manually or automatically.

Selector switch: Selector switches can be rotated right, left, or in the center in order to open or close the
electrical contacts. The function of a selector switch is to control devices as well as switch between a
minimum of two or more circuits. The perfect use for a selector switch is when used for controlling an
output of a device

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2. Contactors – types, configuration and their specifications, various control accessories like PB
switches, Indicators.
Contactors are electrically controlled switching devices which are used for switching electrically. The
basic operation of this is similar to a relay, but the only difference is that contractors can carry large current
compared to relay up to 12500A. They cannot provide short circuit or overload protection but can break
the contact when coil excites.

Types of contactors
1. Based on power supply

a) DC contactor
b) AC contactor

2. Based on no of poles
a) three pole contactors
b) four pole contactors

3. Based on application

The current rating of the contactor depends on utilization category. AC-1 – Non-inductive or slightly
inductive loads, resistance furnaces

a) AC-2 – Starting & switching off of slip ring motor.

b) AC-3 – Starting of Squirrel Cage motors and switching-off only after the motor is up to speed.

c) AC-4 – Starting of squirrel-cage motors with inching and plugging duty.

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Various control accessories like PB switches, Indicators.

Push Button Switch: A push button switch is a mechanical device used to control an electrical circuit in
which the operator manually presses a button to actuate an internal switching mechanism. They come in a
variety of shapes, sizes, and configurations, depending on the design requirements

Types of Push Button Switches: Push button switches can be classified as being normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC). Normally open (“OFF” position) switches complete the circuit when actuated, while
normally closed (“ON” position) switches break the circuit when actuated.

INDICATOR
A device, that monitors the working or position status of circuits and electrical equipment by lamp.
Indicator lamp is usually used to reflect the working state of the circuit (electric or non-electric), the
working state of the electrical equipment (operation, shutdown or test) and the position state (closed or
disconnected), etc.

Indicator lamp: An indicator lamp used commonly colors are red, green, yellow, blue, white. Yellow
means standby, green means normal operation, red means emergency stop.

3. Explain various sections of control panel- Incoming section, outgoing section, busbar section.

WEEK-11

1. Metering section – Energy meter,Trivector meter, multi-function meter.

Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilised by the electric load is known as
the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at a particular
interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the power consumption.

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Working of the Energy Meter

The energy meter has the aluminum disc whose rotation determines the power consumption of the load.
The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt electromagnet. The shunt magnet has the
pressure coil, and the series magnet has the current coil.

The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the current coil produces it
because of the current.

The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the current coil because of
which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction of the eddy current and the magnetic field causes
torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the disc starts rotating.

The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The permanent magnet controls
Their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the disc and equalizes it on the power
consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.

TRIVECTOR METER

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MULTIFUNCTION METER

These devices are pivotal in managing power distribution in industrial, commercial, and residential settings.
They are equipped to measure essential electrical parameters such as voltage, current, power factor,
frequency, and energy consumption. They provide real-time data, enabling precise power quality
assessment, load management, and energy efficiency.

Working principle of a Multifunction Meter

Unlike popular belief, the working principle of a multifunction meter is very different from that of a
traditional induction meter.A multifunction meter is much more ‘intelligent’ in comparison. It samples user
power supply voltage and current in real-time and then uses a special electronic circuit including a
microcontroller to process the sampled voltage and current [Link] is then converted into electrical
energy. The pulse output (when provided) is proportional to the final processed signals (kWh units).

2. Various auxiliary relays: lockout, DC failures relay, TCS (trip circuit supervision relay), and
contact multiplier relay.-Safety interlocks.

An auxiliary relay is a relay that assists another relay. It does this when its operating circuit is opened or
closed.

Lockout relays are used by many utilities in electrical power transmission, substations to trip and hold out
of service a protection zone on the occurrence of a relay operation that requires inspection and/or repair
before the zone may be safely placed back in service.

DC failure relay; monitoring circuits. This DC failure relay gives audio & led indications when dc supplies
fails to this unit. This unit is faded with both DC & AC supply, require to monitor the dc supply,

Trip Circuit Supervision relay; (TCS) relays are intended for a continuous supervision of circuit breaker
trip circuit, and to give an alarm for loss of auxiliary supply, faults on the trip-coil or its wires independent
of the breaker position, faults on the breaker auxiliary contacts and faults in the supervision relay
A contact multiplication relay is a type of relay that uses multiple sets of contacts to control a circuit
Contact multiplier relay use or increase the number of contact from any circuits. It just converts single
contact into N number of contacts. These relays are mainly used in circuit breaker’s circuit

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Safety interlock switches are used as interlock devices that can prevent machine operation or startup in an
unsafe situation, such as when a door or guard is open. Interlock devices with a locking function can also
prevent doors or guards from being opened while the machine is in operation

A safety interlock is a device or a circuit that prevents the activation of a function or a process until certain
conditions are met. For example, a safety interlock can prevent a motor from starting until a door is closed,
or a conveyor from moving until a sensor is triggered

3. Significance and importance of: IEC 61439 standards ANSI Device numbers

WEEK-12

1. Motor Control Centre (MCC): working, typical specification and application: Motor protection relay

A motor control center (MCC) is an assembly to control all electric motors in a central location. It consists
of multiple enclosed sections having a common power bus and with each section containing a combination
starter, which in turn consists of motor starter, fuses or circuit breaker, and power disconnect A motor
control center can also include push buttons, indicator lights, variable-frequency drives, programmable
logic controllers, in order to control all these motors, MCC’s are required. the MCC is a big enclosure that
would house the major motor control equipment.
Major components in a motor control center
1. Bus bar
2. Circuit breaker
3. Magnetic contactor
4. Contactor auxiliary contact
5. Relay control
6. Cable installation control panel enclosure
Bus bar:A bus bar is a bar that would be made up of brass, copper, etc, the major function of a bus bar is
to provide or distribute the required power to the electrical equipment. can easily connect the electrical
equipment in an MCC with the help of a bus bar

Miniature circuit breaker; The purpose of the MCB is to disconnect a circuit in case if there is an
excessive current flow in the circuit, or in case if there is an electrical load that exceeds capacity.

Magnetic contactors; A magnetic contactor is used in an MCC to start or stop a motor. Mostly there would
be a remote control device to start and stop the motor and for this purpose, operation of the magnetic
contactor would be based on the electromagnetic principle.

Overload relays: These relays would protect the motor from overheating, the overheating could be caused
due to the overload of the driven machinery So when the excessive current is drawn for a specified amount
of time the overload relay would open and the motor will be disconnected from the power source.

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Time delay relay; The major purpose of a time delay relay is to provide the on delay and off delay timing.
So this device can be used for the automatic time setting, this device can be combined with the other control
equipment in an MCC, like a magnetic contactor.

Applications of motor control centres

1. Ships
2. Refineries
3. Hotels/shopping malls
4. Power plants
5. Steel plants

Specification of motor control centre

1. Operating voltage – 240/415v
2. Coating -- powder coated
3. Capacity -- 16KA to 100KA
4. Frequency -- 50Hz to 60Hz

2a. Working, typical specification and application: Thermal Overload Relays

A thermal overload relay is a safety device used in control circuits. The thermal overload uses an electric
motor to control its overheated short circuit when the temperature increases above the set value. This type
of thermal overload relay will be used if there is the possibility of a short circuit or continuous high-
temperature conditions.

Working Principle: The thermal overload relay working principle is based on the amount of current that
flows in the motor .

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Thermal Overload Relay Parts:A thermal relay is composed of several components.

Temperature sensing element – This is usually a bimetallic strip, which consists of two strips of
different metals. The amount by which the strip expands.

Tripping mechanism – This is the section of that contains levers and slides that trips off the relay when
the temperature sensing element senses a prolonged overload. The parts include trip lever, contact lever,
trip slide, and springs.

Contacts – These overload relay parts open and close to allow current flow or to disrupt it when tripped.
A typical thermal relay will have two sets of contacts; one set is normally closed and the other normally
open. When an overload is detected, the contacts switch positions to disrupt current flow.

Thermal Overload Relay Operation

1. As current flows through the bimetal heating coil, it generates heat. Depending on the set rating, a
sustained overload reaches a point where it causes the bimetallic strip to expand and bend.
2. This will press against the trip lever and the relay’s normally closed contacts open while the normally
open contacts close. The action disconnects the affected piece of equipment from the power supply.
3. When this happens, a tripping indicator is activated to show that the device has been disconnected. You
can then reset the tripped the tripped relay as necessary or when the specific fault has cleared.

Application

Thermal overload relays protect motors, transformers, and other electrical devices from overheating. These
relays are often installed at points where there is an electric circuit with several devices on it. If one of these
devices overheats, it can cause damage to itself or other parts of this circuit.
3. Scope of IEC standard IEC 60947-4-1

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WEEK-13

1. APFC (Automatic power Factor Control panel) - construction and working.

APFC stands for ‘automatic power factor correction’. An APFC panel consists of multiple capacitors of
different ratings whose switching can be controlled as per requirement. An APFC is effective as a single-
point installation which can be used to control the power factor for a large number of loads, instead of
installing capacitors at the individual locations of each load.

An APFC panel consists of multiple capacitors and a controller. These capacitors have different ratings.
The current from the circuit is sensed and given as input to the controller. The controller identifies how
much reactive power is being generated in the circuit and tries to compensate it by switch in capacitors on
or off.

An APFC is effective as a single-point installation which can be used to control the power factor for a large
number of loads, instead of installing capacitors at the individual locations of each load.

Depending on the loads in operation, various levels of kVAR compensation are required to maintain proper
power factor. The APFC panel contains a multi-step relay which is connected to multiple capacitors and a
microprocessor controller which is programmed to control the switching operation
of the relay. The voltage and current are measured on the feeder which is providing supply to the entire
group of loads to determine the uncompensated power factor. Then, as per the ratings of the different
capacitors used in the APFC and the measured uncompensated power factor, the controller determines
which capacitors are to be switched on/off to achieve optimal power factor.

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2. AMF (Automatic mains failure) panel - Construction and working.

AMF- automatic mains failure Panel: Auto panel is used for making or breaking power supply in
automatic mode. Two numbers power supply source, EB and DG are used in this panel. When the power
supply cut is detected then the DG supply is connected in auto mode.

Components of AMF panel:

1- Metering Section; Measuring meters are used for measuring the system parameters like as volt meter,
amp meter, multifunction meter etc.
A- Measuring meters: Many types meters are used in panel like as Analog meter and digital meters. Amp
meter, volt meter, multi function meter, energy meter are used for measuring the parameters. It all can be
used digital or analog as per requirement.
B- Indicators: Indicators are used for knowing the status of panel operation. Difference type indicators are
used with different color.
R Phase.,Y Phase.,B Phase.
DG ON.,DG OFF.
C- Push button
DG start
DG stop
Emergency switch
D- Selector Switches
Amp selector switch
Voltage selector switch
Auto/manual

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AMF controller: AMF control relay is used for controlling the AMF panel. Monitoring relay is used for
sending tripping and connecting signal. Voltage and current parameters are monitored by this relay. DG
parameters are also monitored by this rely
Working Principle of AMF panel: When the AMF panel senses that mains has failed then it provides a
start signal to the DG. After starting the DG, the breaker is connected to the load. This all activity has been
done in automatically. When backup supply is detected then AMF panel sends a tripping signal to the DG
breaker after tripping DG breaker a other signal is sent to the EB supply breaker resultant the mains supply
is resumed.

3. STP (Standard Temperature Pressure Control) panel- Construction and working.

Standard temperature and pressure (STP) refers to the nominal conditions in the atmosphere at sea level.
These conditions are 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere (atm) of pressure. The STP value is important to
physicists, chemists, engineers, pilots and navigators, among others.

Standard conditions for temperature (T) and pressure (P) refers to a specific pressure and temperature used
to report on the properties of matter. STP values are commonly used in experiments involving gases.

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