SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY: Technology

Communication Tools

Communication is any activity or process that results in information being transferred from one
person to another.

Various media and formats of communicating scientific information and ideas.

Media refers to the means of communication, like radio, computers, television, books,
magazines, newspapers, internet, etc.

Format is the way or method in which information is communicated or presented in the various
media.

Communication in science is important for the four main reasons

*Validation (all discoveries and findings made by 1 scientist need to be confirmed and tested by
other scientists to make sure that they are correct.
*New scientific discoveries are nearly always based on earlier discoveries made by other
scientists. (Progress in science depends on scientists being able to obtain information about other
people‟s discoveries so that they can come with new ideas and build on them.
*The communication of scientific information prevents other scientists from repeating
experiments that have already been done. This saves both time and money.

Impact on society of having limitless access to information provided by communication

networks

Having unlimited access to information has brought many benefits to society. However, there are
also some negative impacts of having unlimited access to information.

Positive impact Negative impact

New jobs have been created because of the Many skilled people have lost their jobs in
increased need for technical staff. various industries because machines
controlled by microprocessors need fewer
human workers to operate them.
Information can be gained from many Anyone can place information on the
different sources. internet that can be accessed from
anywhere.
Advances in telecommunications mean that Workers have to be retrained to ensure that
work can be carried out away from the the workforce is technologically literate
office. and able to adapt to using new devices.
Scientific, medical and technological Technological information can be accessed
information can be shared very easily. on the internet that teaches people how to
make bombs and weapons or carry out

1
 other harmful or dangerous practices.
People can find information about anything People can use the internet to spread and
that interests them, and can also easily access offensive or illegal material such as
discuss and exchange ideas about their child pornography.
interests with other people around the
world.

Cultural impact of global communication

Culture is a complicated concept that refers to the way in which a society conducts itself in terms
of its traditions, language, religion, music, writings, art, food and law.

The development of communication technologies such as television, radio, cell phones,

especially internet, has made it much easier for people to learn about the cultures of other
societies around the world, and to share their own culture with others.

This cross-cultural exchange of information has had both positive and negative effects on the
culture of societies around the world.

Positive impact of global Negative impact of global communication on the

communication on the culture of culture of societies
societies
People throughout the world can view and People may feel that other cultures and traditions
experience the artistic creations of other are better than theirs and so stop practicing their
cultures, such as music and paintings, own culture.
without having to travel long distance to
experience them.
If people are aware of different cultures, Negative information about a country or a culture
they may want to travel to the place to that may not even be true can put people off visiting
experience the culture themselves. This a country and so discourage tourism.
encourages tourism.
People can easily gain knowledge about People of one culture may feel that their traditions
different cultures. This educates people and practices are superior to those of other cultures
about different cultures and helps to and so try to impose their cultures on other
prevent conflicts and misunderstandings. societies. This can cause conflict and war.
Musicians can learn the musical and A musical style may be more popular than the
artistic styles of different cultures and then traditional musical styles of a culture and so people
bring them into their own styles. stop listening to traditional music and playing
traditional instruments.
People can learn the languages of other Most cultures have their own languages and
cultures and this helps in global sometimes the language of another culture is better
communication. for communication in the world as a whole and so it
is used more.
Sometimes a culture may have traditions People may start practicing the traditions and ideas
and practices that are harmful or that of other cultures they learn about and this may
restrict people‟s rights. create conflict within their own society.

2
Potential careers in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

[Link] programmer
Programmers may also be software developers. A programmer designs and creates computer
programs (software) that can perform tasks.

[Link] technician
“Hardware” refers to the physical components that make up a computer or an electronic
communication device. Hardware technicians are people who help to solve problems that people
are having with their computers.

[Link] and Communication Technology (ICT) trainer

The ICT industry is constantly changing and so people in the industry need to be constantly
informed about new developments. They also need to be trained to use new software and
hardware properly.

[Link] developers
These are people who create and manipulate graphic images, animations, sound, text and video
for use in computer programs, compact discs and on the internet. They include people who
design web pages (web designers) and people who produce educational and entertainment
products.

3
 PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES: Pollution

Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated (made dirty or unhealthy) by harmful
substances or products as a result of human activities.

Types, sources, causes and problems of pollution

Pollution is caused by the release of contaminants into the environment where they cause harm
or damage to ecosystems and the environments.

Type of Cause of Examples of Sources of Problems

pollution pollution pollutants pollutants associated with the
type of pollution
Air pollution The release of -Carbon dioxide Industrial Global warming,
gases, -Carbon processes, destruction of the
chemicals and monoxide motor vehicles, ozone layer, acid
small -Sulphur dioxide burning of rain, and smog.
particles -Volcanic dust fossil fuels,
(dust) into the -Cigarette smoke volcanic
atmosphere -Lead eruptions, and
cigarette
smoking
Soil pollution The release of -Hydrocarbons -Underground -Loss of soil fertility
contaminants (oil and petrol) leakage from and poisoning of the
into the soil -Heavy metals industrial sites. soil.
as a result of (e.g. mercury, -Dumping of -Some contaminants
human lead, cadmium waste. may find their way
activity. etc) -Agricultural into food and be
-Pesticides, processes (e.g. poisonous to
herbicides use of poisons) animals and humans.
-litter
Water pollution The release of -Water soluble Poorly -Diseases may
contaminants chemicals maintained spread in
into the river -Fertilisers sewage contaminated water.
systems, -Untreated systems. -Pollutants in water
groundwater, sewage Dumping of may be harmful to
dams and -Oil waste in rivers. animals and plants
lakes. -Litter Rain wash-off -Chemical may
-Dead organisms from encourage the
contaminated growth of algae in
industrial sites water.
and fields.
Noise pollution Loud, -Traffic Cars, planes, Loud noise can
unnatural -Loud music factories and cause discomfort

4
 sounds caused -Industry concerts. and affect
by human -Aircraft concentration and
activity. sleep.
Visual pollution Any structure -Open-cast mines Industrial Ruins the
or activity -Tall buildings processes, appearance of an
that has a -Electricity development, area and may stop
negative pylons mining and tourists from
impact on the -Advertising human visiting.
appearance of boards settlement
the -Litter
environment.
Light pollution Any source of Artificial lighting Car headlights, -Can disturb humans
unnatural in cities and street lights, and animals and
light in an towns. illumination of affect concentration
environment. buildings and and sleep.
domestic -Prevents the stars
lightning. and planets from
being visible at
night.
Radio-active The release of -Uranium Waste from Radioactive
pollution radioactive -Plutonium nuclear power materials are toxic
substances. Radon gas stations, gas and can cause
emissions from damage to living
rock, waste things resulting in
from medical increased rates of
and scientific cancer and disease.
activities.

Methods of Controlling Pollution

Pollution is a problem that is mostly caused by human activities.

Controlling air pollution

*The emission of gaseous pollution into the air from factories is commonly controlled by placing
substances in chimneys that absorb the gas as it moves up and out of the chimney.
*Using alternative sources of energy such as wind, sunlight, water and biogas instead of fossil
fuels.
*Enforcing regulations to reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
*Using catalytic converters in vehicles to remove sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxide.
*Using unleaded petrol, so that no lead dioxide is produced.
*Designing vehicle engines that burn petrol at lower temperature.
*Designating smokeless zones, especially in areas with large population such as city centres.

Controlling Water Pollution

*Treating sewage I order to remove solids and toxins.

5
*Phasing out pitlatrines
*Using biodegradable fertilisers and detergents that are broken down naturally
*Using compositing toilets that break down bacteria in waste material
*Strengthening the legislation on waste disposal
*Providing waste bins along public rivers and beaches
*Using modernized landfills instead of dumping waste in waterways
*Promoting oil collection and recycling plants
*Intensifying public education about water pollution

Controlling Lad Pollution

*Recycling solid waste and litter

*Producing and using biodegradable plastics
*Recycling litter to manufacture new products
*Promoting biogas digesters that produce fuel from manure and other waste
*Making modernized landfills that can process waste instead of just burying the waste
*Using organic litter to make compost heaps

Controlling Noise Pollution

*Being considerate of others by limiting the noise we make

*Avoiding hooting in traffic
*Wearing ear protectors in noisy environments
*Enforcing stricter legislation regarding noise pollution

Controlling Thermal Pollution

*Reducing our use of electricity from such power plants

*Introducing systems to return hot water to its original temperature before pumping it back into
the water source.
*Researching ways of turning excess heat into a more useful kind of energy researching better
coolants than water.
*Finding alternative forms of power that do not require water coolant systems

Controlling Light Pollution

*Using milder forms of lighting, such as power-saving bulbs or candles, where possible
*Using a timer to switch on lights only when needed
*Being considerate of others and not leaving our lights burning late at night
*Switching off garden lights that can affect nocturnal animals
*Reducing unnecessary lighting such as illuminated advertisements

Controlling Radioactive Pollution

*Increasing awareness of the effects of radioactive pollution

*Developing effective storage methods for radioactive waste

6
*Decreasing or limiting the use of nuclear power and weapons
*Building safer nuclear power plants
*Limiting exposure to radioactive pollution by wearing protective clothing

Effects of Air and Water Pollution on our Health

Air
Air pollution can affect your health in the short-term and the long-term

In the short-term, air pollution can cause irritation to the eyes, nose and throat. This can lead to
the development of respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. People may also
experience headaches, nausea and allergic reactions. This can also cause problems for people
who have existing medical problems such as asthma.

The long term health effects of air pollution can include lung and heart diseases as well as
damage to the brain, nerves, liver or kidneys. It can also cause damage to the lungs of children
and make medical conditions in the elderly worse.

Water
Water that is contaminated with sewage or other decaying organic matter can lead to the spread
of some serious water borne diseases which are caused mainly by bacteria and virus, e.g.
typhoid, cholera, dysentery and hepatitis.

Effects of some chemical pollutants in drinking water

Chemical pollutant Source Effect on health

Pesticides Agriculture Birth defects
Tetrachloroethylene A chlorinated solvent Liver and kidney damage
used in cleaning Cancer
Lead Lead piping and Cancer
plumbing Problems with development of the
Leaded petrol nervous system in children
Mercury Industrial processes Birth defects
Diseases of the nervous system
Nitrates Fertilisers used in In babies, these cause problems with
agriculture oxygen delivery to the brain.

7
MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
THE NATURE OF MATTER: Atoms and Molecules

Atoms are the small particles that are the basic building blocks of matter.

A molecule is a particle that is made up of two or more atoms that are bonded together
chemically.

The structure of the first 20 elements

(Draw the structure of atoms of Hydrogen to calcium)

The Difference between an Atom and a Molecule

Atom Molecule
There are no chemical bonds in The atom in molecules are joined together by chemical
atoms bonds
An atom has only one nucleus A molecule has more than one nucleus
It is impossible to break an atom You can use chemicals to break a molecule into smaller
into smaller pieces by chemical and smaller pieces until eventually the pieces you are left
means with are the individual atoms that made up the original
molecule

Elements

An element is matter that is made up of only one type of atom. An element cannot be broken
down to form a different type of matter.

Identifying elements by their symbols

All elements have a name, e.g. Hydrogen, Oxygen. Many atoms are symbolized using only one
letter or two first letters of its name.

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Hydrogen H Sodium
Helium He
Li
Be
Boron Phosphorus
C
N
Oxygen O
K

8
Common elements found in living and non-living matter

Element name Element in non-living matter Element in living matter

Iron Steel and cast iron pots Forms haemoglobin, a chemical
found in red blood cells that binds
to oxygen.
Oxygen A gas in the atmosphere that we Used for energy release
breathe (respiration) in living cells.
Carbon Graphite in pencils (pencil lead) Forms the basic structure of most
molecules found in living matter.
Magnesium Common in metal alloys Important for enzyme function
Phosphorus Matches Important element in molecules
that carry energy in cells.

Periodic Table

There are over 100 elements known by scientists, e.g. Hydrogen, Boron, Oxygen.

Extracting Information from the Periodic

Each box of the table corresponds to a single element. For example, the box corresponding to the
element hydrogen looks like this:

Hydrogen Full name

1
Symbol of element
H
1.0079

Relative atomic mass of element

9
The atomic number is always a whole number and it is unique to a particular element. The
atomic number tells us:
 The number of protons that an element has in the nucleus of its atom. (An element is
defined by the number of protons it contains), e.g. Hydrogen has 1 proton.
 The number of electrons in an atom of the element. Remember that the number of protons
and electrons in the atom of an element are the same. Hydrogen has 1 electron.

In the periodic table there is a group number which shows the number of electrons in the
outermost shell.

There is also a period number which shows the number of shells in an atom.

The above element (hydrogen) is in group 1 and period 1 this means that it has 1 shell which
contains 1 electron.
[NB: The first shell of an atom takes 2 electrons to be stable (full). The second and any other
shell take 8 electrons to be stable (full).]

Elements in group O have their outermost shell stable, e.g. Helium has 2 electrons in the
outermost shell, Neon has 8 electrons in the outermost shell.

Fill in the following table of the first 20 elements

Element Group Period Number Diagram

Number
H (Hydrogen) 1 1
He (Helium)
Li (Lithium)
Be (Berylium)
B (Boron)
C (Carbon)
N(
O(
F(
Ne (
Na (Sodium;
Natrium)
Mg (
Al (
Si (
P(
S(
Cl (
Ar (
K (Potassium;
Kalium)
Ca (Calcium)
10
The Periodic Trends
A trend is a pattern that let us group things together based on the similarities between objects.

Elements share physical and chemical properties because they had similar atomic structure. (The
physical and chemical properties of the elements are determined by their atomic structure)

Physical and chemical properties of Physical and chemical properties of

metals non-metals
Good conductors of electricity. Poor conductors of electricity with the
exception of carbon, which, in the form of
graphite, conducts electricity.
Solids at room temperature, with the Usually gases at room temperature
exception of mercury (Hg), which is a although some are solids such as carbon,
liquid. sulphur and silicon. Bromine is the only
non-metal that is a liquid at room
temperature.
Have a shiny appearance (lustrous). Are not shiny.
They are malleable (can be bent). Not malleable (they are brittle and break
easily).

There are many other trends that can be identified in the periodic table. Some of these trends
include:
 How easily an element reacts chemically with other elements (reactivity).
 What sort of chemical compounds it forms.
 Whether or not it is radioactive.

11
COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

A compound is a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements which are joined
together, e.g. water is a compound made up of atoms (elements) of hydrogen and oxygen which
have been bonded together.

Common compounds and their constituent atoms

If a compound is broken down into its constituent atoms (that is, the atoms of which it is made)
the proportion of the different types of atoms that are produced are always the same. For
example carbon dioxide (CO2), it is made up of 1atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen.
Compound Chemical Constituent atoms of compound
formula
Water H2 O O+H+H
Ammonia NH3 N+H+H+H
Hydrogen peroxide H2 O2 O+O+H+H
Methane CH4 C+H+H+H+H
Carbon monoxide CO C+O

A mixture is a substance that is formed by physically mixing together two or more different
substances. The substances that make up a mixture (the constituents) do not combined together
chemically, e.g. solutions, suspensions, alloys, colloids

Mixture Constituents of mixture

Air Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and various other gases
Brass Copper, zinc
Milk Oil droplets in water.
Sugar in water Sucrose (solute) and water (solvent)
Salt purchased at Sodium chloride, dextrose, calcium silicate, potassium iodide.
the shop
Fog Water droplets in air
Steel Iron and carbon

BOILING AND MELTING POINT OF PURE SUBSTANCES

BOILING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which liquid changes to a gas. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy supplied is used to break liquid bonds into gaseous
bonds.

MELTING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which solid changes to liquid. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy since the heat supplied is used to break bonds of a solid
into liquid bonds.
N.B:- Boiling Point and Melting Point are physical properties of matter.

12
Melting and boiling points of some common substances at standard pressure

Substance Melting Point ( 0 C ) Boiling Point( 0C )

Sulphur 119 445
Water 0 100
Carbon dioxide -183 -218
Magnesium 650 1120
Oxygen -218 -183
Nitrogen -210 -196
Lead 327 1740
Sodium Chloride 801 1413
Gold 1064 2807
Tungsten 3410 5660

Effects of impurities on Boiling Point

Impurities decrease Boiling Point of a compound e.g adding table salt to water increase its
boiling point from 100 0C to 103 0C.
Effects of impurities on melting point of a compound e.g adding salt to ice ( frozen water)
deceases its melting point to below 0 0C ( 0 0C to -3 0C )
Heating and cooling curves- They show the relationship between the melting and the boiling
points of a substance.
a) Heating curve

A-B ---( The energy is raising the temperature of the water to 0 0C

B-C --- (No temperature rise as the energy is breaking the particles of the solid ice from
their fixed positions. The solid ice is turning
Into liquid).
C-D--- (The energy is raising the temperature of the water up to boiling point (100 0 C
D-E---( There is no temperature rise as the energy is used to break free all the particles
of the liquid water into the gas.

b) Cooling curve

13
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Purification techniques – It is simply a method of separating a mixture into its different
components using physical means / properties.
There are many methods of separating mixtures. It depends on the mixture we have.
1. Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
a) Decantation – allow solid to settle down (sedimentation) and then pour out (decant)
the liquid carefully eg soil particles and water / water and oil.
b) Filtration – is separation of insoluble substance from the solvent. The liquid that
passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate. The solid that is trapped in the
filter paper is known as the residue eg sand and water solution.

c) Magnetism – Separating a solid from a solid using a magnet eg iron fillings and
sulphur.

2. Separating a solute from a solvent

Evaporation – to get a solute from a solution. Eg salt from salt solution. The process is called
crystallization. The water (solvent) in a solution is boiled away and forms vapour which will
escape, leaving behind the salt (solute).

3. Separating two liquids from each other

a) Simple distillation is a process of boiling a liquid to form vapour and then cooling
the vapour ( condenses) to obtain the liquid called distillate. Distillation can be used
to separate two liquids (miscible liquids) with different boiling points such as alcohol

14
 and water/ used to separate and purify the liquid constituent of a solution such as the
water from a salt solution.

b) Fractional distillation – The constituents of liquid mixtures are known as fractions

and so, if distillation is used to separate and purify the different fractions from each
other, the process is known as fraction distillation. It works as the simple distillation
but it have a long tube filled with glass beads which helps to separate the two liquids
better. The thermometer used to measure the boiling point of the liquid being
collected. The liquid with a lower boiling point (eg alcohol at 78 C) boils first and it
is collected first and then change the beaker to collect another distillate. The flask is
then heated more strongly to collect the liquid with the higher boiling point (water 97
C). In a way the liquid mixture is divided into two fractions in separate beakers

4. Separating the constituents of a mixture using chromatography

Is a method of separating substances in a mixture that are in small quantities eg ink is not just
made of one substance. It separate the constituents of a mixture for the purpose of identifying
and analyzing the constituents of the mixture. Often the mixture being analysed is a complex
mixture of many different chemicals.

15
Interpret a simple chromatogram
Alcohol (ethanol) will dissolve the ink in a dot and carried it up the strip. As this continued, the
ink spot separated out into different colours. The way in which this happens is that pen ink is a
mixture of different molecules with different colours. These molecules also have different
physical characteristics (such as size and solubility) and so they travel at different speeds through
the paper when they are pulled along the strip of filter paper by the solvent (ethanol).

The differences between evaporation and distillation

EVAPORATION DISTILLATION
The liquid changes into vapour at any The liquid changes into vapour by
temperature and escape. heating the mixture to the liquid‟s
boiling point.
The vapour passes into the air and lost The vapour is condensed back into a
into the atmosphere. liquid and liquid is collected
The pure, solid constituent of the In simple distillation, both the solid and
solution mixture remains. liquid constituents remains.
It is used to separate and purify a solid It is used to separate and purify:
from a solution. -a solid and a liquid from a solution.
This is simple distillation.
-a liquid from a mixture of two or more
liquids. This is fractional distillation.

The application of separation techniques in real life

Evaporation – used in production of salt from salty water (brine)

16
Filtration – coffee machine filter ground coffee beans from the liquid coffee, water purification(
filter insoluble particles of soil and organic matter that give drinking water unpleasant taste and
dirty appearance. Some of these particles can be removed from the water by sedimentation).

Distillation-fermented solution is used to brew alcohol( yeast is added to sugar solution and
allowed to ferment for a week or so. A mixture of water and alcohol is produced. The alcohol is
separated from the mixture by fractional distillation to produce wine, whisky, rum, brandy and
vodka).
Purification of crude oil
Crude oil is a mixture of different types of liquid chemicals known as hydrocarbons. These
hydrocarbons have different physical and chemical properties, and so they have different uses, eg
uses of fuels such as petrol and jet fuel, whereas others are used for lubrication and making tar
roads

17
.
Chromatography –used in forensic medicine to identify samples of unknown substances that
are associated with a crime(chemicals, drugs and even ink samples)
-used in sport to detect banned drugs (anabolic steroids and stimulants) in blood and urine
samples obtained from athletes. This prevents athletes from using these substances to gain an
unfair advantage.
-Used in the pharmaceutical industry to control the quality of the chemicals in medicines and to
identify and characterize potential new drugs.

ACIDS AND BASES

CLASSES OF ACIDS AND BASES

Acids – are proton donors.

-are chemicals that release hydrogen ions when added to water.
HCl ---- H + Cl

Base – are chemicals that react with the hydrogen ions produced by acids (proton
acceptors). Bases are chemicals that are oxides and hydroxides of metals.
e.g NaOH
KOH
CuO

18
OBJECTIVES

 Define pH
 Investigate the properties of strong acids and weak acids
 Investigate the properties of strong alkalis and weak alkalis
 Distinguish between a base and an alkali
 Explain the difference between the strength and concentration of a substance
DEFINATION OF pH

Scientist use a measurement called pH to measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution in water
is.
The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14.
Solutions that fall at 1 on the scale are strongly acidic and those that reach 14 on the scale are
strongly alkaline.
A pH of 7 indicates that a solution is neutral.

THE PROPERTIES OF STRONG ACIDS AND WEAK ACIDS

Strong acids

 Strong acids include three common laboratory acids; sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid
and nitric acid.
 Strong acids donate more hydrogen ions H+ to the solution than a weak acid.
 Strong acids react rapidly with metals ,carbonates alkalis and metal oxides
Weak acids

 Naturally occurring acids are usually weak acids. Examples; tartaric acid, citric acid
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid and carbonic acid.
 Weak acids react slowly with metals ,carbonates alkalis and metal oxides

THE PROPERTIES OF STRONG ALKALIS AND WEAK ALKALIS

Strong alkalis

 If a strong alkali is added to water it is completely ionised and forms may hydroxyl (OH-
)ions
 Strong alkalis react more vigorously than weak alkalis do
Weak alkalis

 Partially ionised in water to form a few hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN A BASE AND AN ALKALI

BASE ALKALI

19
A base is a substance that react with an acid Is a base that is soluble in water
and produces salt and water only
EXAMPLES : Sodium hydroxide
Magnesium oxide Calcium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide Ammonia solution
Calcium hydroxide Copper hydroxide
Ammonia solution
Copper hydroxide
Copper (II)oxide

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE STRENGTH AND CONCENTRATION OF A

SUBSTANCE

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION – is a measure of how much of a solute is dissolved in

a certain volume of a solvent

Solution of water ad hydrochloric acid: if more HCl is more in water we say the concentration is
high and when HCl is less in water then we say it‟s a dilute solution

For example:

 A 90% solution of hydrochloric acid is concentrated solution of a strong acid

 A 5% solution of hydrochloric acid is a dilute solution of a strong acid
 A 90% solution of ethanoic acid is concentrated solution of a weak acid
 A 5% solution of ethanoic acid is a dilute solution of a weak acid
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS

20
Bases are a group of chemicals that have opposite properties to acids. The name of a base usually
starts with the name of a metal and ends in oxide/hydroxide

NOTE: ALL ALKALIS ARE BASES BUT NOT ALL BASES ARE ALKALIS

REACTION OF ACIDS WITH BASES

CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS IN REACTION WITH BASES

APPLICATION OF ACID – BASE REACTIONS IN EVERY DAY LIFE

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES IN ACIDS – BASE REACTIONS

NEUTRALISATION REACTION

The reaction of an acid and base is called a neutralisation reaction

WORD EQUATION FOR REACTION OF ACID AND BASES

General word equations

ACID +BASESALT +WATER

Specific word equations

1. Hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide magnesium chloride + water

2. Nitric acid + ammonium chloride  Ammonium nitrate + water

3. Sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide  Potassium sulphate + water

APPLICATIONS OF ACID – BASE REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

- Take antiacid to relieve indigestion and heartburn eg antiacid (milk of magnesia)

contain base such as magnesium hydroxide which neutralises the acid in the stomach.
- Toothpaste to neutralise the acids produced by bacteria in the mouth. Toothpaste
contain alkaline and basic substances.
- Paste made from sodium bicarbonate ( baking powder) to relieve the stings of bees
and ants. Bee and ant stings are acidic and are neutralised by an alkaline (baking
powder). Vinegar to relieve the stings of wasp. Wasp stings are alkaline and are
neutralised by a weak acid.

REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS

OBJECTIVES:

 Investigate the characteristic properties of acids in reaction with metals

21
  Identify applications of acid – metal reactions in everyday life
 Identify products of reaction between acids and metals
 Test for hydrogen
 Write word equation for reaction of acids with metals
THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS IN REACTION WITH METALS

 A gas is produced-hydrogen
 Salt is produced
 Heat energy was produced –felt warmth on the test tube
ACID +METAL  SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

Examples:

Sulphuric acid +Zinc Zinc sulphate +Hydrogen

Zinc +Hydrochloric acid  Zinc chloride + hydrogen

APPLICATIONS OF ACID – METAL REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

 Acids are used to create patterns on metals surfaces for decoration, this is called etching

 An acid react with a metal (lead) in car batteries –these reactions set up an electrical
charge difference between the positive and negative terminals of the battery. This is what
allows electrical current to flow, which can then be used to start the car.

22
In reality lead and copper do react with acid but slowly than the other metals. This is because
a chemical property of copper and lead is that they are not as reactive as other metals.

TEST FOR HYDROGEN

Burning splint is used to test for hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas produces a pop sound.

REACTION OF ACIDS WITH CARBONATES

OBJECTIVES:

 Investigate the characteristic properties of acids in reaction with carbonates

 Identify applications of acid – carbonates reactions in everyday life
 Identify products of reaction between acids and carbonates from a given chemical
equation
 Write word equation for reaction of acids with carbonates
THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS IN REACTION WITH
CARBONATES

 A gas is produced
 Water produced
 Salt produced
 Heat energy produced
General word equation

ACID +CARBONATESALT +WATER + CARBONDIOXIDE

Hydrochloric acid +calcium carbonate calcium chloride +water +carbon dioxide

Sulphuric acid +sodium carbonate sodium sulphate + water +carbon dioxide

EXAMPLES OF CARBONATES:

CALCIUM CARBONATE-is a common chemical found in rocks such as marble and eggshells

SODIUM CARBONATE – is also common chemical known as soda ash

APPLICATION OF ACID –CARBONATE REACTIONS IN EVERY DAY LIFE

 Carbonates such as magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are another class of
chemicals that are used in antacids medicines; the carbonates relieve indigestion by
reacting with the stomach acid to produce water and harmless salt and carbon dioxide.

23
  Carbonates are also used in fire extinguishers. When pulling the trigger of the fire
extinguisher causes sodium carbonate and sulphuric acid to mix together. The reaction
produce large amounts of carbon dioxide gas and water that are ejected from the
container .These are what extinguish the fire. These type of fire extinguishers are called
soda –acid extinguishers.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

CHEMICAL REACTIONS- is a process that leads to the production of new substances.

When substances combine to form different materials, a chemical reaction /chemical change
takes place.

A+B C+ D

Reactants products

EXOTHERMIC REACTION –reactions which give out heat once they get going

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION – reactions take in heat while they are happening

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Precipitation method
2. Synthesis – it involves building up complex substances such as compounds from simpler
substances ,usually elements(synthesis means putting things together)Examples:
combustion of magnesium and coal
Magnesium +Oxygen ------------------ Magnesium Oxide
Carbon + Oxygen ----------------------- Carbon dioxide
3. Neutralisation reaction (reaction of acid and alkali)
4. Acid + carbonate
5. Acid + metal

NAMING OF SALTS

The name of the salt depend on the acid used, the metal or carbonate

NAME OF ACID NAME OF SALT

Hydrochloric Chloride

24
Sulphuric Sulphate
Tartaric Tartrate
Nitric Nitrate
Citric Citrate
Acetic Acetate
Ethanoic Ethanoate

PROPERTIES OF A CHEMICXAL REACTION

 It produces a new substance

 New substances produced during chemical reactions have unique properties of their own
which are different from the properties of the reactants
 During a chemical reaction there is a energy exchange between the reacting system and
its surroundings.
SIGNS OF CHEMICAL REACTION

When a chemical reaction takes place, there are often visible signs that something is happening.
The common signs are:

 Heat is produced
 A flame /glowing is observed
 Change in colour
 Change in state of matter
 Production of bubbles

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Is a measure of how quickly reactants are converted to products?

Rate of reaction – is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place

25
VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

 Temperature
 Particles of size of solid reactants
 Concentration of liquids reactants
 Presence of catalyst
 Increase the pressure of reactants

26
APPLICATION OF RATE OF REACTION I EVERYDAY LIFE

 Washing clothes in hot water removes the dirt faster than in cold water
 Milk turns sour faster when left outside on a warm sunny day than when kept in the
fridge
 Yeast makes the bread rise faster when dough is placed in a warm place
 Coarse salt dissolves slowly than fine salt
 Catalyst -Use of jik, and other stain removers works fast in removing dirt

SIMPLE HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Making soap

Objectives

27
  Investigate traditional ways of making soap
 Make simple soap
 Write the word equation that summarises the reaction of soap production
 Soften hard water chemically
TRADITIONAL WAYS OF MAKING SOAP

Traditionally soap is made from FAT/OIL AND A STRONG ALKALI

Wood ash + fat soap

(Alkali)

The basic materials for making soap are :

 A large pot
 Caustic soda /sodium hydroxide
 Cold water
 Animal fat such as lard or vegetable oil such as olive oil
 Mixing pots ,bowls and stirring spoons
MAKING SOAP IN THE LABORATORY

28
WRITE THE WORD EQUATION THAT SUMMARISES THE REACTION OF SOAP
PRODUCTION

Sodium hydroxide +fat soap + glycerol

HARD WATER –is defined as water containing salts.

29
Permanent hardness in water is caused by the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium
and magnesium. This type of water can be softened chemically by the use of sodium carbonate
(washing soda)

Hard water is not harmful to our health; however the concentration of minerals in hard water can
cause other problems. Some of the problems associated with hard water include the following:

 It forms fur/scale in kettles or other water boilers which can be removed by the use of
vinegar
 Forms scum rather than lather/foam, this happens because the calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water react with fatty acids in the soap and form an insoluble, greyish layer
.this is seen floating on the surface of bath water.

CALCIUM SULPHATE +SODIUM CARBONATE SODIUM SULPHATE +CALCIUM CARBONTAE

(Hard water) + (washing soda) (soluble salts) +(insoluble salts)

Temporary hardness contains salts of calcium hydrogen carbonates. This type of water can be
softened by boiling

METALS AND NON – METALS

OBJECTIVES:

 State the physical properties of metals

 State the physical properties of non - metals
 Compare uses of metals ad no metals with reference to their properties
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Metals are:

 Shiny \ metallic luster

 Solids at room temperature and have high density. This means that they will usually sink
in water
 good conductors of electricity
 good conductors of heat
 highly malleable, this means they can be bent and worked into different shapes
 highly ductile, this means they can be stretched to make wires
 Metals have high melting and boiling points
 They are sonorous( produce melodious sounds when hit \struck
 Hard and strong except mercury (liquid), lead and gold are soft
THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

30
 Some metals react very rapidly (vigorously) with other chemicals and these are known as
reactive metals .Examples sodium, potassium and magnesium
 Metals react with water to produce metal hydroxide ad hydrogen
METAL + WATER METAL HYDROXIDE +HYDROGEN

 Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxide

METAL +OXYGEN  METAL OXIDE

 Metals react with acid to produce a salt and hydrogen gas

METAL + ACID SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

 Other metals are unreactive with other substances .for example gold, copper and
platinum

THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON - METALS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Most non – metals are gases at room On – metals react with oxygen to produce
temperature e.g fluorine, chlorine, oxygen non -metal oxides e.g sulphur +oxygen 
and nitrogen. Bromine is the only non – magnesium oxide
metal that is a liquid Carbon +oxygen carbon dioxide
Solid non – metals such as carbon ,sulphur When non – metal oxide are dissolved in
and phosphorus are dull in appearance, they water, they all give rise to acidic solutions e.g
are not shiny like metals sulphur dioxide + water  sulphuric acid
Solid non – metals tend to be brittle (break Non – metals react with metals to give the
easily) halogen salts of the alkali metals e.g
Sodium +chlorine  sodium chloride
Potassium + bromine potassium bromide
Non – metals have lower densities than Non – metals do not react with either water
metals and acid
Non– metals boil and melt at low
temperatures
Non – metals do not conduct electricity and
they are poor conductors of heat

31
THE USES OF METALS AND NON – METALS

METALS

32
NON – METALS

THE CHEMICAL PROCESS OF RUSTING

 Investigate reactions of metals with water

 Define oxidation
 Demonstrate how rusting occurs
 Demonstrate methods of preventing rusting
RUSTING – This is a product of a chemical reaction between iron and oxygen in the presence of
moisture ( water)

OXIDATION –is a chemical reaction I which a substance gains oxygen

OXIDATION REACTIONS

1. MAGNESIUM +OXYGEN  MAGNESIUM OXIDE

2. IRON +OXYGEN  IRON OXIDE

33
HOW RUSTING OCCURS

IRON + OXYGEN moisture (water) RUST (IRON OXIDE

PREVETING RUSTING

1. Painting
2. Applying oil/grease
3. Covering with plastic
4. Metal plating-this is when iron /steel is covered with a thin layer of another metal that
does not corrode easily. The thin metal coating is applied to iron /steel by the process of
electroplating which is a type of electrolysis. Metals that are used fro electro plating are
;tin, chromium ad silver
5. Galvanising-this is covering /coating iron with zinc metal. The surface of zinc metal
oxidises ad forms zinc oxide which is tough and does not let water in. Roofing sheets are
usually galvanised
6. Using a sacrificial metal
7. Adding other metals to iron /steel

CARBON

 Define allotrope
 List allotropes of carbon
 State properties of carbon allotropes
 Relate the structure of carbon allotropes to their uses

ALLOTROPE – is a structurally different form of an element formed by arranging the atoms of

element in different ways

 Allotropes are only ever made up of atoms of one type of an element

 Should not be confused with the phases of substances (gas/liquid/solid)

34
  Carbon is not the only element which exist as allotropes ;sulphur, oxygen and phosphorus
also exist
 Even though allotropes of an element are made up the same atom, they will often have
different physical and chemical properties . For example allotropes of phosphorus are
yellow/white, red, violet and black in colour

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

Carbon is an element with a high number of allotropes and scientists have identified eight
different allotropes of carbon

 Diamond (gemstone)
 Graphite
 Glassy carbon
 Chaoite
 Carbon Nano foam
 Lonsdaleite (type of diamond)
 Amorphous carbon(found in coal and soot)

PROPERTIES OF CARBON ALLOTROPES

Diamond is a gemstone found underground

Graphite is dark in colour commonly used in pencils

THE STRUCTURE OF CARBON ALLOTROPES TO THEIR USES

Diamond

Graphite

35
USES OF CARBON ALLOTROPES

Uses of diamond

 It is used in cutting tools as it is the hardest material known. Used in tools such as drills,
saws and glass/tile cutter
 Diamonds are used in making jewellery
Uses of graphite

 Graphite is used in pencil

 Graphite can be used as a lubricant
 Graphite is used as an electrical conductor
 Graphite can be used with other materials to produce new materials with new properties.
For example graphite is combined with plastic and other materials to form a material
known as carbon fibre which is light, stiff and strong .this material is used to make
boats,aircrafts tennis rackets and helmwts.

ROCKS, MINERALS AND ORES

36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
COPPER EXTRACTION

PRECIOUS MINERALS, NON- PRECIOUS MINERALS AND GEMSTONES

A PRECIOUS MINERAL is a rare mineral that is valuable, such as gold, silver and
platinum( precious metals). Another class of precious minerals is made up of so called
gemstones. A gemstone is a precious mineral which, when it is cut and polished, makes an
attractive gem or jewel such as diamond., ruby and emerald.

NON PRECIOUS MINERAL is a mineral that is found in rocks which is usually common
and do not have a high value, or is not very attractive to look at such as
Iron ore, bauxite and quartz.

THE PRODUCTION GEMSTONES

45
46
ALLOYS
Alloy is a mixture formed from two or more metallic elements. An alloy has different properties
from the metals that it is made from. It because the combination of metals gives rise to a
different arrangement of atoms in the molecular structure of the solid. For example, the resulting
alloy may be harder than its constituent or it may not corrode. An alloy can contain non-metallic
elements as well as metallic elements.

EXAMPLES OF ALLOYS

47
THE IMPORTANCE OF ALLOYS TO INDUSTRY
Alloys are stronger, harder, lighter, more corrosion resistant, and more cost-effective than just
using metallic elements for a particular purpose. For example, buildings using steel instead of
iron as it will rust away in no time.

NATURE OF RADIATION

Emission of radiation is a random process.

Radioactivity is spontaneous.
It is not started by either temperature or a chemical reaction.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of a stream of small particles or electromagnetic
rays from an unstable nucleus.

Types of Nuclear Radiation

1. Alpha Radiation:- Can be stopped by a piece of paper or human body. Isotope of

americium -241 is a source of alpha radiation.
2. Beta(B) Radiation:- Beta particles can be stopped by a few mm thickness of Al but can
pass through paper
3. Gamma Radiation:- Very high energy can ONLY be stopped by a thick piece of
lead/thick concrete. Isotope cobalt 60 is a source of gamma radiation.

Penetrating Power of Radiation

48
 SORCES OF RADIATION
Radiation is all around us. Most are natural but some comes from human activity.

Natural Sources Of Radiation

Radiation called cosmic radiation comes from the Sun or outer space. This is because of nuclear
reactions taking place in the Sun & other stars.

Some rocks such as granite emit radiation.

The air, plants & animals contain radioactive atoms such as Carbon 14. C 14 is a radioactive
isotope of carbon.

49
 Sources of Radiation From Human Activity

-Nuclear power stations disaster in Ukraine (1986 Chernoloyl) contaminated soil and water.
-Plants that absorbed contaminated soil and water were dangerous for animal consumption.
People got cancer from the nuclear fallout.
-Nuclear weapons testing produce radiation.
-Nuclear power stations and hospitals waste are sources of radiation.

Natural & Artificial Sources of Radiation

1. Air travel
2. Processed food and drinks
3. Ground & buildings
4. Nuclear weapons testing
5. Nuclear power
6. Cosmic rays
7. Medical equipment & processes
8. Natural radioactivity in the air

Identifying Radioactive Materials (applications)

They are used in:

*Medicine
*Research
*Manufacturing
*Non-destructive testing
*Food preservations
*Weapons
*Agriculture

50
 Dangers of Exposure To Radioactive Emissions

>It damages & destroys living cells

>Cause genetic mutation and cancer

>Cancer is caused by damaged

>Cancer is caused by damaged genes which control cell division

Effects of Different Types Of Radiation

1. Alpha particles-if there are in food, the body is ionised and this may cause cancer

51
 2. Beta- can damage the red bone marrow causing Leukaemia
3. Gamma- cause severe damage to organisms

Safe Handling & Storage

*use suitable shield

*keep the sources at a distance

*use the radioactive materials for a short time
*store them in lead boxes
*place radiation hazard signs on containers where radioactive materials are stored

*use film badges to check amount of radiation-a film badge measures radiation dose

Merits & Demerits of Harnessing Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Fission

*Is splitting the nucleus of an atom into smaller parts.

*This releases large amounts of heat energy to generate steam

Uranium is the fuel for nuclear power stations

52
53
SKELETAL SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES:
 List the main functions of the human skeleton
 Describe movement in animals in terms of bones, muscles and joints
 Explain the importance of good posture

SUPPORT, MOVEMENT (LOCOMTION) & PROTECTION

The Human Skeleton

 It protects delicate organs & structures of the body;
Lungs – protected by the rib cage
Brain – protected by the skull
Vertebral column – protects the spinal cord

54
  Allows for free movement through the muscles across the joints
 Forms some blood components – Red blood cells & some white blood cells
 Acts as a framework that supports the soft tissues & thus give the body its shape
 Store & releases minerals from bone tissues e.g calcium and phosphorus

JOINTS AND MOVEMENT

Ball & socket joint (shoulder and Hip joints)

Scapula

humerus

The ball & socket joint allows movement in three planes. It is formed by the humerus & scapula
at the shoulder.

Hinge joint ( knee and elbow)

Hinge joint at
the elbow

It allows movement in one plane and formed by the ulna & humerus

The surfaces of the heads of bones which move over each other are covered with cartilage –
which is soft slippery & smooth thus minimizing friction.
Each joint in the body is filled with synovial fluid. The synovial fluid lubricates the cartilage to
ensure friction free movement. Refer to the synovial join below

55
Ligaments are tough structures that hold bones of the joint together. It prevents dislocation of the
bones during movement.

A tendon connects a bone to a muscle to ensure movement when the muscles contract & relax.

OTHER JOINTS FOUND IN THE HUMAN SKELETON

Fixed (fused / non-movable joints) in the skull Gliding joint – in the wrist allows
for a smooth gliding movement
Do not permit any movement

Pivot joint – found between the base of the skull & the vertebrae
Allows for a rotational movement

56
MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT

Antagonistic Muscles of the Forearm

Muscles cause movement through contraction & relaxing. They cannot elongate. Most muscles
work in pairs, one of them producing the opposite movement of the other. Such muscle pairs are
called Antagonistic muscles.

In case of the limb they may be called Flexor & Extensor muscles based on their effect on the
limb. Flexor muscles bend the limb while extensor muscles straighten the limb.
Example; the biceps muscle flex the arm at the elbow & antagonizes the triceps. The biceps
serve both to rotate the lower arm & flex the elbow. Biceps flex the arm only when the palm is
facing upwards.

When the biceps contract to lift the arm up the triceps relaxes. When the triceps contract to
straighten the arm the biceps relax. The biceps which flex the arm is larger & more powerful
than the triceps which extend it.

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD POSTURE

POSTURE – refers to the way you hold your body when you are sitting, standing and walking.

If you hold your body in a poor way we say that you have a bad posture and vice versa.

The effects of good posture The effects of bad posture

It puts less strain on your muscles and so It causes tired and aching muscles that can
reduces the chance that you will have be stiff. This often makes the posture even
muscles stiffness worse.
It reduces the risks of injury when doing It increases the risk of injury because the
activities because your muscles will be muscles are not aligned properly.
aligned (arranged) in the correct way

57
It helps breathing better because the Breathing is not as easy because the
ribcage and diaphragm are able to move movement of the lungs,rib cage and
easily. This will help you exercise better diaphragm are restricted
The person looks and feels more confident. The [person looks sloppy. If they do not
This affects how people see you and what care about themselves they may also feel
they think about you this way. This can cause a negative feeling
about a person.

IMPORTANCE OF EXERCISE

 Improves your mood

 Protects you from chronic diseases
 Helps you to control your weight and maintain your muscles
 Helps you sleep
 Exercise can be fun

58
SIMPLE MACHINES
A machine is a device which makes works easier.

59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
UNIT 5 FORCE MOTION AND ENERGY

5.4 MOTION

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

-State Newton‟s law of motion

-use the relationship F=ma in calculations

Newton’s first law of motion

An object will stay in a state of rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted
on by a force.

This law describe what happens when the forces acting on an object are balanced. Objects that
are stationary will remain stationary unless a force acts on the object to move it. Objects that are
moving with a steady speed will continue at that speed unless some force pushes or pulls on
them.

Examples of situations that illustrates Newton’s first law of motion

- A book placed on a table it will remain at rest there, unless someone moves it.
- If you stand on a skateboard, you will stand there forever unless someone pushes you
or kick against the ground.
- A tool of an astronaut in space float and will stay in one place. If the astronaut drop
a tool it will move it on a straight line and continue moving in the same direction with
the same speed until is affected by a planet‟s gravity.
N.B: - Note that moving object will NOT continue moving, this is because the forces of friction
and gravity cause moving objects to slow down and stop.

„‟ The tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion is known as inertia‟‟ Due to
inertia, objects resist changes in their motion. A body with a big mass will have a bigger
inertia than a body with a small mass and the bigger mass will resist a change in its state of
rest or uniform motion more than a body with a smaller mass.

67
 - A car travelling at 100km/hr. If the car hit a wall, your body will continue to travel
forward at 100km/hr. This is because your body is resisting the change to its motion
of 100km/hr (uniform motion).

Newton’s second law of motion

When a force acts on a body, it causes the body to accelerate in the direction of the force.
The acceleration is directly proportional to the ‘size’ (magnitude) of the force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

This law describes when a force pushes or pulls on an object, it will change the speed of the
object. This will cause it to accelerate. The larger the force, the more the object will accelerate.
The smaller the mass of the object, the more it will accelerate.

The diagrams below shows newton‟s second law

- The greater the force acting on an object, the greater the acceleration
- The greater the mass of an object, the less it will accelerate.

68
In mathematical terms, this means that: - Force = mass x acceleration
Eg A force of 10N acts on a box which has a mass of 2kg. What will the acceleration of the box
be?

Force = mass x acceleration

10N = 2kg x acceleration
Acceleration = 10N / 2kg
= 5 m/s

NB:- If more than one force is acting on the object, the resultant force (Fnet) must be calculated
and used in the formula so that Fnet = ma.

69
70
71
Newton’s third law of motion

If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert an equal force on object A,
but this force will be exerted in the opposite direction.

72
This law describes that when a force acts on an object, an equal force always acts in the opposite
direction.

Examples:-

- When a car drives on a road, the car exerts a downward force on the road, and the
road exerts and upward force on the car. The opposite forces are equal and balanced,
so the car does not go flying upwards.
- A book lying on a table exerts a downward force due to force of gravity but the table
exerts an upward force of exactly the same magnitude on the book.
- A gun that shoots a bullet forward exerts a force on the bullet, but the bullet exerts an
equal, but opposite force on the gun. This is what causes the gun to recoil ( jump
backwards ) when it is fired.

73
Turning effect of force

The turning effect of a force is called a moment

The moment of a force is a physical quantity that measures the turning ability of a force around
an axis.

Moment is also known as torque (pronounced tork)

Two factors

 The magnitude of the a[[lied force (F). the bigger the force, the larger the moment of
force
 The perpendicular distance (r) of the force relative to the pivot. The longer the distance ,
the larger the moment of force.
Magnitude of the moment of force

Moment of a force (torque) T=Fr

T (pronounced tan) = the moment of force

F= applied force in newtons (N)

r = perpendicular distance to the pivot in meters (m)

Moment of force in everyday life situations

 Turning a water tap on and off

 Rolling an object along the ground
 Tipping a wheelbarrow
 Using a spanner to turn a nut
 Doing sit ups in a gym
 Closing a door

Principles of moment

If the sum of the clockwise moments acting on an object equals the sum of the anti-clockwise
moment, then the object will be in a dynamic equilibrium.

Sum of all the anti-clockwise moments = Sum of all the clock wise moments

74
 OR

∑T clockwise= ∑T anti clockwise

OR

∑(F*r) clock wise= ∑(F*r) anti clockwise

person A 1.5m 2m person B

anti clockwise
Clockwise

400N 300N

Clockwise moment = Force * Distance

=300N* 2m = 600Nm

Anti- clockwise moment= Force * Distance

= 400N* 1.5m = 600Nm

(a) Clockwise moment = Force * Distance

= 100N * 0.12m

= 12Nm

(b) 12 cm+ 30 cm =42 cm

Force * Distance
= 100*0.42
= 42Nm

75
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

ASTRONOMY

OBJECTIVES:

 Define astronomy
 Discuss the benefits of space exploration to man
 List some of the technology used in space exploration
 Identify careers in space exploration
Astronomy – is a branch of science that is involved with studying and exploring outer space.

Outer space – include anything that is not found within the earth‟s atmosphere.

The field of astronomy include the study of

 the moon
 planets
 the stars
 galaxies
 universe
Branches of astronomy

Light astronomy – in this field people explore the space using telescopes, binoculars that
magnify visible objects in space.

Radio astronomy – it is involved in exploring space and the universe using wavelength of
energy that are not visible to man.

Cosmology – it is involved in producing and testing theories that explain how the universe came
into existence and the structure of the universe. It is very interesting but can be complicated and
difficult to understand .some ideas my seen very strange to the non – scientist.

76
Benefits of space exploration

77
78
Technologies used in space exploration

 telescopes (light and radio)

 rockets
 space suits
 satellites
 space vehicles/probes
Careers in space exploration

 Astronomy
 Engineering
 Astronauts

79
80