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Data Structure

One Mark

1. What are data structures?

A. Data Structure is the way of collecting and organizing the data in such a way that
we can perform operation on these data in an effective way.
2. What is meant by primitive data structures?
A. Data structures that are directly operated upon the machine-level instructions are
known as primitive data structures.
3. Give an example for linear data structure.
A. Stack, Queue and Linked Lists.
4. Name any one non-linear data structure
A. trees and graphs
5. What are non-linear data structures?
A. A Non-Linear Data structures is a data structure in which data item is connected to
several other data items.
6. What is queue?
A. A queue is an ordered collection of items where an item is inserted at one end
called the “rear” and an existing item is removed at the other end, called the
“front”
7. Define an array.
A. An array is an ordered collection of elements of same data type that share
common name
8. Define searching.
A. The process of finding the position of an element is called searching.
9. Define sorting?
A. Sorting is a process of arranging the data in ascending and descending order.
10. Give an example for primitive data structure?
A. Integer, Character, Float, Pointers

Three Mark

1. Explain the memory representation of queue in arrays?

A. Queue is represented in memory using linear array.
 Let QUEUE is a array, two pointer variables called FRONT and REAR are
maintained.
 The pointer variable FRONT contains the location of the element to be removed
or deleted.
 The pointer variable REAR contains location of the last element inserted.

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  The condition FRONT = NULL indicates that queue is empty.
 The condition REAR = N-1 indicates that queue is full.

2. Explain the various operations performed on queue data structures.

A. Operation on Queues:
 Queue( ): It creates a new queue that is empty.
 enqueue(item): It adds a new item to the rear of the queue.
 dequeue( ): It removes the front item from the queue.
 isEmpty( ): It tests to see whether the queue is empty.
 size( ): It returns the number of items in the queue.
3. Write an algorithm for traversal in a linear array.
A. ALGORITHM: Traversal (A, LB, UB) A is an array with Lower Bound LB and
Upper Bound UB.
Step 1: for LOC = LB to UB do
Step 2: PROCESS A [LOC] [End of for loop]
Step 3: Exit
4. Explain the memory representation of two dimensional arrays
A. A is the array of order m x n. To store m*n number of elements, we need m*n
memory locations. The elements should be in contiguous memory locations.
 There are two methods: o Row-major method o Column-major method
 Row-Major Method: All the first-row elements are stored in sequential memory
locations and then all the second-row elements are stored and so on.

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  Column-Major Method: All the first column elements are stored in
sequential memory locations and then all the second-column elements are
stored and so on.
5. Write an algorithm for insert element into a one dimensional array
A ALGORITHM: Insert (A, N, ITEM, Pos) A is an array with N elements. ITEM is
the element to be inserted in the position Pos.
Step 1: for I = N-1 down to Pos
A[ I + 1] = A[I]
[End of for loop]
Step 2: A [Pos] = ITEM
Step 3: N = N+1
Step 4: Exit
6. Explain the memory representation of 1-dimenstional array.
Ans.: If an array has the N elements, the address of the first element is identified as
A[0], address of second element is A[1], address of third element is A[2] and so
on.
An array of 10 elements are represented as follows:
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8] a[9]

Five Mark

1. Write an algorithm to insert an element into the array.

A. ALGORITHM: Insert (A, N, ITEM, Pos) A is an array with N elements. ITEM is
the element to be inserted in the position Pos.
Step 1: for I = N-1 down to Pos
A[ I + 1] = A[I]
[End of for loop]
Step 2: A [Pos] = ITEM
Step 3: N = N+1
Step 4: Exit

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 2. Write a note on tree data structure.
A. A tree is a data structure consisting of nodes organized as a hierarchy.

Node: A node is a fundamental part of tree. Each element of a tree is called a node
of the tree.
 Root: The topmost node of the tree.
 Edge: It connects two nodes to show that tree is a relationship between them.
 Parent: It is an immediate predecessor a node. ( A is parent of B, C, D)
 Child: A successor of parent node is called the child node. (E, F is a child of B)
 Siblings: Nodes that are children of the same parent are called siblings. (B,C,D)
(M,N)
 Leaf or terminal node: Nodes that do not have any children are called leaf node.
(J, K, L)
 Internal Node: A node has one or more children is called an internal node. ( B,
C, D, H )
Path: A path is an ordered list of nodes that are connected by edges. In figure path
A to O is A, D, I, M, O.
 Height: the height or depth of a tree is defined to be the maximum number of
nodes in a branch of tree. ( The height of tree is 5)
 Ancestor: A node reachable by repeated proceeding from child to parent.
(Ancestor of M is I, D, and A)
 Descendant: A node reachable by repeated proceedings from parent to child.
(Descendent of I are (M,O) and N)
 Subtree: A Subtree is a set of nodes and edges comprised of parent and all the
descendants of that parent. In figure T1, T2 and T3 are subtrees.

3. Write an algorithm to delete a data element from the one dimensional array.
A ALGORITHM: Delete (A, N, ITEM, Pos) A is an array with N elements. ITEM is
the element to be deleted in the position Pos and it is stored into variable Item.
Step 1: ITEM = A [Pos]
Step 2: for I = Pos down to N-1
A[ I ] = A[I+1]
[End of for loop]
Step 3: N = N-1
Step 4: Exit

4. Explain the memory representation of stack data structure using arrays.

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 A. Stack can be represented using a one-dimensional array.
 The items into the stack are stored in a sequential order from the first location of
the memory block.
 A pointer TOP contains the location of the top element of the stack.
 A variable MAXSTK contains the maximum number of element that can be
stored in the stack.
 If we attempt to add new element beyond the maximum size, we will encounter
a stack overflow condition. Similarly, you cannot remove elements beyond the
base of the stack. If such is the case, we will reach a stack underflow condition.
 The condition TOP = MAXSTX indicates that the stack is full and TOP =
NULL indicates that stack is empty

5. Write an algorithm for binary search.

A. ALGORITHM: Binary_Search (BEG, END, MID ELE) A is an array with N
elements. Let BEG, END, MID denote Beginning, end and middle location of the
array
Step 1: Set BEG=LB, END=UB LOC = -1
Step 2: While(BEG <= END)
MID = (BEG+END)/2
if ( ELE = A [ MID ] )
then LOC = MID
Goto Step 3
else if( ELE < A[MID])
END=MID-1;
else BEG=MID+1;
[End if] [End if] [End of While loop]

Step 3: if ( LOC >= 0 ) then Print Element, “Found in Location”, LOC

else Print Element, “Search is Unsuccessful”

Step 4: Exit

6. Explain any five basic operations performed on arrays.

A. 1. Traversing : Processing each element in the array.
2. Insertion : Inserting a new element into the array.
3. Deletion : Removing an element from the array.
4. Searching : Finding the location of an element in the array.
5. Sorting : Arranging the elements of the array in some order.
6. Merging : Combining one or more array to form a single array.

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 7. Write an algorithm to insert an element into a queue.
A. ALGORITHM: ENQUEUE (QUEUE, REAR, FRONT, ITEM) QUEUE is the
array with N elements. FRONT is the pointer that contains the location of the
element to be deleted and REAR contains the location of the inserted element.
ITEM is the element to be inserted.
Step 1: if REAR = N-1 then
PRINT “QUEUE is Full or Overflow”
Exit [End if]
Step 2: if FRONT = NULL then [Check Whether Queue is empty]
FRONT = 0
REAR = 0
else
REAR = REAR + 1
Step 3: QUEUE[REAR] = ITEM
Step 4: Return

8. What is linear data structure? Explain the operations performed on linear data
structure.
A. Linear Data structures are kind of data structure that has homogeneous elements
The operations performed on linear data structure are:
1. Traversing: The processing of accessing each element exactly once to perform
some operation is called traversing.
2. Insertion: The process of adding a new element into the given collection of
data elements is called insertion.
3. Deletion: The process of removing an existing data element from the given
collection of data elements is called deletion.
4. Searching: The process of finding the location of a data element in the given
collection of data elements is called as searching.
5. Sorting: The process of arrangement of data elements in ascending or
descending order is called sorting.
6. Merging: The process of combining the elements of two structures to form a
single structure is called merging

9. Write an algorithm to search an element in an array using linear search method.

A. ALGORITHM: Linear_Search (A, N, Element) A is an array with N elements.
Element is the being searched in the array.
Step 1: LOC = -1
Step 2: for I = 0 to N-1 do
if ( Element = A [ I ] ) then
LOC = I
Goto Step 3 [End if] [End of for loop]
Step 3: if ( LOC >= 0 ) then Print Element, “Found in Location”, LOC else Print
Element, “Not Found”
Step 4: Exit

10. What is a Stack? Write an algorithm for PUSH ( ) and POP ( ) operations.
A. A stack is an ordered collection of items in which an element may be inserted or
deleted only at same end.

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 ALGORITHM: PUSH (STACK, TOP, ITEM) STACK is the array with N
elements. TOP is the pointer to the top of the element of the array. ITEM to be
inserted.
Step 1: if TOP = N-1 then [Check Overflow] PRINT “ STACK is Full or
Overflow” Exit [End if]
Step 2: TOP = TOP + 1 [Increment the TOP]
Step 3: STACK[TOP] = ITEM [Insert the ITEM]
Step 4: Return

ALGORITHM: POP (STACK, TOP, ITEM) STACK is the array with N

elements. TOP is the pointer to the top of the element of the array. ITEM to be
inserted.
Step 1: if TOP = NULL then [Check Underflow] PRINT “ STACK is Empty or
Underflow” Exit [End if]
Step 2: ITEM = STACK[TOP]
Step 3: TOP = TOP - 1
Step 4: Return

11. What are the operations performed on queues? Write an algorithm for deleting an
element from a queue.
A.  Queue( ): It creates a new queue that is empty.
 enqueue(item): It adds a new item to the rear of the queue.
 dequeue( ): It removes the front item from the queue.
 isEmpty( ): It tests to see whether the queue is empty.
 size( ): It returns the number of items in the queue

ALGORITHM: DEQUEUE (QUEUE, REAR, FRONT, ITEM) QUEUE is the

array with N elements. FRONT is the pointer that contains the location of the
element to be deleted and REAR contains the location of the inserted element.
ITEM is the element to be deleted.
Step 1: if FRONT = NULL then PRINT “QUEUE is Empty or Underflow”
Exit [End if]
Step 2: ITEM = QUEUE[FRONT]
Step 3: if FRONT = REAR then
FRONT = NULL
REAR = NULL
else FRONT = FRONT + 1
Step 4: Return
12. What is sorting? Write an algorithm for insertion sort.
A. Sorting is the arrangement of elements of the array in some order.
ALGORITHM: Insertion_Sort (A, N) A is an array with N unsorted elements.
Step 1: for I=1 to N-1
Step 2: J = I
While(J >= 1)
if ( A[J] < A[J-1] )
then Temp = A[J];
A[J] = A[J-1];
A[J-1] = Temp;
[End if]
J = J-1 [End of While loop]

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 [End of For loop]
Step 3: Exit

13. Define queue. Explain different types of queues with neat diagrams.
Ans.: A linear data structure that allows insertion of elements at one end called
REAR
end and deletion of elements at other end called FRONT.
Simple queue - It has the simple structure with the FRONT and REAR pointers.
The
insertion operation takes place at the REAR end and deletion operation take place at
the
FRONT end.

Circular queue – In this, last node of the queue is connected to first node of the
queue
and forms the circular organization of memory locations.

Priority queue – In this, data elements are accepted as per the time of occurrence
and
insertion and deletion of elements takes place according to the priority mentioned in
the
queue.

Double ended queue (Dequeue) – As name implies, the insertion of data elements
into a
queue and deletion of data elements from the queue takes place at both FRONT and
REAR ends.

14. Give the application of queues

A. Application of Queue:

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  Simulation
 Various features of Operating system
 Multi-programming platform systems.
 Different types of scheduling algorithms
 Round robin technique algorithms
 Printer server routines
15. Explain the different operation performed on stack data structure
A. Operation on Stacks:
 Stack( ): It creates a new stack that is empty. It needs no parameter and returns
an empty stack.
 push(item): It adds a new item to the top of the stack.
 pop( ): It removes the top item from the stack.
 peek( ): It returns the top item from the stack but does not remove it.
 isEmpty( ): It tests whether the stack is empty.
 size( ): It returns the number of items on the stack

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 DBMS

ONE MARK
1. What is normalization?
A. Normalization is a step by step process of removing the different kinds of
redundancy and anomaly one step at a time from the database.
2. Define Primary key.
A. It is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/record in a database
table
3. What is a database?
A. A Database is a collection of logically related data organized in a way that
data can be easily accessed, managed and updated.
4. Expand ISA
A. Indexed sequential access
5. Define an entity
A. An Entity can be any object, place, person or class
6. What is a record
A. A single entry in a table is called a record or row. A record in a table
represents set of related data.
 Records are also called the tuple.
7. What is a table in DBMS?
Ans.: The set of rows and columns used to store the data.

TWO MARK
1. What is relation algebra?
A. Relational algebra is a procedural query language that consists of a set of
operations that take one or more relations as input and result into a new
relation as an output.
 The relational algebraic operations can be divided into
1. Basic set-oriented operations: Union, Set different, Cartesian product
2. Relational-oriented operations: Selection, Projection, Division, Joins
2. What is data independence? Mention the types of data independence.
A. The capacity to change data at one layer does not affect the data at another
layer is called data independence.
 Two types of data independence are:
o Physical Data Independence
o Logical Data Independence
3. Write any advantages of database system
A. Redundancy can be minimized or controlled: In DBMS environment if
redundancy is present, then it can be controlled by propagating updates in
all the places where ever redundant data is present.
 Data Integrity: Data Integrity refers to the correctness of the data in the
database. In other words, the data available in the database is reliable data.

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  Data Sharing: In DBMS, data is stored in the centralized database and
all the permitted users can access the same piece of information required at
the same time.
 Database Security: DBMS provides a variety of security mechanisms for
the user to protect his or her data stored in the database.
 Supports Concurrent access: DBMS supports concurrent access to the
same data stored in the database by applying locking and time stamp
mechanisms.
4. What is Cartesian product?
A. It is a binary operation, and it is denoted by the symbol x.
 The Cartesian product of two relations R and S, denoted by R x S,
defines a new relation, which is the concatenation of each tuple of relation
R with each tuple of relation S
5. What are the advantages of ISAM.
A. Advantages
o Search time is less.
o There are fewer index entries than there are records in the data file.
o Quick access to the records even when the volume of records is high
6. Define primary and secondary keys.
A. Primary key:
 It is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/record in a
database table.
 Primary keys must contain unique values.  A primary key column
cannot have NULL values.
 Ex: In Relation STUDENT, Regno serves as a primary key.
Alternate Key
 The alternate key of any table are those candidate keys which are not
currently selected as the primary key.
 This is also known as secondary key.
7. Write the difference between data and information.
A. Data is a collection of facts, numbers, letters or symbols that the computer
process into meaningful information.
Information is processed data, stored, or transmitted by a computer
8. Mention database users.
A.  To design, use and maintain the database, many peoples are involved.
The people who work with the database include: o End Users, System
Analysts, Application programmers, Database Administrators (DBA)
 End Users (Database Users)
o Database users are those who interact with the database in order to
query and update the database, and generate reports.
 System Analysts
o System analysts determine the requirement of end users; (especially
naïve users), to create a solution for their business need and focus on non-
technical and technical aspects.

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  Application programmers o These are the computer professionals who
implement the specifications given by the system analysts and develop the
application programs.
 Database Administrators (DBA): DBA is a person who has central
control over both data and application

9. What is database management system? Give an example of DBMS software.

A. A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to
define, manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database.
EX: Aadhaar database

THREE MARK
1. Give the different notations for E-R diagram
A. Entity: An entity is represented using rectangles.
 Attribute: Attributes are represented by means of eclipses.
 Relationship: Relationship is represented using diamonds shaped box

2. Briefly explain One-tier database architecture.

A. Logical one-tier in 1-tier Architecture: ]
 DBMS is the only entity where user directly sits on DBMS and uses it.
 Any changes done here will directly be on DBMS itself.
 It does not provide handy tools for end users and preferably database
designers and programmers use single tier architecture.
3. Explain any three components of E-R model.
A. ER-Diagram is a visual representation of data that describes how data is
related to each other.
 Entity:
o An Entity can be any object, place, person or class. o In E-R Diagram, an
entity is represented using rectangles.
o Rectangles are named with the entity set they represent.
 Attribute:
o An Attribute describes a property or characteristic of an entity. o
Attributes are represented by means of eclipses.
o Every eclipse represents one attribute and is directly connected to its
entity (rectangle).
o For example, Roll_No, Name and Birth date can be attributes of a
student

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  Relationship:
o A relationship type is a meaningful association between entity types.
o Relationship is represented using diamond shaped box.
o Relationship types are represented on the E-R diagram by a series of
lines.

4. Write the different symbols used in E-R diagram with their significance.
A.

Entity Symbol Name Description

These shapes are independent from

other entities, and are often called
parent entities, since they will often
Strong entity have weak entities that depend on
them. They will also have a primary
key, distinguishing each occurrence
of the entity.

Weak entities depend on some

other entity type. They don't have
Weak entity primary keys, and have no meaning
in the diagram without their parent
entity.

Associative entities relate the

instances of several entity types.
Associative
They also contain attributes specific
entity
to the relationship between those
entity instances.

Relationship Symbol Name Description

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Entity Symbol Name Description

Relationships are associations

Relationship
between or among entities.

Weak Relationships are

Weak
connections between a weak entity
relationship
and its owner.

Attributes are characteristics of an

entity, a many-to-many
Attribute
relationship, or a one-to-one
relationship.

Multivalued attributes are those that

Multivalued
are can take on more than one
attribute
value.

Derived attributes are attributes

Derived
whose value can be calculated from
attribute
related attribute values.

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Entity Symbol Name Description

Relationships are associations

Relationship
between or among entities.

5. Explain relational data model with an example.

A. The relation data model was developed by E.F Codd in 1970.
 Unlike, hierarchical and network model, there are no physical links.
 All data is maintainedENTITY
in the form of tables consisting of rows and
columns.
 Each row (record) represents an entity and a column (field) represents an
attribute of the entity.
 In this model, data is organized in two-dimensional tables called
relations. The tables or relation are related to each other.

6. Define hierarchical model. Give one advantage and disadvantage.

A. The Hierarchical data model organizes data in a tree structure.  In this
data model, data is represented by a collection of records and the
relationships are represented by links.
 In this model each entity has only one parent but can have several
children. At the top of hierarchy there is only one entity which is called
Root node.
Advantages:
o Simplicity: The relationship between the various layers is logically
simple.
o Data Security: The data security is provided by the DBMS.

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 o Data Integrity: There is always link between the parent segment and the
child segment under it.
o Efficiency: It is very efficient because when the database contains a
large number of one to many relationships and when the user requires
large number of transaction.
Disadvantages:
o Implementation complexity
o Database management problem
o Lack of structural Independence.
o Operational Anomalies
7. Mention any three advantages of random/direct access file organization.
A. Three Advantages of random file organization are
 In direct access file, sorting of the records are not required.
 It accesses the desired records immediately.
 It updates several files quickly.

8. Explain the advantage of DBMS

A.

 Improved data sharing.

 Improved data security.
 Better data integration.
 Minimized data inconsistency.
 Improved data access.
 Improved decision making.
 Increased end-user productivity.
 Increased costs.

9. Define Sequential access, direct access, and indexed Sequential access file
organizations.
 Serial File Organization:
 Storing and sorting in contiguous block within files on tape or
disk is called as sequential access file organization.
 In sequential access file organization, all records are stored in a
sequential order. The records are arranged in the ascending or
descending order of a key field.

Direct Access File Organization

 Direct access file is also known as random access or relative file

organization.

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  In direct access file, all records are stored in direct access storage
device (DASD), such as hard disk. The records are randomly placed
throughout the file.

Indexed File Organization

 Indexed sequential access file combines both sequential file and

direct access file organization.
 In indexed sequential access file, records are stored randomly on a
direct access device such as magnetic disk by a primary key.

FIVE MARK
1. Explain Codd’s rules for database management
A. E.F Codd was a Computer Scientist who invented Relational model for
Database management.
 Based on relational model, Relation database was created.
Rule zero
 This rule states that for a system to qualify as an RDBMS, it must be able to
manage database entirely through the relational capabilities.
Rule 1: Information rule
 All information (including meta-deta) is to be represented as stored data in
cells of tables. The rows and columns have to be strictly unordered.
Rule 2: Guaranteed Access
 Each unique piece of data (atomic value) should be accessible by:
 Table Name + primary key (Row) + Attribute (column).
Rule 3: Systematic treatment of NULL
 Null has several meanings; it can mean missing data, not applicable or no
value. It should be handled consistently. Primary key must not be null.
Expression on NULL must give null.
Rule 4: Active Online Catalog
 This rule states that the structure description of whole database must be
stored in an online catalog i.e. data dictionary, which can be accessed by the
authorized users. Rule 5: Powerful language
 One well defined language must be there to provide all manners of access to
data.  Example: SQL. If a file supporting table can be accessed by any
manner except SQL interface, then its a violation to this rule.
Rule 6: View Updation rule
 All view that is theoretically updatable should be updatable by the system
2. What is data warehouse? Briefly explain its components
A. A data ware house is a repository of an organization's electronically stored
data.
Its Components are:

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  Data Warehouse Database(Source): The central data warehouse database is the
cornerstone of the data warehousing environment.
 Sourcing, Acquisition, Cleanup and Transformation Tools: They perform all of the
conversions, summarizations, key changes, structural changes and condensations
needed to transform disparate data into information that can be used by the decision
support tool.
 Meta data: It is a data that describes the data warehouse. It can be used for building,
maintaining, managing and using the data warehouse. It can be classified into two
times.
 Technical meta data: It contains information about warehouse data for use by
warehouse designers and administrators when carrying out warehouse development
and management tasks.
 Business meta data: It contains information that gives users an easy-to-understand
perspective of the information stored in the data warehouse.
 Access tools: The principal purpose of data warehouse is to provide information to
business users for strategic decision making. Tools fall into four main categories-Query
and reporting tools, Application development tools, Online Analytical
Processing(OLAP) tools, and data mining tools.
 Data Marts: It means different things to different people. It is data store that is
subsidiary to a data warehouse of integrated data.
 Data Warehouse administration and management : Data Warehouse tend to be as much
as 4 times as large as related operational databases, reaching terabytes in size
depending on how much history needs to be saved.
Managing Data Warehouse includes security and priority management; monitoring
updates from the multiple sources; data quality checks; managing and updating meta
data;
 Information Delivery System: It is used to enable the process of subscribing for data
warehouse information and having it delivered to one or more destinations according to
some user-specified scheduling algorithm.

3. Define the following database terms.

a. Data Model b. Tuple c. Domain d. Candidate Key e. Foreign Key
A. A data model (or datamodel) is an abstract model that organizes
elements of data and standardizes how they relate to one another and
to the properties of real-world entities.

Tuple: In SQL, it is used to represent a row.

Domain: It is defined as a set of allowed values for one or more

attributes

Candidate Key: When more than one or group of attributes serve as a

unique identifier, they are each called as candidate key.

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 Foreign Key: A key used to link two tables together is called a foreign
key.

4. Explain any five applications of database.

A. Banking: For customer information, accounts and loans, and banking
transactions.
 Colleges: For student information, course registrations and grades.
 Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements.
 Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales and purchases of
financial instruments such as stocks and bonds.
 Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
 Telecommunication: For keeping records of call made, generating monthly
bills, maintaining balance on prepaid calling cards, and storing information
about the communication networks.
 Aadhaar database: This is the biggest database in the world storing a data
about 60 million people residing in India.
5. Briefly explain the data processing cycle.
A. The information processing cycle consists of five specific steps:
 Data input: This is any kind of data-letters, numbers, symbols,
shapes, images or whatever raw material put into the computer
system that needs processing. Input data is put into the computer
using keyboard, mouse or other devices such as the scanner,
microphone and the digital camera.
 Data processing: It is a series of actions or operations from the
input data to generate outputs. For example, when computer adds
4+4=8 that is an act of processing.
 Storage: There two types of storage-Primary and Secondary
storage. Primary storage is the computer circuitry that temporarily
holds data waiting to be processed(RAM) and it is inside the
computer. Secondary storage is where data is held permanently.
Example, floppy disk, hard disk, etc.,
 Output: the result obtained after the processing the data must be
presented to the user in user understandable form. Example, video,
pictures, etc.,
 Communication: With wired or wireless communication
connections, data may be input from afar, processed in a remote
area and stored in several different places and then be transmitted
by modem as an email or posted to the website where the online
services are rendered.

6. Write the difference between hierarchical data model and network data model.

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 7. Explain the difference between manual data processing and computerized
(electronic) data processing
A.

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