UNIT 1.

0 NOTES
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

TOPICS: 1.1 - The Nature of Science

1.2 - Measurements

Compiled by Matlala cjss 2016

1
UNIT 1.0
1.1
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
THE INTERACTIONS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

What is Science?
Science is the investigation of the world and everything around us. Scientist study what
they observe and in that way they collect knowledge. This knowledge of how and why
everything happens. Branches of Science are as follows:- Biology- study of all living
things. Chemistry- study of the matter. Physics- study of matter, energy and how they
work together. All in all, Science is how we learn about the world around us by
observation and experimenting to gain knowledge.
Scientist investigate the world and everything around us by using their senses.
The table below summarises how scientists explore the world and surroundings.

SENSES SENSE ORGANS STIMULI

Hearing Ear Sound
Sight Eye Light
Smelling Nose Odours/ chemicals
Touching Skin Temperature, pressure,
pain, texture
Tasting tongue Chemicals / food

What is technology?
Technology is the term used to describe how we use the knowledge we have gained by
designing, making / producing and using things such as tools, machines, processes,
objects and systems to meet people‟s needs and to make our lives easier (application).
Examples of technology in our daily lives:- knives,
cups,spoons,pens,pencils,calculators,computers,cellphones,television, radios cars,
wheels, watches, candles, tractors, stove, bicycle, chair table, steam train and stapler.

The facts discovered through science are used to help us work faster, easier and better.

APPLIED SCIENCE

Science Technology steam * understand what steam is.

Observing and application steam train* applied this

understanding knowledge to develop it

2
Summary of the differences between Science and Technology
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
it result in knowledge being created It result in useful things being made
The knowledge created by science does not Technology needs scientific knowledge to
always need technology useful things
Thinks of ideas and ways of solving Uses scientific knowledge, skills and tools
problems to solve problems
Does not always result in the creation of Involves making things in order to meet
knowledge that meets the people‟s needs people‟s needs
May not lead to anything new being Results in new tools being made
created
Pursues knowledge and understanding for Make objects and devices to meet peoples
its own sake needs
Involves discovery through careful Involves design, invention and production
experimentation
Tries to be as value free as possible Is driven by society and its values
Involves science process skills such as Involves technological skill such as
hypothesizing, observing and measuring construction, testing and problem solving

Science is the investigation of the world and everything around us while technology is
the application of scientific principles or laws.

The impact of technology on society

Technology in our modern everyday lives can be listed under three main headings:-

Transport - * road, rail, air and sea

Technologies have brought many benefits to society:-

Positive impact (benefits)

# Economic benefits such as creating jobs (import/ export goods)
# Greater travel opportunities by air, railway or road
# More leisure opportunities and business opportunities
# World wide travel breaks down barriers between different societies

Negative impact (problems)

# destroys the ecosystem when constructing roads
# used oil in ships can contaminate the sea water

# All engines burn valuable fossil fuels

# Poisonous exhaust fumes are released which a bad effect on the health of all
# Carbon dioxide in exhaust fumes is adding to the problem of global warming
# Motor vehicles kill and injure many people on roads and highway

3
 Information and communication * gather, store, retrieve, process,
Analyses, transmit information
ICT devises:- mobile phone, radio, television, computer, CD, DVD, Digital camera,
game console, credit cards and laser.
Positive impact (benefits)
 ICT helps to develop a more advanced economy
 People can work anywhere
 There is easy contact between family and friends no matter where they are
 There is an increased awareness of the world with 24hrs news networks telling us
of events as they happen
 The internet gives us easy access to important information
 Many news kinds are created such as technicians, programmers and website
designers

Negative impact (problems)

 People become lazier and unfit because there is no need to move from a desk to
meet and communicate with others
 Many devices such as [Link], video games, mobile phones, are distrusting and have
a bad effect on , for example personal relationships and school studies.
 Many devices are expensive so thieves are encouraged to steal
 Many systems such as online banking are not totally safe so electronic crime is on
the increase
 The digital divide between rich and poor people nations is becoming greater
 There is increased unemployment for unskilled workers because ICT makes many
jobs automatic

Construction and manufacturing

Positive impact
 Architecture, engineering, building etc – changing of raw materials into finished
products (machines, cars, devices, scanner, roads, bridges, tall buildings).

Negative impact
 Create waste such as used oil, plastics bags, empty cans, bottles and card board
boxes, people do not always dispose of the waste properly e.g. pollute the
environment

The influence of Society on Technology

Technology is shaped by the needs of the society eg

Travel: - people travel daily form one place to another quickly and safety. Roads rebuilt
or redesigned to take account to the increase in number of cars.

Communication
Telephone system arose out of people‟s need to communicate with each other at a
distance. They communicate with others anywhere and at any time led to the

4
development of mobile phones, internet and electronic mail, take photographs, play
music and videos, show maps using GPS (global positioning system). Develop memory
sticks, cards, powerful laptop and computers, very small cell phones and small digital
cameras.

Countries compete against each other to be the best in a particular field eg armies of some
countries compete to develop the best and most powerful weapons so that they conquer
their enemies when there is war.

New situations such as the discovery of HIV have resulted in the development of new
technologies used to test a person‟s HIV status.

Environmental issues related to technology

 Pollution – waste products, chemicals, used oil, burning fossil fuels

 Air, water and land are being polluted
 Smoke released from various industries lead to global warming
 Deforestation is taking place at an increasing rate
 Pesticides kill other animals that are useful to us as bees, fish etc.
 Fertilizers kill under water vegetation and fish

Environmentally friendly technology

# Recycle waste products e.g. bottles, tins, papers, plastics and metals
# Cars used unleaded petrol (lead is very poisonous as it can damage the brain)
# Solar and wind energy is used as source of energy which do not pollute the
Environment.

Health issues related to technology

Some health technologies that have lead to important improvements in our health
Include:-

 X-ray technology allows us to see inside the human body so that we can identify
Broken bones
 The development of vaccine technology has meant that diseases that used to cause
death and illness no longer affect us.
 The development of drugs such as antibiotics and pain killers has meant that
many diseases can be cured .
 Technology that put people to sleep during surgical operations ( anesthetics )
has meant that operations can now be carried out safely and painlessly.

5
DOING SCIENCE

The process of scientific investigation

The first step in nearly all scientific investigations is to ask a question. The question is
usually about something that the scientist has observed and wants to know more about,
eg What is happening?
Why has it happened?
How does it happen?
How deep is the pond?

A scientific question is one that is measurable or very clear and specific.

A non- scientific question is general, not measurable, and can mean many different
things, eg How big is the pond?

PLAN AN INVESTIGATION

Steps taken when carrying out a scientific investigation

Ask a question

Make up a hypothesis

Experiment ( carry out investigation)

Draw conclusion

Communicate the conclusions

Questions form a hypothesis.

Hypothesis is the possible/explanation to a scientific question, intelligent guess.
eg why did some things float in water and others sinks?
Try the simple investigation
# Fairs test / experiment
Fair test is an experiment in which only one factor is changed. This means that the
results of the experiment are unquestionable / valid.
# controlling variables are things that can be changed and may affect the final result.
Independent variable is the variable that you are interested in that will be changed in an
investigation. All the other possible variables must stay the same. If more than one
variable changes, then you do not know which variable has caused the effect.
Dependent variable is the variable that you think will be affected by the change in the
independent variable.
Control group is something that is used to compare your experimental group to.
Without a control, you cannot tell whether or not a change has happened in your
experimental group.

6
Experimental group is the group in which you made a change to the independent
variable that you are interested in.

Refer to Tebogo‟s experiment in Diamond science „A FRESH START ‟BOOK1PAGE

16 TO 17

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

Observing experimenting Inferring Communicating

Predicting Comparing Interpreting Predicting
Classifying Analysing Controlling variables Conclusion
Solving problems Making hypotheses

Working safely in the laboratory ( science)

Safety means being protected against harm which could be caused by hazards around us.
Hazards are things around us that could cause damage to us if they are not used safely, eg
sharp tools.

Common laboratory hazards

. Biological hazards – are dangers to health that may be caused by contact with animals /
Plants can cause allergies. Bad reaction of the body to substances that may be in the
plant / on the animal‟s skin. Some animals can carry diseases / even plants are poisonous.

. Chemical hazards – Chemical that may be poisonous / may burn / damage your skin /
Clothing eg dangerous chemicals include common acids such as sulphuric acid,
hydrochloric acid etc.

. Physical hazards – This type of hazard may be encountered when you are working with
high voltage ( very powerful ) electricity sources and with high energy radiation sources
as X – rays.

SAFETY GUIDELINES WHEN WORKING IN THE LABORATORY

In order to reduce the risk of injuries and accidents happening in the Laboratory, there are
some rules that should be followed by all people who work in the lab. These rules are
knows as safety guidelines.

7
Safety lab techniques and

8
1.2
MEASUREMENTS

SCALAR AND VECTORS

Scalar quantity is a single number (magnitude) is used to describe something / use

simplest measurements ( have a numerical value of size but no direction). It has fixed
scale which never changes. Examples of scalar quantity are mass, length, speed, volume,
width, time, area, temperature, density.

Vector quantity has a numerical value of size and it also has direction / is described by
both number (magnitude) and a direction. It does not have a fixed scale. Examples of
vector quantity are force, velocity and acceleration.

Calculating the resultant vector

- Resultant vector is the overall result of the vectors acting on an object.
- The overall effect on an object (direction and speed) that the object moves in ,
depends on the magnitude and direction of the vectors that are affecting it.

N.B:-
# ADD the magnitude of the vectors together if both vectors are acting in exactly the
same direction

Example – an object moving at a speed of 30km/h up North is affected by a force

moving in the same direction up North at a speed of 20km/h
Calculate the resultant vector

30km/h + 20km/h = 50km/h

# SUBTRACT the magnitude of the vectors from each other if the vectors are acting in
exactly the opposite direction

Example – an object moving at a speed of 50km/h in the Easterly direction comes

across a force moving at a speed of 10km/h in a Westerly direction ( opposite direction)
Calculate the resultant vector

50km/h - 10km/h = 40km/h

# The HEAD-TO-TAIL method is the simplest way to calculate the resultant vector of
two separate vectors / vectors are not lined up

Eg. To get to Lulu’s home from Mpho’s home one travels 4km east then 4km North

9
 Lulu’s
N . b home

To calculate resultant vector, measure the

distance from Mpho’s home (point a)
to Lulu’ home (point b) 4km

5.7km North East

W a E
4km
Mpho’s home

Classifying physical quantities into scalar and vector quantities

SCALAR UNITS VECTOR QUANTITIES UNITS

QUANTITEIS
Volume M3 Acceleration(rate of speed + direction) m/s
Length M Deceleration m/s
0
Temperature C Velocity ( speed movement + direction) m/s
Area M2 Force (pull/ push +direction) N
Density Kg/M3
Time second
Speed m/s
Width M
Weight N

SUMMARY
Scalar quantities Vector Quantities
They can be described fully with only one They need more than one number and / or
number phrase to describe them fully.
They do not have a direction They have to include a direction
They have a fixed scale which never They do not have a fixed scale
changes eg length- ruler have a fixed scale

10
MEASURING LENGTH

Length is the distance between two points.

Standard unit of length

In the past, many people have used many different units to describe the length of
something such as human body parts. For example many societies used the cubit as a
measure of length. In ancient Egypt, the cubit was defined as the distance between the tip
of the middle finger and the tip of the elbow of an average person. The cubit was used as
the standard unit of length as long ago as 2650 BC.
1cubit = 52.4cm.
These days Scientists throughout the world have agreed to use a standard unit of length to
communicate properly with each other. Standard units used by scientists are known as SI
units. The standard unit of length (SIunit) is known as the metre and its symbol is ‘m’.
Other units of length are used depending on how big or small something is, but all of
these units are based on the metre which is the standard unit.

1centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)

1metre (m) = 1000 millimetres (mm)
1metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)
1kilometre (km) = 1000 metres (m)
1kilometre (km) =100 000 centimetres (cn)
1kilometre (km) = 1000 000 millimetres (mm)

Note : milli means 1/1000

Centi means 1/100
Kilo means 1000
Millimeters are units that are used to describe small distances between two points,
Centimeters and metres are used to describe in between distances and kilometres are used
to describe large distances.
Scientists use system known as the metric system that use the metre as the standard unit
of measuring length.

CONVERTING NON-STANDARD LENGTH MEASUREMENTS INTO METRES

Britain and USA use part of a system known as the imperial system to measure length.
Units of the imperial system are inch, foot, yard and mile. The table below shows how
long each of the imperial units is when measured using the metric system

Imperial system unit Length using the metric system

1 inch 2.54 cm
1 foot 30.48 cm
1 yard 0.9144 m
1 mile 1.6 km

11
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE LENGTH

Measuring tape
Click wheel
Micrometer screw gauge
Vernia carlipers
Metre rule
30cm ruler
SOURCES OF ERROR WHEN MAKING MEASUREMENT - Length

Inaccurate measurement results in:

1. Things made the wrong size because measurements are wrong

2. Calculations that are performed using the wrong measurements will give the
wrong answers

Sources of error are as follows for measuring Length

- If the 0 (zero) point of the scale is not lined up properly with one end of the object
being measured. The length could be longer or shorter.
- If the rule is not placed straight and lined up along the object that is being
measured.
- The scale on the measuring instrument must be able to read in units of length that
are needed.
- If the rule you are using is thick.
- Parallex error; it happens because the thickness of the rule and the position from
which you are making your measurement affect how the scale on the rule lines up
with the end of the object being measured.

STEPS TO FOLLOW IN ORDER TO AVOID SOURCES OF ERROR

( HOW TO MAKE ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS)

1. Line up the 0 point on the rule exactly with one end of the object being measured
2. Make sure that the rule lies flat and lines up evenly against the edge of the object
you are measuring
3. Use a thin transparent rule if possible to avoid parallex error
4. Make sure your eyes are directly above the end of the object you are measuring to
avoid parallex error
5. Carefully read the number on the scale that lines up with the other end of the
object you are measuring
6. Record the measurement by writing it down

12
 MEASURING AREA
Area is a measure of the size of surface of something. The units of area are always in a
squared unit. If we are using the metric system, then the unit of area is the square metre
(m2).

In order to determine the area of a regular object such as a square, triangle and circle we
use the following formulas

- Square we use the formula side by side (Area = SXS )

Example,calculate the area of the square below

4cm

4cm

Formula = S x S
= 4cm x 4cm
= 16cm2

- Rectangle we use the formula length x width (Area = LXW )

5mm

3mm|

Formula = L x W
= 5mmx3mm
= 15mm2

- Area of a circle we use the formula Pie(π) X Radius X Radius ( Area = π x r2 )

Radius is half of diameter
Pie (π) = 22/7 or 3.142 14km
diameter

7km
radius

Area = πxr2
= 22/7 x7km x 7km
= 154 km2

13
 - Area of a triangle we use the formula half base x height ( ½ xbxh )

3cm

4cm

Area of triangle = ½bh

= ½ x 4cm x 3cm
= 6 cm2

DETERMINING THE AREA OF IRREGULAR SHAPES/ OBJECTS

Areas of irregular shaped objects (irregular shapes) is determined by the following

method
- trace the object on a graph pad or grid

- then calculate area of 1 square

- count number of full squares and more than half squares.
*ignore the small incomplete squares
- multiply area of 1 square with number of full square

area of square = 1cm x 1cm

= 1cm2
number of squares = 5
area of irregular shape =area of square x number of squares
= 1cm2 x 5
= 5cm2

14
 MEASURING VOLUME

Volume is the amount of space something takes up or occupies.

The SI unit of volume is m3 ( the cubic metre ). Other units of volume are:

Cubic millimeters (mm3)

Cubic centimeters (cm3)
Milliliters (ml)
Litres

1 litre = 1000 millilitres (ml)

1ml = 1cm3

REGULAR OBJECTS
The volume of regular shaped objects such as a cube and cuboid we use the formular

Volume = Length x width x height

=LxWxH

Height (h)

Width(w)
Length ( l )

For example, if a cuboid is 3metre long, 2metre wide and 1metre, then its volume will be

Volume = l x w x h
= 3m x 2m x 1m
= 6 m3

IRREGULAR OBJECTS
Volumes of irregular shapes such as fluids ( liquids and gas) and other solid shapes may
be measured using an instrument known as a Measuring Cylinder. This is a tall glass or
plastic container with a scale on one side. Measuring cylinders come in various sizes.
Other instruments used to measure volume are displacement can, burette, pipette, beaker,
flask.

15
Below is a measuring cylinder with two different liquids

16
MEASURING VOLUME OF LIQUID USING A MEASURING CYLINDER

Precautions for using measuring cylinder

- Pour water and place it on a flat surface so that is level
- Study the scale
- Lower your head so that your eyes are at the same level as the surface of water
- Take the reading from the bottom of meniscus (meniscus is the curve upwards
formed at the sides of the container)
- Read your reading and put units

Diagram
*Parallex error – A, B, D
*Meniscus - C

TRADITIONAL MEASURING DEVICES

- Cups
- Coke litre bottle
- Water jars with scale
- Baby bottle feeder
- 20l /25L / 5L containers

MEASURING VOLUME OF IIREGULAR OBJECTS eg stone SINKING

OBJECTS

- Pour water in a measuring cylinder up to a certain volume, say Y cm3

- Then tie the stone in a string and lower it
- Lower the stone gentle to rest at the bottom
- Take the new reading
Answer
Volume of stone + water = X cm3
Volume of water = Y cm3
Volume of stone = X – Y = Z cm3

17
Diagram

DISPLACEMENT CAN

- Pour water in a displacement can until it comes out of the spout

- Let the last drop comes out of the spout
- Place a measuring cylinder at the other end and gently lower the stone
- The volume of water collecting in the measuring cylinder will be equal to the
volume of the stone.

Diagram

18
VOLUME OF FLOATING OBJECTS

Volume of water + metal cube + Cork = P cm3

Volume of water + metal cube = Q cm3
Volume of cork = R cm3 ( P – Q = R)

Diagram

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR

- Not placing the measuring cylinder on a level surface when taking the reading
- Not taking the reading of volume form the bottom of the meniscus
- Avoid parallex error when taking the reading ( eye at the level of the surface of
the water)

MEASURING MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object that makes up an object.

Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. Mass is how much material is there in an
object. It is how heavy something is.

SI unit for mass is kilograms ( Kg).

1kg = 1000g
1g = 1000mg
1 tonne = 1000kg

19
Measuring mass of different objects
Measuring instruments used:

- Triple beam balance

- Electrical balance
- Bathroom scale
- Lever arm balance
Diagram

Triple beam balance Lever arm balance

20
Scales of measuring instruments eg triple beam balance
Diagram

= (1 X 100g) + (3 X 10g) + ( 3.5 X 1g)

= 100g + 30g + 3.5g
= 133.5g

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING MASS

- instrument is at level
- start at zero (0- point / reset it)
- wait for the meter to stop moving
- do not measure when breeze is disturbing and not greater than maximum
- avoid parallex error.

DENSITY
Density is mass of a unit volume of a substance. Compare the heaviness of equal volume
of a substance.

Formula for Density

Density = Mass _
Volume

Density of water is 1g/cm3 .

21
MEASURING DENSITY OF DIFFERENT LIQUIDS USING A HYDROMETER
Precaution:-
- study the scale
- bulb should float as it filled with air
- weight hold it upright when floating
- take the reading while still in a liquid ( specific gravity of a liquid)

Unit of density of different liquids is measured in percentage ( % ) .

Two hydrometers in liquids that have different densities

Low density liquid. High density liquid

Below is a table showing the density of some common substances

Substance Density (g/ cm3)

Wood (pine) 0.7
Oil 0.8
Pure water 1.0
Aluminium 2.7
Iron 7.8
Lead 11.3
Mercury 13.6
Gold 19.3
Ice 0.9
Paraffin wax 0.9
Platinum 21.5
Glass 2.6
Copper 8.9

22
RELATING DENSITY TO BUOYANCY

Buoyancy means the way in which something floats on a liquid. As the buoyancy force
is greater than force of gravity acting on a substance, the substance will stay afloat.

Diagram

23
MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of how hot / cold a substance is. It can also be defined as
the the measure of how much heat an object has. SI unit for temperature is degrees
Celsius ( 0C). Instrument for measuring temperature is a thermometer.

Types of thermometer
Clinical thermometer – measures body temperature. It ranges from 35 oC to 42 oC.
The scale of it measures to the nearest 0.1 oC. It uses mercury which expands and
contracts and has a thick glass. Mercury is stored in the bulb ( reservoir). The bulb is
connected to a constriction ( kink) to prevent the backflow of mercury to the bulb.

DIAGRAM

Laboratory thermometer – measures temperature of substances over a wide range. It

ranges from - 10 0C to 110 0C
-10 0C to 210 0C
-10 0C to 250 0C.
The scale of it measures to the nearest 10C. It uses mercury and coloured alcohol which
contracts when cooled and expand when in hot objects.

Diagram

24
The table below shows the difference between a laboratory thermometer and a
clinical thermometer

Laboratory thermometer Clinical thermometer

- It uses mercury or alcohol as the - It uses mercury as the measuring
measuring liquid liquid
- It has a thinner glass - It has a thick glass
- Its scale has a range of between
200C and 1200C - Its scale has a range of between
350C and 420C
- The measuring liquid can move - The level of the mercury column
freely up and down the bore as the remains at the highest reading as it
temperature changes cools because of a coil in the bore
- It can measure temperature to the - It can measure temperature to the
nearest 10C nearest 0.10C

Other types of thermometers are electronic thermometer, meat thermometer and

outdoor thermometer.

CONVERTING TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS USING DIFFERENT

SCALES

Although Degrees Celsius are the standard unit used to measure temperature of
something, there are two other scales of temperature measurement that are used.

A. Kelvin scale: the Kelvin scale is a temperature scale used by scientists who look at
very low temperature. The unit of the Kelvin scale is the Kelvin and the symbol is K. the
Kelvin scale is closely related to the Celsius scale because the amount of heat measured
by 1K is the same as 10C but the scale uses a different fixed point.

In the Kelvin scale, the fixed point that is used is the lowest temperature possible. This
temperature is known as absolute zero. At this temperature, there is absolutely no heat
energy left in an object so the object cannot get any colder. If we were to measure the

25
temperature of the object at absolute zero using a thermometer with the Celsius scale,
then the temperature would be -273oC, which is very cold indeed. However , in the
Kelvin scale, absolute zero (-273oC) is defined as zero Kelvin (0 k). since 1k is the same
as 1oC, then the freezing temperature of water ( 0oc) would then be 273k on the Kelvin
scale. Therefore, in order to convert Kelvin into degrees Celsius, you use the formula.

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = temperature in Kelvin (K) -273

For example, if someone said the temperature outside was 298k, what would be the
temperature in degrees Celsius. To get the answer you subtract 273k from 298k. see
below.

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = temperature in Kelvin (K) -273

Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = 298 - 273
Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) = 25oC

In order to convert degrees Celsius into Kelvin, then you would use the formula :

temperature in Kelvin (K) = temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) +273

For instance, if the temperature is 17oC, what would be the temperature in Kelvin? This is
how to get the answer.

temperature in Kelvin (K) = Temperature in Degrees Celsius (oC) +273

temperature in Kelvin (K) = 17 + 273
temperature in Kelvin (K) = 290 k

B. Fahrenheit scale :Another scale used to measure the temperature of objects is the
Fahrenheit scale which has the unit degrees Fahrenheit and the symbol 0F. This is a
scale that is used mainly in the USA to describe everyday temperatures. It is an imperial
scale as the intervals of the scale are not based on units of 10. In the Fahrenheit scale:
* 1 0F is the same as 5 0C or 0.55 0C
 The boiling point of water ( 100 0 C) is 212 0F
 The freezing point of water ( 0 0C) is 32 0F

In order to convert 0F into 0C, we can use the following formula:

Temperature in degrees Celsius = ( temperature in degrees Fahrenheit – 32) X 0.55

Degrees Celsuis ( 0C) = ( degrees Fahrenheit ( 0F) – 32) X 0.55

Degrees Celsius ( 0C) = (770F – 32) X 0.55
Degrees Celsius (0C) = (45) X 0.55
Degrees Celsius (0C) = 25 0C

You can also convert 0C into 0F by using the following formula:

26
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = degrees Celsius (0C) X 1.8 + 32

For example, if you were told that the temperature is 220C, what would be the
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit?

This is how to get the answer:

Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = degrees Celsius (0C) X 1.8 +32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 220C X 1.8 + 32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 39.6 + 32
Degrees Fahrenheit (0F) = 72 0F

The table opposite gives you a comparison of the value of temperatures of various
important things using the three different scales that we have discussed.

TEMPERATURE SCALE
Celsius (0C) Kelvin (K) Fahrenheit ( 0F)
An oven to roast a chicken 180 453 356
Boiling point of water 100 373 212
Normal body temperature 37 310 96
Room temperature 20 293 68
Freezing point of water 0 273 32
Lower temperature measured on -90 183 - 130
Earth ( Vostok, Antarctica, 1983)
Absolute zero -273 0 - 460

ESTIMATING TEMPERATURE

Estimating the temperature helps us to know when things are ready for us to use. It also
stops us from burning ourselves on hot objects. Estimating temperature is a useful skill.
However, we should be aware that the accuracy with which we can estimate temperature
can change depending on many factors. If we are estimating how hot or cold it is
outside, our estimation will be influenced by our different reactions or feelings to heat or
cold and how used or familiar we are with the environment and weather conditions. If
we are estimating temperature by feeling, then the accuracy of our estimations will
depend on the temperature of our skin, whether we are feeling hot or cold, and the
temperature of the environment around us. We should therefore be careful about making
important decisions based on temperature estimates.

MEASURING TIME

Time – is the period between the start and finish of an event

- Is the duration of something / how long it takes for an event
- Measure of the gap (interval) between two events

27
The SI unit for time is second(s) and the symbol is ‘s „. There are :
- 60 seconds in 1 minute.
- 60 minutes in 1 hour.
- 24 hours in 1 day
- 7 days in 1 week.
- 30 days in 1 month.
- 12 months in 1 year.
- 10 years in 1 decade.
- 100 years in 1 century

Traditional ways of estimating time

- Shade
- Position of the sun
- Cork crawling
- Hour glass
We often estimate how long it takes to do something or how long something has taken,
but how good are we at doing this? We can get better at estimating time if we practice
doing it and using some techniques that help us. However, as the estimated period of time
becomes longer, we become less accurate.

Instruments for measuring time

- Clock
- Watch
- Computer
- Mobile phone
- Radio
- Television set

Diagrams

28
 Stop clock

The period between the beginning and end of event is called time interval. These
instruments have different scales using seconds or minutes or hours.
The stop watch / stop clock measure time interval accurately as you can start and stop the
watch / clock at any time. They measure time to the nearest 1 th of a second.
10

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING TIME

- Not starting at zero. Reset the watch or clock.

- Needle not at the line up exactly with the 0 (zero) point on the scale.
- Slow reaction time ( reduced by electronic timing instruments).
- Thinking ahead about when something is going to start / end.

29
30
 UNIT 2.0 :PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.1: LIVING MATTER

Living things are classified at the features or characteristics they have in common. Matter
is classified into living and non-living.

Characteristics of living things

1. Growth – the increase in size of a living thing due to the increase in cell numbers.
(small to big)
2. Reproduction – the production of new ones from one or more parent. No living thing
can live forever.
3. Respiration – getting energy from food in the presence of oxygen.
4. Sensitivity – how living things respond to their surrounding or environment/react to
changes around them.
5. Nutrition - the feeding of organisms to provide energy.
6. Movement- the ability of an organism to move.
7. Excretion - the removal of waste products from the body or living thing

All living things perform major functions. It is the one way of identifying if something is
alive.

Living Things Non Living Things

-Person Stone
-Ant Paper
-Goat Metal
-Grass Clothes
-Tree Pen
-Spider Bottle
-Cow Pill
-Beetle Cup
-Flower Soil
-Chicken Rock

Basic Principles of Classification of Living things

There millions of different living things on earth. Many of these living things have been
identified or classified. Some organisms are still undiscovered and others have gone
extinct like the dinosaurs but they also need to be identified and named. All living
organisms are classified or grouped according to their similarities so that they are easier
to manage and study.

The largest groups of living things are called Kingdoms. These groups can be further
divided into smaller groups called phyla, classes, orders, family, genus and species.

31
For example, the complete scientific classification of humans (binomial classification) is
as follows:

Kingdom ----- Animalia

Phylum --------Chordata
Class -----------Mammalia
Order ----------Primates
Family --------- Hominidae
Genus ----------Homo
Species ---------Sapiens
Scientific names helps identify living things in any language throughout the world. It
consist of two parts genus and species. The scientific name for human being is homo –
sapiens. Remember species names are always written with a small letter NOT
capital letter.

Classifying animals
Animals are classified into either vertebrates or invertebrates.

Vertebrates
Animals with a backbone.
1. Mammals
-Their bodies are covered in hair or fur.
-They are warm blooded.
-Their young are fed on milk from the mammary glands.

2. Fish
-They live in water.
-Their bodies are covered in wet scales.
-They breath through gills.
-They swim using fins.
They are cold blooded

3. Reptiles
-Their bodies are covered in dry scales.
-They lay their soft shelled eggs on land.
-They are cold blooded

4. Amphibians
-They spend part of their life in water and part on land.
-They lay their eggs in water.
-They have a soft body covered with smooth, moist skin.
-They are cold blooded.

5. Birds
-Their bodies are covered in feathers.
-Their young all hatch from hard-shelled eggs.

32
-They all have wings but not all can fly.
-They are warm blooded.

Invertebrates
They are classified into 3 sub-groups, i.e. i) Molluscs, e.g. snails, octopus
ii) Arthropods, e.g. insects, spiders
iii) Annelids, e.g. earthworms, leeches

Arthropods
- Have hard exoskeletons
- Have jointed legs

a)Insects
-Body divided into 3 segments (head, thorax and abdomen)
-Have six legs.
-Two pairs of wings, e.g. fly, locust

b) Arachnids
-Body divided into two parts (head and abdomen)
-Have eight legs, e.g. spiders, scorpions, ticks

c) Myriapods
-Body made up of many segments (parts)
-Have many legs, e.g. centipedes, millipedes

Molluscs
- Body have three regions –head, foot and shell, e.g. snail, clums, slugs, octopus,
roundworm, flatworms, urchins, starfish, jellyfish.

Annelids
- Segmented worms with rounded bodies eg earth worm, leeches

Classifying Plants
Plants are classified into seed bearing and non-seed-bearing.

1. Seed Bearing Plants

There are further classified into flowering and non-flowering.
a) Flowering Plants- Produces seeds in flowers. They are far divided into
dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

Inside the seed there are cotyledons which stores food

I. Dicotyledons – plants with seeds that have two cotyledons (dicots) e.g.
morula, cabbage, sunflower, beans, groundnuts
-have broad leaves with a network of veins, have tap roots

33
 II. Monocotyledons- plants with seeds that have one cotyledon (monocots)
e.g. grass sorghum, maize.
Have long thin leaves with leaves with their leaf vein arranged in straight
parallel lines, have fibrous toots.

b) Non- flowering plants

I. Conifers- produce seeds in cones e.g. Christmas tree

2. Non- seed bearing

Produce by making structures a bit like seeds called spores e.g.
a) Algae- simple plants no proper roots, stem or leaves. It can be seen in stagnant
water in ponds e.g. spirogyra.

b) Ferns- have roots, underground stems and large well developed leaves. Have
veins which transport materials around the plant e.g. stags horn fern

Classification keys
Dichotomous – are the simplest type made up of brief descriptions arranged in numbered
pairs. A simple way to classify and identify an organism is to use something –Key. The

34
simplest form of a key is known as a dichotomous key because it is a series of steps to
help identify/ classify an organism. At each step, there are only two choices.

The commonest type of keys are those that use lists of questions to identify structural
features of organisms. By checking the features and answering the questions it is possible
to identify an organism (by eliminating others) down to its smallest group. *For example,
a simple key for the classes of animals with backbones would be as follows:

Question Class

1a is hair present Class –mammal

1b is hair absent go to question 2
2a are feathers present class – Birds
2b are feathers absent go to question 3
3a is there dry scaly skin? Class –Reptiles
3b is there other skin go to question 4
4a are legs and moist skin present class –Amphibians
4b are there no limbs? Go to question 5
5a are there fins and bones? Class -Fishes

CELLS

A cell is a basic unit of life.

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Similarities between plant and animal cells

* Both have cell membrane
* Both have cytoplasm
* Both have nucleus

35
Differences between plant and animal cell
Plant cells Animal cells
-Has chloroplasts -No chloroplasts
-Has cell wall -No cell wall
-Has large permanent vacuoles - Vacuoles usually small or absent
-Has rigid structure and definite shape -No definite shape

Functions of parts of a cell

1. Cell wall- supports the cell membrane and gives a plant cell a particular shape.

2. Cell membrane-controls the movement in and out of the cell. It only allows
certain substances and therefore we say it –is semi permeable

3. Cytoplasm- (a gel like fluid) A site for the chemical reaction

4. Nucleus- control and direct activities taking place in a cell

5. Chloroplasts- contains chlorophyll which enables plants to make food

6. Vacuole- contains a liquid called cell sap. It stores dissolved substances eg salts
and sugars.

7. Mitochondria for cell-produce energy which is used by the cells to carry out other
functions.

Cell Specialization

Cell structure in a particular way to perform a particular function.

Specialized Animal cells

36
 Nerve cell Red blood cell Sperm cell

Red blood cells

*transport oxygen. Have no nucleus and this leaves more space for carrying oxygen. The
shape enables them to fold slightly and fit through a very narrow blood vessels (capillary)

White blood cells

* fights the infection. They can change shape and squeeze between other cells and find
and destroy bacteria and other germs

Nerve cells
*carry electrical messages as quickly as possible. They are very long.

Muscle cell
*contract and relax and pull the bones to effect movement. There are also muscle cells in
the heart which help it to keep blood pumping.

Sperm cells
*it has a tail that beats and enables it to swim (move). It has a special structure which
enables it to dissolve the cell membrane of the egg cell.

Specialized Plant cells

Conducting cells
*transport food, water and mineral salts through the plant e.g. Xylem cells, Phloem cells

Palisade cells
*found in the leaves and have large number of chloroplasts (photosynthesis takes place in
these cell mostly

Guard cells
* It controls the amount of water loss from plants. Open and close the stomata to allow
gases to pass in and out of the leaf. They are found in leaves

The Microscope

It makes objects bigger.

37
38
*The iris diaphragm- This can be opened and closed to change the amount of light that
illuminates a slide.

Plants and Animal Systems

Unicellular organism

An organism with only one cell e.g. amoeba, desmid, bacterium, yeast, paramecium.

Multi-cellular organism
An organism with many different kinds of cells e.g. a bird, cow, sponge, chimpanzee,
baobao tree

Difference between Unicellular and Multicellular organisms

Unicellular organisms Multicellular organisms

*They are made up of one cell. They are made up of more than one cell.
*The cells may be grouped together but the *The groups of cells are made up of more
group only contains only one cell type. than one cell type.
*The cell do not co-operate with each * The cells co-operate with each other.
other.
*They are microscopic (cannot be seen *Some are microscopic although most can
with naked eyes). be seen with naked eyes.

Tissue
A group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular function e.g. bone
tissue, leaf tissue muscle tissue

Bone tissue Muscle tissue Leaf tissue

Supports our body and Cells contract and relax to Cells are able to make food
makes movement possible move the bone by photosynthesis

Organs
Different tissues grouped together and all work together to perform one major function
e.g. a leaf, kidney, stem, heart.

39
System

Several organs work together to form a system. Each organ has its own part to play in the
working of the [Link]

40
Animals -digestive system, circulatory system, skeletal system, muscular system,
excretory system, reproductive system, respiratory system, nervous system.

Plants - transport system, reproductive system, gaseous exchange system.

Functions of Systems
In animals
Digestive system- breaks food in to simpler parts
Circulatory system- transport substances around the body
Skeletal system- support the body
Muscular system- moves the bones of the skeleton
Nervous system-carries electrical signals or massages
Respiratory system- carries out gas exchange
Excretory system- removes waste materials
Endocrine system- sends hormones through the body
Reproductive system- manufactures cells that allow the animals to produce

In plants
Transport system- transport water and food through the plant
Reproductive system- reproduce (flower)
Gas exchange system- exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Cells------->Tissues-------->Organs--------->Systems----------->Organisms

2.2: ENERGY FLOW IN LIVING THINGS

Leaf Structure

Plants make their own food through the process of photosynthesis.

41
-The underside of a leaf has tiny holes called stomata (stoma for singular). Carbon
dioxide enters and oxygen leaves through the stomata during photosynthesis through the
process of diffusion.

-The upper surface of a leaf contains palisade cells which contain a large number of
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis –is a process whereby green plants make their own food.
Green plants need four things for photosynthesis:
-carbon dioxide from the air
-water from the soil
-sunlight
-chlorophyll to trap the energy in sunlight

The end products of photosynthesis are carbohydrates, which store the energy and
oxygen. We can summaries the process of photosynthesis using a word equation.

Sunlight
Water + Carbon dioxide ------------------------> Carbohydrate + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

Glucose is the carbohydrate made during photosynthesis. This is changed immediately

into another carbohydrate called starch which is easier to store.

Testing a green leaf for starch

Step Reason
-Put the leaf in boiling water for 3 minutes -To break open the cells
-Boil the leaf in alcohol for 10 minutes in a -To remove chlorophyll

42
water bath
-Put the leaf in hot water -To soften the leaf
-Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a -To test the presence of starch. If starch is
few drops of iodine solution on the leaf present the leaf will turn blue-black

Oxygen as the other product of photosynthesis

43
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Leave the set-up in the light or a few days.
3. When enough gas has been collected in the test tube remove the test tube.
4. Put a glowing splint into the test tube with the gas.
5. If oxygen is present the glowing splint relights. This shows that oxygen is
produced during photosynthesis.

Three of the Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis

Is light necessary for photosynthesis?

NB: Aluminium foil is shining and as such will reflect light.

Result: The part exposed to light will turn blue-black showing that photosynthesis took
place. The part covered with aluminium foil will not change colour because no
photosynthesis is taking place on those parts.
Therefore light is necessary for photosynthesis.

44
Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

Leave the plants for 2 days in sunlight and test for starch.
Result: Leaves from plant 1 did not turn blue-black because there was no carbon dioxide
and as such no photosynthesis.
Leaves from plant 2 turned black as carbon dioxide was available for photosynthesis to
take place.
Therefore carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis tom take place.

Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

Variegated leave= a leave that has chlorophyll in some parts but don‟t have in others.
Part of the leaf is green and the other may be white, purple or yellow.
Result: The part of the leaf that is green will turn blue-black while the part of the leaf that
is white, purple or yellow will remain unchanged.

The Importance of photosynthesis to life on earth

1. It is a source of food both for plants and animals. Plants make their own food
while animals depend on plants and other animals for food.
2. It provides organisms with oxygen which is needed for respiration. Organisms are
not able to make energy from food without oxygen.
3. It reduces global warming => photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

The leaf as a structure of gaseous exchange

Leaves have tiny holes called stomata. Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the
stomata. Oxygen leaves the leaf through stomata. The process by which gasses enter and
leave is called diffusion.

RESPIRATION
Respiration is a process whereby all living organisms obtain energy. Respiration occurs
in all living cells at all times. Carbohydrates combine with oxygen and water, carbon
dioxide and energy are produced.

45
Word Equation for Respiration

Carbohydrates + Oxygen -------------------> Energy + Carbon dioxide + Water

Respiration and Breathing

Respiration is a chemical process that takes place in the cells of animals and plants. It
uses food and oxygen to produce energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Breathing is simply the taking in and out of the air (exchange of air)

Breathing enables us to take in oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide out after
respiration.

46
Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis
Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide -----------------> Food + Oxygen

Respiration
Food + Oxygen -------------> Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide

RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Energy is released Energy is captured and stored
Carbon dioxide is released Carbon dioxide is used up
Oxygen is used up Oxygen is released
Water is given out Water is taken in
Glucose is broken down Glucose is formed
A breaking down process A building up process
Takes place in the Takes place in chloroplasts
mitochondria
Takes place continuously in Only takes place in plant cells
plant and animal cells that contain chlorophyll and are
exposed to sunlight

Effects of Deforestation on the Environment

Deforestation means cutting down of trees.

-Increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which cause the increase in the earth‟s
temperature (green house effect)
-Global warming
-Reduced oxygen content in the atmosphere causing breathing problems to people
-Removed moisture from the atmosphere (transpiration) resulting to less rainfall
-Destroy habitats of some animals which may die or move away

Transport of substances in plants

Water, mineral salts and food are transported by vascular bundles in plants. These vessels
are from roots to the leaves of a plant. ( the vascular bundles are made up of the xylem
tissue and the phloem tissue)

47
Transport of water and mineral salts

The roots and the root hairs absorb water from the soil. The mineral salts are also
absorbed because they are dissolved in water. The xylem tissues transport Water and
mineral salts. Movement through the xylem tissues is upwards by capillary action or root
pressure. It is made by dead cells.

Transport of food (glucose) in plants

Glucose produced during photosynthesis is transported to all parts of the plants by
phloem tissues. The movement of food can be upwards or downwards depending on
where the food is needed. It is made by dead cells.

Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water through the leaves of plants. It is lost through the
stomata in the leaves.
Transpiration is important because:
-It cools the plant
-It allows water and mineral salts to be absorbed

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

i) Temperature
When it is very hot plants lose water faster. The higher the temperature the higher the rate
of transpiration.

ii) The surface area of the leaf

Large leaves tend to lose water faster than smaller leaves. The larger the surface area of a
leaf the higher the rate of transpiration.

iii) The number of stomata in the leaf

A lot of water is lost through the stomata in the leaf. The more the number of stomata the
higher the rate of transpiration.

48
 iv) Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Plants lose water faster when
the air is dry. The lower the humidity the higher the rate of transpiration

v) The thickness of the cuticle

Cuticle is the waxy layer that covers both surfaces of a leaf. Water is lost faster when the
cuticle is thin. The thinner the cuticle the higher the rate of transpiration.

vi) Wind speed

Fast moving air makes plants to lose water faster. The faster the wind the higher the rate
of transpiration.

vii) Bright light

During bright light the stomata are wide open making plants to lose water faster than
when it is dark.

NUTRIENT CYCLES
Cycle is something which is continuous and non-stop

The nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is described in terms of:

a) Nitrogen fixation- Nitrogen in the air is changed into nitrates by nitrogen fixing
bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants in the soil. Lightning also changes
nitrogen into nitrates
b) Plant protein- plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and use it to make
plant protein.

49
 c) Animal protein- when animals feed on these plants, they use the plant protein
and turn it into animal protein.
d) Decomposition- when plants and animals die, they decay and decompose.
Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) make nitrates from animal waste and form deed
plants and animals.
e) Denitrification- nitrates are broken down by denitrifying bacteria to release
nitrogen back into the atmosphere.

Nitrates into the soil: -Lightning

-Decaying (decomposition)
-Excretory products (urine, faeces)
-Legume plants
-Nitrifying bacteria (nitrification)

Removal of nitrates from soil: -Plants through absorption by roots

-Leaching
-Denitrifying bacteria

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is described in terms of:

a) Plants and animals
Plants take in carbon dioxide and use it with water to make carbohydrates during
photosynthesis. Animals get carbohydrates from eating plants and other animals.

b) Respiration
When plants and animals respire they produce and release carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.

50
 c) Decomposition
When plants and animals die they decompose. During this process carbon dioxide is
produced and released into the atmosphere

d) Fossilization
This is the formation of fossil fuels from the remains of dead plants and animals. This
takes place for millions of years. Some decomposing bodies of dead plants and animals
result in the formation of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas.

e) Combustion (burning)
When fossil fuels and other materials burn, carbon dioxide is produced and released back
into the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide to the atmosphere: -Combustion

-Respiration
-Decomposition
-Fossilisation

Removal of carbon dioxide: -Photosynthesis

-Consumption (food)

51
 2:3 MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES

Conserving Natural Resources

These are sources which are found already existing on Earth and they are not man-made.
These resources can be put to good use in different ways.

Some natural resources in Botswana are:

-Water -Minerals - Energy -Soil -People
The Importance of Natural Resources

a) Water
It is used for domestic purpose such as drinking, cooking, washing etc. It is also
used in agriculture and industries. It should be used carefully with very little
waste. Ways of collecting and storing water should be put to practice.

Ways of Conserving Water

- Regularly checking water pipes for leaks and repairing damaged pipes.
- Using the right amount of water for any purpose e.g. a glass to get water for
drinking.
-Having storage tanks to collect rain water from roof tops.
- Constructing dams.

b) Soil
Soil is used for different purpose such as construction of roads and building,
growing crops, molding pots. Soil with special colours can be used for decorative
purpose.

Ways of conserving soil

Conservation of soil involves finding ways of preventing soil erosion such as:
- Afforestation
- not burning the veld
- Avoiding overgrazing

c) Minerals
Minerals are a source of income to our country. They sustain the country‟s
economy. They are also a source of employment and a source of foreign

52
exchange. They are non-renewable so they need to be conserved. Some minerals
found in Botswana: copper, diamond and coal.

Ways of conserving Minerals

- Using alternative sources such as wildlife to sustain the country‟s economy
through tourism.
- -relying on agriculture
- Growing extra food for use during drought
- Breed cattle for beef industry

d) Wildlife
Wildlife includes both wild animals and wild plants. It acts as tourism attraction,
source of food, source of income and source of employment. Wild plants also
provide medicines and fight soil erosion.

Ways of conserving Wildlife

- Construction of wildlife resources and national parks.
- Introduction of anti-poaching units.
- Introduction of hunting licenses.
- Setting hunting periods- no one is allowed to hunt outside the hunting period.
- Culling of wild animals i.e. controlled killing of wild animals.

e) Energy
Different forms of energy come from different sources. Most of machines use
chemical energy from crude oil which is a fossil fuel. If fossil fuels are not
conserved they will eventually run out. This will lead to disaster to the world
economy.

Ways of conserving Energy

- Servicing machines regularly to avoid wasting fuel.
- Using alternative source of energy e.g. the kinetic energy of wind can be used
in wind mills. Solar energy from the sun can be used to produce electricity.
- Using electricity wisely e.g. switch off electrical appliances if they are not in
use.

f) People
People are the country‟s most useful resources as they provide labour needed to
do most activities in the country. They are the source of new ideas.

Ways of conserving People

- Give them the basic needs of life i.e. shelter, food and clothing
- They should be treated when they are ill.
- Avoid committing murder and suicide.

53
 RECYCLING
This means reusing things that have been used. They may be processed before they can
be used.

Importance of Recycling to Conservation

*It reduces the amount of natural resources that we use up to make things.
*It reduces the amount of material that we have to throw away.
*It reduces damage to our environment.
*It reduces the amount of carbon dioxide sent into the atmosphere.
*It wastes less land in landfill sites.
*It can make more jobs.
* It saves money.

Materials which are recycled in Botswana

- Plastic - paper
- glass - metal

Safe Methods for Recycling resources

- Glass –drink bottles returned
- Paper- collect paper (used) and manufacture new ones (paper mesh)
- Aluminum- cold drink cans returned for money
- Iron and steel – old metals (car/ cookers) use magnet to sort them and melted
for recycling
- Water - pond (used water to water plants in gardens)
- Plastics – Makes new ones/ buy it/ use it again

Explore the business potential of recycling resources

- Plastics – make mates with used plastics
- Tins – create sculptures with aluminum from tin cans and wires
- Used papers – used in creating/ making paper mesh
- Beer bottles (coloured) – make candle holders eg at Gabane village

54
 UNIT 3.0: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES: THE NATURE OF
MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

Physical Properties of Matter

- Matter occupies space.
- It has matter.
- It has density.
- It contracts when cooled.
- Matter expands when heated.
- It exists in three states which are: solid, liquid and gas.
- It is made of tiny invisible particles called atoms.

The Structure of an Atom

Electron

Shell Nucleus

An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can exist on its own. It has a nucleus. The
nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons which
move around the nucleus in shells. In between the shells and the nucleus is an empty
space.

Protons carry a positive (+) charge. Neutrons have no charge and electrons carry a
negative charge (-).

Part of atom Location Charge

Proton Nucleus Positive (+)
Neutron Nucleus No charge (o)
Electron Shell Negative (-)

55
Arrangement of particles of matter:

-Particles are closely and neatly packed.

- Particles vibrate within their fixed positions, i.e. they cannot move from one place to
another.
-They are attracted to each other by strong forces.

-Particles are loosely packed.

- Particles can move slightly into available space i.e. they can change positions.
- The forces between them are weak.

-Particles are far apart

Properties of Solids,
-Particles are free to liquids and
move i.e. gases
they can change positions
-Particles move very fast
-The forces between them are very weak.

56
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Mass High masses because High but slightly Low masses because
particles are closer to lower than solids particles are further
each other. because particles apart from each other.
are still close with
small spaces
between them.
Volume Fixed volume because Fixed volume No fixed volume
particles are fixed in because particles because particles
their positions move slightly. move freely and fill
Molecules are up the container.
always attracted to
one another. There
are no changes in
volume.
Density High densities because High densities but Low densities
there are more particles lower than solid because particles are
in space because particles further apart from
are close but have each other.
small spaces
between them.
Shape Have definite shapes Have no shape but Have no shape
because the particles take up the shape of because particles are
are tightly packed. container because free to move and are
particles can not attracted to each
change position. other.
Hardness Very hard because They flow because Particles are further
particles are tightly particles can move apart and cannot be
packed into available felt when touched.
space.
Compressibility Incompressible because Almost Highly compressible
particles cannot move incompressible because particles are
from the positions. because particles far from each other.
can move slightly.
Heat expansion Little expansion Expand more than Expand a lot because
because particles solids because particles are far apart
cannot move, only particles can move from each other and
vibrate at fixed into small available can move freely.
positions. space.

Expansion
Expansion is the increase in size of an object caused by movement of particles as they
gain energy.

57
Expansion in gases

Before heating the balloon is flat.

After heating the balloon expands.

What causes the expansion?

Ans: when gas particles in the conical flask gain energy, they become less dense, rise up
and fill the balloon causing expansion.
On cooling, the balloon decreases in size.

Why?
Ans: when particles cool down they loose energy become more dense and move down
(back into the conical flask)

58
Expansion in solids

Before heating the ball passes through the ring easily.

After heating the ball it does not pass through the ring.

Why?
Ans: the ball does not pass through the ring because on heating the particles they gain
energy and start moving away from each other thus increasing the size of the ball.
On cooling the particles they loose energy and come closer to one another- making the
ball to go back to its normal size.

Expansion in liquids

59
Before heating the water level is within the flask but during heating the water level rises
and water spills out. This shows that water expands when heated.

Changes in state of matter

Liquid

Melting Evaporation

Freezing Condensation

Solid Sublimation Gas

DIFFUSION
It is the movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of low
concentration until they are evenly distributed eg perfume
The smell of perfume spread from where it was sprayed through the classroom. This
showed movement of particles (diffusion)

Diffusion in liquids

Particles in water are loosely packed and they can move a little. Potassium per manganite
is used in the experiment to colour the water so that the movement of particles can be
seen clearly.
When particles gain energy they become less dense and rise up and cool particles come
down.
The movement is called convectional current.

Diffusion in gases

60
In set up A the lid separates the two substances (air and bromine gas).
In set up B the lid has been removed and particles in the jar of air can move to the jar that
contains bromine gas and bromine particles can also move up until all the particles are
evenly distributed.

Diffusion in everyday life

Diffusion may be observed in everyday life when we perform the following activities:
- When we spray perfumes.
- When we spray air fresheners.
- When we spray insecticides.
- When you smell good food cooking in a house.

THE SCIENCE OF WATER

Water is a liquid that is very important in our lives.

Properties of water
- It is colorless - It is odorless
- It is tasteless - It is a solvent
o
- Water boils at 100 C at sea level - Water freezes at 0oC
- It sticks together to form droplets and light things will float on its surface.
- ie Due to surface tension * This is a result of the water molecules at the
surface attract to each other and bind together.

CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER

Some chemicals change colour when they come in contact with water.

The standard test for water is to use Cobalt chloride paper.

61
 The cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry. When testing water it changes to pink if the
liquid is water.
 The pink cobalt chloride paper can be changed to blue again by heating it.

Water Molecule

Hydrogen
Atoms Oxygen atom

The chemical formula for water is H2O

H2O means one molecule of water is made from 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1Oxygen atom
bonded together known as water molecule.
The water molecule has positive and negative electrical charges.
Since opposite electrical charges attract, the water molecule attract each other and thus
making them difficult to separate. This is what forms a “skin” (surface tension) on the
surface.

THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Liquids expand when heated and contract on cooling, except water.

Water expands when it is cooled. When water is cooled will contract, but only until it
reaches a temperature of 4 and below 4 it starts to expand.
When water expands the particles move away from each other and thus making ice to be
less dense than water.
This is why ice floats on top of water.

Effects of the anomalous expansion of water

The fact that when water freezes it becomes less dense means that water will only freeze
on the surface.
Ice on top will stop convection current ie water will remain liquid at the bottom.

How it affects Marine Animals

All plants and animals in water will continue living because the water beneath is not
frozen.

3.2: ACIDS AND BASES

Acid
*It is a chemical substance that turns blue litmus paper red.

62
*It is a substance with a pH lower than 7.

Household Acidic Substance

-Lemon juice (citric acid)
-Bee stings (methanoic acid)
-Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
-Grapes (tartaric acid)
-Vinegar (ethanoic acid)

Properties of Acids
- All acids dissolve in water.
- Acids have a sour taste. You will recognize this property in some of the
natural acids which we use as foods. The sour taste of lemons and the sour
taste of milk that has gone bad are due to acids. However it is important that
you never try to confirm this property with laboratory acids- these are very
dangerous.
- Acids change the colour of certain substances called indicators. Indicators are
dyes often obtained from animals and plants.
- Acids are corrosive.
- Acids react with some metals to make hydrogen.
- Acids react with a family of chemicals called carbonates to make carbon
dioxide.

Base
It is a substance that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only.
It neutralises an acid.
Most bases are oxides of metals.

Examples of bases
Iron oxide Magnesium oxide
Calcium hydroxide
Most bases do not dissolve in water. Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis.
Copper oxide, iron oxide etc do not dissolve in water, so they are called bases

Alkalis
-Is a chemical substance that turns red litmus paper blue.
-It is a substance with a pH more than 7

Examples of Alkalis
Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide
Milk of magnesia

Properties of Alkalis
- Alkalis feel slippery between the fingers as if you were holding soap.
- Alkalis readily dissolve oils and fats. This property makes them very useful as
cleaning agents for greasy surfaces.

63
 - Alkalis change the colour of certain substances called indicators.
- Alkalis are corrosive.

All alkalis are bases but only soluble bases are alkalis

Household Alkaline Substances

- Toothpaste - Baking powder
- Soap - Milk of magnesia
- Ammonia solution

Acid alkali indicator

Indicators are made from plant material.

Preparing an acid- alkali indicator

1. Put some flowers/beetroot cubes in a beaker. Add water (half fill the beaker).
2. Bring to boil.
3. Leave to cool.
4. Sieve/ filter by using paper and funnel.
5. Use the solution (indicator) to test chemicals.

64
Universal Indicator
-It is used to test if the substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
-It shows the strength of a substance.
NB: Not all substances are acidic or alkaline, some are neutral eg water.

 A substance with a pH of 1 is very acidic.

 A substance with a pH of 14 is very alkaline.
 A neutral substance has a pH of 7.

65
The Corrosive and Hazardous effects of Concentrated Acids, Bases and Alkali
A corrosive substance is the one that will destroy or permanently damage another
substance with which it comes in contact. The main hazards to people include damage to
the eyes, the skin and tissue under the skin. However inhalation or ingestion can damage
the lungs and gut.

Common acids and bases that we may come across and that are highly corrosive include:
- Sulphuric acid (car battery acid)
- Hydrochloric acid (swimming pool acid)
- Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)

Guidelines for Using Chemicals Safely

- Read and follow instructions carefully.
- Don‟t remove product labels.
- Don‟t store household chemicals within the reach of children.
- Don‟t store household chemicals in shelves normally used for food.
- Don‟t store household chemicals in containers commonly used for food and
drinks.
- Store all hazardous products out of the sun in tightly sealed containers.
- Never mix household chemicals. Doing so can be dangerous as toxic fumes
can be made.
- Don‟t store incompatible products together. For example, acids should not be
stored with alkalis and flammables should never be stored with corrosives.

Accidents Involving Chemicals in the Home

Even if we are careful accidents do happen.
Common accidents are burns and poisoning.

66
[Link] burns
More concentrated alkalis and acids burn the skin.

How to treat A Chemical burn

-Remove any clothing that may have been covered with the chemical, taking care not to
spread the chemicals to other parts of the body.
-Quickly wash the affected area with lots of running cold water for at least ten minutes.
-Cover the burn with a clean non-sticky bandage. Do not put any cream or antiseptic
ointment on the burn.
-Check the signs of shock such as shallow breathing and keep the person warm with a
blanket.
-If the burn is serious, take the person for medical treatment at a clinic or hospital.

[Link]
-Dilute the poison as quickly as possible by making the person drink water or even milk.
-Do not make the person vomit.
-Take the poisoned person to see a doctor immediately.
-Take the container of the poison with you so the appropriate treatment can be quickly
decided.

67
UNIT 4.0: SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: Human Growth And
Development

The Male Reproductive System

Ureter

Urethra Sperm duct

Penis Testis

Epididymis

Scrotum

Organ Function
Penis Passes semen from the male‟s body to the female‟s body during sex.
It also passes urine out of the body as waste.
Foreskin No special function. Is sometimes removed in a process known as
circumcision.
Urethra Transports both semen and urine to the outside.
Glands Add liquid to sperm cells. The liquid (seminal fluid) nourishes the
sperm.
Sperm duct Transport sperm cells to the urethra.
Testis Produces the sperm cells.
Epididymis Stores the sperms.

68
 Scrotum Holds the two testes outside body to keep them cool and allow for the
optimum production of sperm.

The Female Reproductive System

Uterus

Ovary Oviduct/ Fallopian tube

Vagina
Cervix
Organ Function
Vulva Opening which allows the penis into the vagina.
Vagina It receives the penis. It is also the birth canal.
Cervix A ring of muscles which closes the lower end of the uterus.
Uterus/ womb Where the baby grows during pregnancy.
Oviduct/ fallopian Collects ovum during ovulation. It is where fertilization takes
tube place. Transports ovum, or zygote (fertilized ovum) to uterus.
Ovaries Produce oestrogen and progesterone. They also produce the ova.

Sex Cells
The male sex cell is the sperm and the female sex cell is the ovum.

69
The difference between the sperm and the ovum
Ovum Sperm
Released once every 28 days Released in millions during every
ejaculation, which can occur at any time.
Appears larger than a sperm when viewed Appears quite small compared to an ovum
through a microscope. when viewed through a microscope.
Headless and does not have a tail. Has a head and tail.
Not mobile on its own but moved by cilia Mobile on its own, propelled by its tail.
in the oviducts.
Lives in the oviducts for about three to Lives for about three to five days after
seven days. release.

Changes that occur at puberty

In Males
- Testes begin to produce sperm: this is why boys begin to fantasize about
having sex in their dreams. They ejaculate sperm mixed with seminal fluid
during these wet dreams.
- The voice deepens.
- Hair grows on the pubic area, chest and armpits.
- The body becomes more muscular.
- Pimples may develop.

70
In Females
- Menstruation starts.
- Breasts develop.
- Hips become wider and rounder.
- The voice does not deepen.
- Pubic hair grows.
- Pimples may develop.

Emotional changes in males and females due to puberty

- Both boys and girls start to have feelings for the opposite sex.
- They may feel that their parents are troubling them when they try to give
advice.
- They start feeling like they should be given more freedom.
- They start to be very sensitive and this can result in severe mood swings.
- They may start to compare themselves with other people, and may become
more self-conscious.

The Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation is the release of the lining of the uterus and a dead ovum as a bloody
discharge through the vagina. The lining of the uterus is made up of blood cells. Usually
one ovum is produced at a time this happens approximately once every 28 days although
this time may vary slightly (the range is from 21 to 35 days).The period between the
release of one ovum to another is known as the menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle can be divided into four stages as follows:

a) Stage one (days 1-5): Menstruation (bleeding)
If the ovum is not fertilized, then it will pass out of the body.

b) Stage two (days 6-12): The repair phase

c) Stage three (days 13-16): The fertile period

71
This is the period when fertilization is most likely to occur. This is because ovulation has
taken place. During this period the ovum begins to move down the oviduct and is
available for a sperm to fertilise it.

d) Stage four (17-27): Pre-menstrual phase/ Ovulation

This is the release of the ovum from the ovaries to the oviducts. The ovum is now mature
and ready for fertilization.

The three hormones responsible for changes at puberty

Hormones are chemical substances which control the activities of one or more organs.
Hormones are produced by glands.

A. Oestrogen
It is produced by the ovaries and it has the following functions:
- It stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics in
females.
- It stimulates the maturation of the ovum during the menstrual cycle.
- It brings about the mood and behavioural changes that happen at puberty.
- It rebuilds the lining of the uterus that breaks down during menstruation.

B. Progesterone
It is another sex hormone that is produced by the ovaries in females and has the following
functions:
- It prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation. (It stimulates the
thickening of the wall of the uterus so that it is ready to receive a zygote if
fertilization occurs)
- It maintains the uterus in pregnancy.

C. Testosterone
It is the most important sex hormone in males. It is produced by the testes and it has the
following functions:
- It stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics.
- It stimulates sperm formation and development.
- It is responsible for changes in aggression, mood and behavior that happen to
boys during puberty.

Menopause
Women are fertile from puberty until about the ages of 45 to 55 when the menstrual cycle
begins to become irregular and eventually stops permanently. This is known as
menopause and the woman can no longer have babies.

FAMILY PLANNING: Methods of Birth Control

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Condom -Prevents both sexually -Need to practice the method (can
transmitted infections and rapture).

72
 pregnancy. -Easily destroyed by heat and light.
-Traps all sperm. -Some people are allergic to latex.
-very effective if used properly.
Contraceptive -Vey effective in preventing -Does not prevent transmission of
pill pregnancy. diseases.
-Does not have to be -Some women may experience a
remembered every time sexual bad reaction to the pill.
intercourse occurs. -Need to remember to take the pill
daily.
Spermicide Nearly 100% effective if Must be applied before every sex
cream combined with the use of a act.
condom and the diaphragm. -Does not prevent disease
transmission
-Not very effective on its own.
Intra-Uterine -Does not have to be -Does not prevent disease
Device (IUD) remembered every time sexual transmission.
intercourse occurs. -Can have side effects.
-Replaced after a long time. -Can only be inserted by a nurse or
-Highly effective. doctor.
-Can be removed when a couple -Can come out.
wants a child.

Depo provera -No preparation needed before -Does not prevent disease
injection sexual intercourse. transmission.
-Very effective. -May bring changes to the
-Only done four times a year. menstrual cycle.
-May have some side effects.
-Its effects may last longer than
expected.
Diaphragm -Protects the cervix against -May develop holes.
infections. -Requires expertise to fit.
-Highly effective with -Must be inserted before sexual
spermicide. intercourse.
Sterilisation -Normally 100% effective. -Does not prevent disease
-Does not interrupt sex act. transmission.
-Only suitable for people who do
not want any more children (
cannot be reversed easily)
Abstinence -100% effective. -Requires extra- ordinary self
-No threats of pregnancy or control.
sexually transmitted diseases.
-No health risks.

The Implications of Family Planning in the Light of Family Size

The Implications are as follows:

73
 - Where there is no family planning, family size tend to be big and children
may not be well spaced to allow for individual care before the next child is
born.
- If parents take appropriate measure to control birth, they may decide how
many children they want to have and when.
- If more children are born in a family, it means there are more children to take
care of. They need food, school fees, health care, clothes etc.

OUTLETS THAT PROVIDE FAMILY PLANNING ADVICE AND SERVICES

- Guidance and counseling units

- Clinics
-Hospitals
-Family welfare offices

SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

Sexually transmitted infections are transmitted from one person to another through sexual
intercourse. They are caused by micro-organisms like fungi, virus, bacteria. They
include:

THRUSH
It is transmitted through having sex with an infected person.

Cause
It is caused by a fungus

Signs and Symptoms

- White patches on the mouth and tongue
- Discharge from the penis or vagina
- A burning sensation while urinating
- Inflammation of the tip of the penis or vulva
- Itching on the vagina

Treatment
Antifungal creams such as gentian violet cream, iodine cream or nystation cream.

GONORRHOEA
It is transmitted through sexual intercourse with an injected person.

Cause
It is caused by a bacterium

74
Signs and Symptoms
In males
- An uncomfortable feeling in the urethra
- A green yellowish pus-like discharge at the tip of the penis
- Pain in the lower abdomen

In females
- Signs and symptoms are similar in both men and women, its just that they are
difficult to recognize because the female reproductive organs are inside.

Treatment
Antibiotics need to be taken as early as possible. If not treated immediately, gonorrhea
can cause sterility, miscarriage and premature labour, babies can be born infected with
the disease.

SYPHILIS
Can be transmitted through sexually intercourse with an infected person.

Cause
Caused by a bacterium

Signs and symptoms

It comes in stages

Primary stage
There is a development of a sore, pimple or blister at the sexual organ, anus or mouth
which disappears on its own.

Secondary stage
Comes after a few weeks or months and includes:
- Fever - Body rush - White patches on the mouth
- Swollen glands - Loss of hair - Nausea

Latent stage
No signs and symptoms can be observed, however, for many years, the bacteria is still
spreading around the body.

Tertiary stage
It may be too late to cure the disease and death is highly possible at this stage. Organs
that can be damaged include:
- Brain - Liver
- Heart

Treatment
Antibiotics can be used.

75
GENITAL HERPES
Can be transmitted through sexual intercourse, kissing and mother to child transmission.

Cause
Caused by the herpes simplex virus

Signs and symptoms

- Painful blister like sores on the sex organ, mouth, abdomen and inner thighs.
- A burning sensation during urination
- Swollen glands in the groin
- Cold sores

Treatment
Anti-viral drugs can be used to make the virus dormant. Pregnant women should visit the
doctor immediately after diagnosis. Babies born with the infection may have mental
diseases.

HIV/AIDS
N.B
HIV= Human Immune deficiency Virus
AIDS = Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
AIDS is a disease caused by a virus called HIV. The virus destroys the immune system
which defends the body against infections.

HIV AND AIDS AS SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

HIV stands for Human Immuno – deficiency Virus .It causes AIDS which stands for
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. People who carry the virus are said to be HIV
positive while those who do not carry the virus are said to be HIV negative.
AIDS can be spread through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person, from
mother to child during birth, by coming into contact with infected body fluids, sharing
unsterilized sharp instruments like razor blades, etc.

How does HIV cause AIDS ?

HIV slowly causes AIDS because the virus destroys the immune system of the body such
the body can no longer fight off infections. The body now suffers from different types of
diseases which are shown by so many symptoms. The types of infections are known as
opportunistic infections. A person may be HIV positive for many years without
showing symptoms of AIDS. But as the immune system becomes weak, the body now
suffers from some many symptoms of diseases. Later the person develops AIDS. It is
only through a blood test when HIV status can be known.

Medical conditions of advanced HIV and AIDS

Some of the common medical conditions associated with advanced HIV and AIDS
includes;

76
 - Kaposi sarcoma : This a type of skin cancer caused by the herpes virus that is
shown by the person having red blotches on their skin
- Pneumonia: This is a lung infection caused by various different types of
opportunistic infections. AIDS patients die due to pneumonia.
- Cancer of cervix caused by the same virus that can cause warts.
- Leukaemia ( a cancer of the blood )
- Mental disorders (dementia)
- Severe weight loss and muscle wasting

Distinguishing between being HIV positive and having AIDS

A person who carries the HIV is said HIV positive. A person who does not carry the HIV
is said to be HIV negative. When a person who is HIV positive eventually begins to
develop diseases and becomes very weak, is said to have developed AIDS.
Opportunistic infections associated with HIV and AIDS
Some common opportunistic infections associated with HIV and AIDS includes;
- Tuberculosis, a serious infection of the lungs caused by bacteria.
- Candida albicans infection caused by fungus that is present in all the people but
the fungus become uncontrollable or grows out of control.
- Various bacterial infections attack the lungs and cause pneumonia.
- Toxoplasma infections are an infection of the blood
- Herpes infection causes blisters and sores around the mouth and genitals.

Programmes for treatment of HIV and AIDS conditions

HIV and AIDS cannot be cured although HIV can be prevented simply by using a
condom during sexual intercourse. Even though there is no cure or vaccine for HIV and
AIDS , drugs such as ARV , AZT are used to prolong the life of people who are HIV
positive . Some of the following programmes are used in Botswana;
- Anti-Retroviral Therapy Programme
The government of Botswana started the programme in January 2002. It provides
ART (antiretroviral therapy) medication who have HIV and AIDS.
- Sexually Transmitted Infections ( STIs ) Control Programme
People with infectious diseases such as gonorrhoea , genital herpes and syphilis
can easily be infected by HIV and AIDS . To treat people who suffer from STIs
can easily reduce the spread of HIV and AIDS.
- Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV Programme ( PMTCT )
The programme started in September 1998 .It aimed at reducing the risk of HIV
infection from mother to child during pregnancy, birth and breastfeeding.
- Isoniazid Prevention Therapy ( IPT ) Programme
IPT programme started in 2000 mainly to prevent people with HIV and AIDS
from being infected by tuberculosis.

77
ENERGY FORMS AND SOURCES
Fossil fuels
These are dead remains of plants and animals that decayed and buried under the soil,
millions of years ago. E.g. coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel and oil.

THE ORIGINS OF FOSSIL FUELS

The energy from the sun is transferred through food chains to give fuel for living animals.
When plants and animals, the energy contained in this living being is trapped within
them. Over millions of years , layers and layers of dead plant and animal material is
formed and this dead and decaying material eventually breaks down into what is called
fossil fuels i.e. natural gas , crude oil and coal .

THE IMPORTANCE OF FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are the most important source of energy in most economies in the developing
world. 90% of the energy in many countries uses fossil fuels as a source of energy. Fossil
fuels are the source of non- renewable energy source and burning of them will lead to
global warming. Another factor is that Botswana is a landlocked country and therefore
makes it difficult and expensive to import fossil fuels such as crude oil. The other set
back about fossil fuels is that they cause pollution.

RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable resource is a source that can be replaced or used again. Non- renewable
resource is a resource that cannot be replaced once it has been use.
The table below shows some renewable and non- renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources Non renewable energy sources
 Biomass (wood , dung etc)  Oil
 The sun ( solar energy )  Coal
 Moving water ( hydroelectric  Gas
energy )  Energy from radioactive material (
 Wind energy nuclear energy )
 The heat of the earth ( geothermal
energy )

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY AND THEIR USE IN BOTSWANA

1. Solar energy
Solar energy is created from the heat and light of the sun. Solar energy is a
renewable source of energy because it can be created every day that the sun
shines. Solar panels collect the energy and batteries store the energy. Solar energy
can be used for heating, cooling and lighting. Solar energy is a clean source of
energy. The solar panels and batteries are expensive. Installation fees are high and
not so many people use solar power or energy in Botswana.
2. Hydroelectric energy
Hydroelectric power (HEP) is produced by running or falling water .HEP is
created where water flows over turbines. The movement of the turbines generates
electricity generates electricity .Botswana does not generate hydroelectric power
at present.

78
 3. Wind energy
Wind can be used as alternative energy source. When wind blows, it can be used
to turn large propellers and this can make turbines turn. Wind energy can be used
by farmers in windmills to pump water. The disadvantages of wind as an
alternative source of energy are that wind farms occupy a lot land that could,
perhaps, be used for farming. The other disadvantage is that when there is no
wind, windmills could not pump water.
4. Biomass energy
Biomass energy is created when biomass (such as wood and animal dung) is
burnt. Biomass fuel or biofuel is produced when bacteria and chemical processes
change living organisms into liquid or gas fuel .Most people use wood as a source
of energy in Botswana.
5. Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is generated when atoms undergo fission. Fission takes place
when the nucleus of atom splits .The energy can be used to generate electricity.
Uranium which is an element, it is mainly used to generate nuclear energy. It can
cause pollution and there is high chance of nuclear accidents. There is one nuclear
power station in South Africa.
6. Geothermal energy
It is energy generated when heat from beneath the earth`s surface is used to spin
turbines. E.g. geothermal energy is generated when hot water or steam escapes
from the earth`s crust. The water or steam spins turbines to create electricity.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING ENERGY

When energy is conserved, it may have what we call setbacks. Some of the problems
caused by energy usage are;
 The burning of fossil fuels is causing global warming
 Energy is becoming more expensive
 The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution
 Water that has been polluted by spilled oil and fuel eventually pollutes rivers,
lakes, dams and the sea.
 Waste from energy production ( for example old batteries and broken solar panels
) is difficult to dispose of
 Chopping down of trees causes deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.
 The generation of energy in coal fired power stations uses a lot water
 Non-renewable fossil fuels are running out.

WAYS BY WHICH ALTERNATIVE SOURCES COULD BE HARNESSED IN

BOTSWANA
The benefits of developing renewable energy resources;
 It provides power to run primary schools, health clinics, local government centers,
rural businesses and households.
 It provides power for communication equipment and electric lighting to enable
evening classes for disadvantaged groups thereby freeing them for participation in
village meetings , education and village governance

79
  Health benefits include fighting diseases by boiling water , reducing respiratory
illnesses from indoor pollution , improving medication and providing power for
refrigeration
 Providing electricity for communication ( for example : radio / television ) that
can spread important public information about , for example , combating deadly
diseases
 Ending the negative effects on the environment (air pollution, land degradation,
acidification of land and water, climate change).
SOLAR POWER
Solar power is the best alternative energy source in Botswana. Even though the solar
power is expensive to install (the panels and batteries are expensive) the maintenance
costs are low. Some of the solar power can be used in a solar cooker, a reflecting screen
concentrates the sun`s rays onto a pot with food.
The business potential of solar power in Botswana
 There are businesses opportunities in supply, installation and maintenance of solar
panels, batteries and appliances.
 The development of solar technology in Botswana will assist many small
businesses, particularly in the rural areas which are not supplied by the national
power grid.
 There are some research opportunities in this field of alternative energy supply.

WIND POWER
Wind energy has been used in Botswana on a small scale. It may be used in pumping
water for livestock and for domestic supply in rural areas.
The business potential of wind power in Botswana
 The business potential of Botswana is very small but there is a limited supply of
pumps and storage tanks.
 Wind is a valuable source of energy for farmers, particularly in rural areas.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
There is no hydroelectric power generated in Botswana but Botswana is part of the West
Corridor Power Project which involves using the hydroelectric energy of the Congo River
at the Inga rapids. The power generation is estimated to be 3500 megawatts. 2000
megawatts will be used by South Africa and the rest will be used be shared by Angola,
Namibia, Botswana and the DRC. Construction is expected to start in 2009 and be
completed by 2012.
The business potential of hydroelectric power in Botswana
The costs of developing hydroelectric power are very high. The costs have to be shared
by countries. The establishment of Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) in 1993 which
was signed by all SADC countries in 1995 was aimed at making the development of
alternative energy sources possible for small countries.

ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HOME

Types of energy needed and used in the home
These include;

80
  Chemical energy
 Electrical energy
 Light energy
 Heat energy

Sources of chemical energy in the home

Two main sources of energy include;
- Food
- Fuels

Food as a source of chemical energy

Food that we eat is digested and release starch and carbohydrates which are broken down
in respiration, to release energy and waste products of water and carbon dioxide. The
released energy is used to do different kinds of work.

Fuel as source of chemical energy

Heat and light energy in our homes are usually provided by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil,
paraffin and natural gas) and biomass products (firewood). Burning releases heat or light
energy and waste products such as water and carbon dioxide are formed. The heat energy
is used to cook food, warm our homes and heat water.

Sources of heat and light energy in the home

 Light and heat energy from chemical energy
Paraffin used in lamps and lanterns to give us light. Gas used for cooking and
warming our homes.
 Light and heat energy from electrical energy
Electrical energy used to light bulbs in our homes, to cook food, and to heat our
homes.

The financial and environmental implications of energy sources in the home

1. Wood
A source of fuel for many people in rural and in urban areas.

Financial implications
-Wood collected from the environment free of charge. Hence makes it a source of fuel in
most areas.

Environmental implications
-Large scale deforestation as trees are chopped down
-Less trees = less shade. Moisture evaporates from the soil and the soil dries out. Dry
soils erode more quickly.
-There are no longer tree roots to hold top soil together. Wind and water erosion increases
as a result. The rate of desertification (land turning into desert) in Botswana is cause for
concern.
-Wood, unless it is very carefully managed, is a non-renewable resource.

81
2. Coal
Coal is used on a smaller scale in Botswana especially in homes for burning in stoves. It
is also used in stoves and boilers in some of the schools.

Financial implications
-Coal is an expensive source of fuel in Botswana. Not so many people can afford to buy
it.

Environmental implications
-Mining of coal causes environmental damage
-Burning of coal causes air pollution and is contributes to greenhouse effect and global
warming.
-Coal is a non-renewable energy resource.

3. Paraffin
Paraffin is burned in homes to provide heat and in lamps to provide light .Paraffin is used
on chicken farms to keep young chicks warm.

Financial implications
-Paraffin is expensive because it is imported from other countries.

Environmental implications
-Paraffin is poisonous and has caused death of many young and old people who drink it
by mistake.
-Paraffin lamps are easily knocked over and have caused fires in many homes in
Botswana.
-Paraffin is a non-renewable resource
-Burning of paraffin releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

4. Gas
Gas can be used in stoves, lamps and heaters.

Financial implications
-Gas is very expensive and people find it more convenient than other fuels.

Environmental implications
-Gas cylinders must be looked after carefully as it can explode once it get hot.
-Gas is a non-renewable resource
-Burning of gas releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

5. Solar power

82
Botswana receives a lot of sunshine in most days. Solar power can provide much of the
energy needed by the country. But this renewable resource is under-utilized in Botswana.

Financial implications
-Solar panels are expensive to buy and install but maintenance or running cost is low.

Environmental implications
-Solar power is a renewable resource
-Solar power does not cause water or air pollution

6. Electricity
Electrical energy is used for lighting, operating electrical appliances and heating in the
home.

Financial implications
-Electricity is expensive in Botswana as well as the cost of transmitting electricity along
expensive and long power lines.

Environmental implications
-Coal fired power stations uses fossil fuels, which is a non-renewable resource
-Burning of coal causes air pollution
-Mining of coal causes environmental scarring
-Burning of coal releases carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas, leading to global
warming
-Large amounts of water are used in coal fired power stations

ENERGY CHANGES AND USING ENERGY

Energy changes in everyday life
Energy that is stored in something is known as potential energy. Potential energy has the
ability to be changed into other forms of energy.
Example of energy changes that happen in a person to run include;
1. It starts with the sun. Matter is changed into electromagnetic energy.
2. Plants change some of the solar energy into chemical energy in the process of
photosynthesis. The chemical energy is stored in the plant. Then people eat plants or
plant products.
3. After the food has been eaten, the stored chemical energy is converted into work and
heat energy in the process of respiration. Respiration takes place in every cell of your
body. Some of the stored energy is changed into kinetic energy so that the person can run.

Some of the applications of energy changes in everyday life

1. Photosynthesis: light energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy in plants
2. Car engine: chemical potential energy in petrol is changed into mechanical energy
3. Respiration: chemical energy in food is converted into work and heat energy
4. Tractor engine: potential energy in diesel fuel is changed into kinetic and heat energy
5. CD player: electrical potential energy in a battery is changed into kinetic energy to spin
the disc.

83
The importance of energy transformations
The changing of one form of energy into another is called the transformation of energy.
Energy transformations are important in the lives of people, animals and plants.

Examples;
1. The chemical energy stored in petrol is converted into heat in a car engine .This heat
energy is used to move mechanical parts of the car causing the car to move. Thus
chemical energy is converted into kinetic energy.
2. In a thermal power station, the coal is burned to heat water and change it into steam.
The steam turns the turbines which in turn produce electricity. The chemical energy
stored in coal is converted into electrical energy.
3. When we burn wood, the chemical potential energy is converted into heat energy. etc

The greenhouse effect

A greenhouse is a shelter, usually made of glass, in which plants are kept. The glass
allows the sun`s light and heat energy in, but slows its escape from the shelter. In this
way, the plants are kept warmer inside the shelter than if they were outside.
The earth`s atmosphere is heated in much the same way as a greenhouse. The atmosphere
allows heat and light energy from the sun to pass through and strike the earth`s surface
.However, the atmospheric gases, carbon dioxide in particular, trap the heat when it is
reflected by the earth. This is a natural process which keeps the earth warm enough to
support life.

The greenhouse effect and global warming

Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gases releases carbon dioxide. When
population increases , this means more fossil fuels are burnt and this leads to more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere .The increase in carbon dioxide which is called greenhouse gas
, has caused the atmosphere to trap more heat , leading to an increase in the temperature
of the earth . This is called global warming. Global warming can lead to problems such as
increase in sea level, severe storms and farmer`s crops failing.

Using energy sources safely

Sources of electricity are use daily and therefore safety precautions have to be followed
in order to avoid or minimize accidents. Below are some of the safety precautions to be
followed to prevent electric shock.

1. Keep electric wires insulated.

Always have to ensure that the insulation is not damaged, if damaged can lead to electric
shock or can cause fire.
2. Do not overload an electric circuit
Overload of sockets can lead to overheat which can lead to fire and damage to appliances.
3. Do not mix electricity and water
Water can conduct electricity to some extent and this can lead to electric shock.

84
4. Never touch overhead cables
Touching overhead electric cables can cause severe shock or death.

Diagnosing faults in appliances

If an electrical appliance such as an electric kettle, electric iron or lamp is not working,
there are simple steps to follow to identify the problem and fix it. Always remember the
safety precautions. If in doubt, call in a qualified electrician.

Safety precautions when using fossil fuels at home or school

-Supervise young children when any fossil fuel is being burned
-Never leave a fire unattended
-If the fuel is being burned in doors, ensure that there is good ventilation
-Never play with matches
-Never light a match near petrol
-Do not throw paraffin or petrol onto wood to make it easier to light; it may explode.

SOUND ENERGY
Sound is a form of energy that is made when molecules vibrate (move backwards and
forwards) . Sound travels from one place to another because vibration is passed from one
molecule to the next and this forms a sound wave.

Producing high and low notes

Pitch is the highness and lowness of a note. High or low notes can be made by changing
the vibration that causes the sound .The faster the source of sound vibrate , the higher the
note produced and the faster the frequency of the wave increases and vice versa .
The waveform on the bottom of the figure above shows many more waves. They are
more frequent, so it`s a higher frequency sound that produced them .This means it has a
higher pitch. In summary;
 A vibration causes a sound wave. The frequency of the vibration causing the
sound wave determines how high a note is (that is, the pitch of a note).
 In musical instruments, the pitch of the sound is changed by lengthening or
shortening the object that is vibrating and producing the sound.

The loudness of a sound

The loudness or volume of a sound depends on the amplitude of the wave (how far the
wave goes up and down). The amplitude is the height of a wave from its peak to its mean
rest position. The size of the amplitude indicates the energy carried by the wave and
represents e.g. the loudness of a sound or the brightness of a light.

85
The reflection of sound (echoes)
Echo is a reflection of a sound wave by a surface or an object so that a weaker version is
detected after the original. Have you ever shouted out in a big space and heard your voice
come? What happened is that a hard surface , like a wall , reflected the sound waves back
to you and this is called echo .If it takes more than 0.1 seconds for a reflected sound to
return to a person`s ear , then the sound is an echo . The original sound and the reflected
sound are heard as separate sounds. If the time between the original sound and the
reflected sound is less than 0.01 seconds, then the original sound will be heard as one
sound . Echoes can be useful, e.g. they are used to find out the depth of the ocean. Echo
can be a nuisance.

The speed of sound in different materials

Sound travels differently in different material at different speeds. The speed of sound
depends upon the density, pressure and temperature of the medium.

Medium Density ( g cm ⁻³ ) Speed of sound ( at 0 C )

Air 0.001 330ms ⁻¹
Water 1.0 1400ms⁻¹
Brick 5.6 3700ms⁻¹
concrete 7.8 5000ms⁻¹

Table below gives approximate speed of sound in various materials and how temperature
affects the speed of sound in air.

Material Solid , liquid or gas Speed of sound (kph )

Iron Solid 21,400
Glass Solid 20,300
Sea water Liquid 5,500
Pure water Liquid 5,390
Air at 0 C Gas 1,190
Carbon dioxide gas 932

How sound travels or move

86
Sound travels from where it is produced to where it is needed or travelling through in
form of a wave. The wave travels through a medium e.g. air or solid or liquid.

Difference between longitudinal and transverse waves

Waves are disturbances caused by the movements of some forms of energy form one
place to another; they are changes that occur in something such as the surface of the
ocean and the air.

Longitudinal wave
A wave in which particles of the medium move parallel (in the same direction) to the
movement of the wave. E.g. sound wave, etc.

Transverse wave
A wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular (at 0 angle)
to the direction in which the wave moves. e.g. a wave in water , electromagnetic waves ,
etc

Difference between wavelength, frequency and amplitude

Wavelength
Is the shortest distance between two identical points on a wave.
Frequency
Is how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the
medium.
Amplitude
Is the maximum amount of movement of a particle of the medium from its rest position.
It can be said as the distance from rest to crest or from the rest position to the trough
position.

87
HEARING
The sense of hearing enables us to hear information from our environment. The ears are
the organs responsible for hearing and also for the maintenance of balance. The ears
transfer energy of sound waves to special cells, which send signals to the brain. The brain
interprets the signals as sound.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

88
Functions of the parts of the ear
The ear is divided into outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear is made up of
ear flap and ear canal. The middle ear is made up of eardrum, hammer, anvil and stirrup.
The inner ear is made up of cochlea, eustachian tube and oval window.

EAR PART FUNCTION

Ear flap Collects sound waves in the air
Ear canal Directs sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum Vibrates when sound waves reach it
Hammer , anvil and stirrup Three connected bones that are set into
motion at the same frequency as the
vibrating eardrum
Oval window Transfers vibrations to the fluid in the
cochlea in the inner ear
Cochlea A fluid filled tube lined with hair cells
which move when the fluid vibrates
Hair cells Transmit electrical signals to the auditory
nerves
Auditory nerve Transmits electrical signals to the brain

Eustachian tube and its function

The Eustachian tube runs from the middle ear to the pharynx, which is part of the neck
and throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity. The Eustachian tube balances pressure in
the middle ear and allow movement of air in and out of the middle ear.

The movement of sound waves into the ear and electric signals to the brain
The human eardrum is a stretched membrane. When sound waves hit the eardrum, it
vibrates and the brain interprets the vibrations as sound. The eardrum sends the vibrations
to the small bones. The stirrup passes the vibrations along the cochlea. Cochlea contains
thousands hair like nerve endings called cilia. When cochlea vibrates, it moves the cilia.
The cilia change messages to electrical signals which are sent to the brain through
auditory nerve. The brain translates the electric signals and tells us what we are hearing.

Ear defect s and hearing impairment

Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in
one or both ears.
The different degrees of hearing impairment
Deafness refers to the complete loss of ability to hear from one or both ears.

89
The table below shows the different degrees of hearing impairment that can happen.

Degree of hearing impairment Description

Mild The person may not even be aware of their
inability to hear certain sounds
Moderate The person will have some difficulty in
hearing.
Severe The person will have considerate difficulty
in following speech and in hearing
environmental sounds.
Profound The person`s range of hearing is extremely
limited. They may hear low toned sounds at
a much higher than normal volume, but are
not able to hear enough to follow speech
and will not hear most environmental
sounds such as a telephone or alarm. They
may use sign language or have difficulty
monitoring the volume and pitch of their
own voice when speaking.

Causes of hearing impairment and deafness

 Deafness can be inherited.
 Infections in a woman during pregnancy such as German measles
 The use of certain drugs during pregnancy
 Jaundice (when a baby becomes a yellow colour) in a newborn baby
 Infectious diseases such as meningitis, measles, mumps and chronic ear infections
 The use of certain drugs, including some antibiotic and anti-malarial drugs
 Head injury or injury to the ear
 Wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal
 Excessive noise, including working with noisy machinery, exposure to loud music
or other loud noises, such as gunfire or explosions, can damage the inner ear and
weaken hearing ability
 As people age, exposure to noise and other factors may lead to hearing
impairment or deafness.

Signs of hearing impairment

 Impaired speech
 Dizziness
 Hearing loss
 Loss of balance
 Tinnitus ( ringing in the ear )
 Reduced awareness of what is going on

90
Preventing hearing impairment
 Wear protective gear. People working in areas such as airports, construction
sites, road works, mines, heavy industries, etc should wear protective gear such as
ear muffs.
 Immunize children against infectious diseases. Diseases such as measles can
cause hearing impairment. Immunisation will reduce occurrence of hearing
impairment.
 Avoid use of certain drugs. These should be avoided during pregnancy.
 Treat chronic illnesses such as ear infections. These should be done in young
children .

Safe and healthy care for ears

Some of the things one should do to care for yours ears include the following;
 Clean your ears carefully
 Wipe the outer ear gently with a washcloth or tissue
 Have your hearing checked occasionally
 Always wear a helmet when you ride a bicycle or skate board
 See a doctor if you have tinnitus or a sore ear

Practices which can cause harm or damage to the ears include ;

 Do not ever poke anything into yours ears , including cotton ear cleaners
 Do not listen to loud music with headphones
 Wear ear protection when you are using machinery that makes a loud noise

91
 HEALTH AND SAFETY
PERSONAL HYGIENE
CARING FOR TEETH

The Tooth

Structure of the HumanTooth

Tooth structure
The tooth is made up of two main parts,
-The root
It is made up of gum, cementum, periodontal ligament and nerve and blood supply. This
is the part of the tooth that is found cemented in the gum and that attaches to the jaw
bone. The tooth is held in place in the gum by cementum.
-The crown
It is made up of enamel, dentine and pulp cavity. This is the part that sticks out the gum.
It is the part that grinds and cut the food. The shape of the crown depends on the function
of the tooth.

Parts of the human tooth

An adult person has 32 teeth. Teeth of children from 4 months to six years are called milk
teeth.

92
Types of Teeth

Name Description Function

Incisor Flat sharp edged surfaces Used for biting and cutting food
Canine Sharp pointed edges Used for tearing and holding food
Premolars and Have cusps Used for chewing or grinding food
Molars Have larger surface area

Tooth Decay
Tooth decay is caused by mouth acids. The acids dissolve the tooth enamel creating a
hole cavity. When the hole reaches pulp cavity serve pain is felt

How Tooth Decay Occurs

Bacteria in the mouth feed/act on sugary food left in the mouth and produce acids as
waste products. The acids then bores the tooth and cause decay.

Stages of Decay

Gum disease
Gum disease is caused by accumulation of plaque around the teeth. (Plaque is a mixture
of food, saliva and bacteria)
Plaque irritates the gum causing swelling.
Slowly the gum gets damaged resulting in teeth being exposed to infection.
Gum disease is also caused by
-lack of vitamin C (scurvy)
-smoking
-stress
-poor nutrition

Dental Care
-Eat food rich in vitamins eg oranges

93
-Brush teeth after meals
-Use tooth brush/ dental floss to remove food left between teeth
-Use toothpaste to clean teeth
(NB Toothpaste is alkaline so it neutralizes acids in the mouth)

Why do the molar and pre-molars decay faster than the incisors and canines?
Because they have cusps which trap food.
-Eat a balanced diet
-Visit a dentist to check/clean your teeth at least twice a year
-Brush your teeth for at least 3 minutes.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Infectious disease is any type of disease caused by micro-organisms. These diseases are
caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Micro-organisms that cause diseases are
called pathogens.
Communicable diseases are diseases that can be passed from one person to another.
- All diseases are also infectious diseases.
Non communicable diseases are diseases that cannot be passed from one person to
another or organism to another.

Communicable diseases and their causative agents

DISEASE CAUSATIVE AGENT

Bilharzia Fluke
Malaria Protozoa
Intestinal infections Parasites eg protozoa, bacteria
Polio Virus
Influenza Virus
Aids Virus
Measles Virus
Chicken pox Virus
Tuberculosis Bacteria
Syphilis Bacteria
Cholera Bacteria
Ring worms Fungus
Athlete foot Fungus

i) Causative agents => are microbes that cause a disease eg bacteria, virus,
protozoa, fungus etc.
ii) Vectors => A vector is a carrier of a disease causing agent eg food, water, air,
animals. Vectors often contain the causative agent that hide or live on or in
them.

94
Methods of prevention and controlling of communicable diseases

Diseases that spread through Control and prevention

a) Food -Keep food covered
Intestinal infections caused by bacteria -Thoroughly cook food
-Wash hands before handling food
b) Water -Purifying water (chlorine is used to kill
Bilharzia germs in water)
Diarrhoea -Boiling water
Polio
c) Air -Covering nose / mouth when sneezing/
Tuberculosis coughing
Influenza -If infected by air bone disease eg murphs
stay home or away from people ie isolation
d) Animals -Destroy all favourable conditions for the
Malaria growth of those animals
e) Direct contact -Practice safe sex ie use condoms or
STIs abstain
Ring worms -Avoid sharing things like tooth brushes
-Touch open wound blood with protective
gloves

Life Cycles

A life cycle is a summary of the development stage of an organism from the first stage of
development (the egg) to the last mature adult stage. Though all life cycles follow the
same circular pattern the actual development stage may differ from organism to
organism.

i) House flies
The house fly is an insect and it is a vector of a number of diseases. They spread diseases
like diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, etc. A house fly feeds mostly on rotting materials eg
animal dung, human faeces, etc. When a house fly visits such places, bacteria present in
the rotting materials cling to its body especially its legs. Later when this fly walks over a
place of freshly cooked food these bacteria fall on the food. Also when the house fly
feeds it spits saliva containing germs on to the food.

Life cycle of a House fly

The house fly has four main development stages.

95
-Eggs- are laid by mature females on batches of hundreds on or rotting materials. They
are laid below the surface to avoid drying.
-Larva- after twelve to twenty four hours the eggs hatch into larva which feeds on faeces.
They move away from light.
-Pupa- within about five days the larva is changed into pupa. The pupa is a resting stage
in which the adult housefly develops inside the pupa‟s case.
Adult- the pupa changes into adult after about five days. The adult has two wings, a head,
thorax and abdomen. The complete life cycle from egg to adult takes ten to twelve days.

Control of Houseflies
-Avoid defecating in public places
-Place waste food in sealed containers
-Cover all cooked food
-Kill adult houseflies by spraying with insecticides
-Pitlatrine must be deep enough to trap the flies that have entered.

ii) Mosquitoes
The mosquito is also an insect. There are different types of mosquito that is:
* Female Anopheles Mosquito- spreads malaria (female)
* Colex mosquito- spreads elephcutiasis
* Aedes mosquito- spreads yellow fever

Malaria is caused by the female anopheles mosquito. Malaria is passed from person to
person when infected mosquito bites them. Malaria passes through a series of
developmental stages. Some of these stages develop further in the mosquito and others
develop further in human. The mosquito and human are therefore capable of infecting
each other that is if an uninfected mosquito bites an infected person, then the mosquito
becomes infected. If an infected mosquito bites an uninfected person, then the person
becomes infected.

Life cycle of the Mosquito

The life cycle of a mosquito also follows four developmental stages.

96
*Eggs –the adult mosquito lays egg in batches of 200 or so in stagnant or slow moving
water. They trap air bubbles in order to float.
*Larva- After a day the larvae hatch from the eggs. The larvae have breathing tubes
called spiracles on their bodies. They can often hang out of the surface of water.
*Pupa- after 12 days the larvae changes into pupae which also breathe through tubes
called siphons. The siphons are open to the atmosphere while pupae themselves are under
the water. The pupae do not feed.
*Adult- after about 2 days the pupae change into an adult. The female starts laying eggs
and the life cycle is repeated.
The mouth part of the female mosquitoes are adapted for sucking blood while the male
mosquito live on plant juices.

Control of Mosquitoes
-Draining stagnant water
-Spraying still water with oil to kill larvae and pupae
-Using mosquito coils to kill adult mosquitoes
-Sleeping under mosquito nets
iii) Bilharzia Fluke
Unlike houseflies and mosquitoes, the bilharzias fluke is not a vector for disease causing
parasites. It is an organism that actually causes the disease itself. It is a small flatworm
which is transmitted by water rather than insects. The adult fluke is a parasite and lives in
the veins of the rectum or bladder.

Life cycle of Bilharzia fluke

97
Adult fluke lives in man and produces eggs. The eggs are passed out along with urine or
faeces. If the eggs reach the water they hatch into larvae. The larvae can only develop
inside a water snail. In the snail these larvae develop into embryo. These embryo flukes
leave the snail and swim about in water. If a person swims or stands in the infected water
the embryo penetrate in the skin and enter the blood. These embryos then settle in the
rectum or bladder and develop into adults.

Metamorphosis
Many insects eg housefly, mosquito etc have a life cycle in which there is a complete
change from egg to adult. This is termed as complete metamorphosis.
Egg ------------> Larva ---------------> Pupa ----------------> Adult

Insects like cockroach, grasshopper etc undergo incomplete metamorphosis

Egg -----------> Nymph --------------> Adult

Control the spread of Bilharzia

-Killing the snails
-Fencing contaminated bodies of water
-Discouraging people from coming into contact with contaminated water
-Treating infected people
-Discouraging from urinating in water.

Food Poisoning
This is food/ drink containing harmful micro- organisms

Causes of Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is caused by food that is contaminated. Food can be contaminated with
-bacteria and virus
-chemicals => can be caused by chemicals from cleaning solutions or insecticides or from
chemicals in containers like lead tin.
-poisonous plants like mushrooms
-parasites such as tapeworms (food in undercooked pork)
Most food poisoning is not caused by bacteria itself but by toxins produced by bacteria.

Conditions for Microbal Growth

Most microbes can increase/ multiply rapidly if they are in favourable conditions. These
conditions are;
-Moisture (water)
-Warmth
-Food (protein, sugar, fat)

Signs and Symptoms of Food Poisoning

-Nausea, vomiting
-Diarrhoea
-Upset stomach, cramps, abdominal pains

98
-Dizziness, rapid heart beat, fainting
-Bloody diarrhoea or pus stools

Prevention of Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is influenced by the way the food is handled and prepared.
-Wash hands thoroughly before preparing food
-High risk food such as fish and meat must be kept in a cool place until it is cooked
-Keep raw meat, poultry separate from other food
-Cook food like meat, poultry, fish thoroughly to kill microorganisms
-Never buy food that is in torn or leaking package

Food Preservation and Handling

Proper food handling is needed to prevent food poisoning

i) Salting => Meat can be well preserved by salting. The salt absorbs water from
the meat so it dries out quickly.
ii) Air drying => Vegetables and fruits can be well preserved by drying in the
air. They are first sliced and then spread out in the sun.

iii) Refrigeration => The low temperature stops the growth of microbes.
iv) Canning => The microbes are killed by cooking the food. The food is placed
in sterile tins or glass jars while still very hot. The container is then sealed.
The seal prevents the food from becoming contaminated again.
v) Pasteurisation => This method is commonly used to treat milk. The milk is
heated for thirty minutes at temperature between 50 C and 60 C.
vi) Pickling => Pickling is another ancient method that is used to preserve meats,
fruits and vegetables. Pickling combines the preservative qualities of an acid,
such as vinegar. Acids stops bacterial growth.

99
 vii) Fermenting => uses yeast to produce alcohol. Alcohol is a good preservative
because it kills bacteria. When you ferment grape juice you create wine,
which will last quite a long time without refrigeration.
viii) Carbonating => water in which carbon dioxide gas has been dissolved under
pressure. By taking out oxygen, carbonated water stops bacterial growth..
ix) Cheese making => the milk in cheese becomes something completely unlike
milk. This process makes use of bacteria, enzymes and naturally formed acids
to solidify milk proteins and fat and preserve them.
x) Irradiation => is a process that uses electron beams, X-rays or gamma rays.
It produces a similar effect to pasteurization, cooking or other forms of heat
treatment, but with less effect on look and texture.
Nuclear radiation is able to kill bacteria without changing the properties of the food. So,
if you seal food in plastic and then radiate it, the food will become sterile and can be
stored on a shelf without refrigeration. Unlike canning, the taste or texture of the food
does not change when you irradiate it. Therefore it‟s often used to preserve foods such as
herbs or spices so that their flavours or aromas are not changed.
Irradiation can also delay fruit ripening and help stop vegetables such as potatoes and
onions from sprouting.

xi) Chemical food preservation => there are three classes of chemical
preservatives commonly used in foods
*Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate)
*Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite)
*Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide)
All these chemicals either slow down the activity of bacteria or kill the bacteria.

100
NUTRITION : DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which food is broken down into simpler substances or parts
that can then be absorbed (taken up) by the body. This can be mechanical- reducing food
in size to increase its surface area so that chemicals can act on it. It can also be chemical-
breaking down of food by chemical substances called enzymes.

IMPORTANCE OF DIGESTION

Digestion is a very important process because of the following:

 The cells of the body need a constant supply of energy to carry out their work
 Parts of the body and cells are also continually being repaired and replaced. As a
result the body needs a constant supply of new building materials in the form of
protein, amino acids and other chemicals.
 The body needs vitamins and minerals. These are chemicals that are needed to
help in many of the chemical reactions that occur in cells. Without them the cells
do not work properly and the person becomes ill.
 Digestion is the only way that we can obtain the raw materials that the body needs
to function and survive.

101
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Parts of the digestive Functions

system
Mouth -Teeth Cut/ grind the food up into small pieces.
-Tongue Mixes food with saliva and moves it into oesophagus.
Salivary glands Produce a fluid that lubricates the food and which contains
enzymes that begin breakdown of food.
Pharynx Helps with swallowing of food.
Oesophagus Connects the mouth/ pharynx to the stomach. Also passes
food from mouth to the stomach.
Stomach Contain acids and enzymes that begin the chemical
breakdown of foods, particularly proteins.
Gall bladder Releases a fluid into the duodenum that helps to digest
fats.
Pancreas Releases fluid into the duodenum that contains enzymes
that digest carbohydrates, protein and fats.
Small intestine –Duodenum Contains fluids from the pancreas and gall bladder that
digest food further.
-Jejunum and ileum Areas of the digestive system where digestion is
completed and absorption of nutrients takes place.
Large intestine (Colon) Water is absorbed here
Rectum Faeces are formed and stored here
Anus Faeces pass out of the body through the anus.

THE ENZYMES RESPONSIBLE FOR FOOD DIGESTION AND THE END

PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION

Digestive enzyme Secreted from Food type digested End product of digestion
Salivary amylase -Salivary lands Starch (Complex Glucose and other simple
& pancreatic -Pancreas carbohydrate) sugars
amylase
Protease -Stomach Protein Amino acids
(Pepsin & trypsin) -Pancreas
Lipase Pancreas Fat Fatty acids and glycerol

102
ABSORPTION OF FOOD INTO THE BLOOD STREAM

The simple molecules obtained during chemical food digestion need to get from the
digestive system to every cell in the body. The blood system is the transport system that
carries the simple molecules of food to the cells. The walls of the small intestine have
tiny finger-like projections on them called villi (singular: villus). Blood capillaries and
special lymph vessels called lacteals are found in the villi. Simple sugar molecules and
amino acids diffuse across the membrane of the villus into the blood system. Fatty acids
and glycerol diffuse into the lacteals. The lacteals join up to become lymph vessels which
eventually empty the fatty acids and glycerol into the blood stream too.

103
TESTING FOR STARCH

1. Put a food sample on a white tile.

2. Put a few drops of iodine solution on the food sample.
3. Observe the colour changes. If iodine solution turns blue- black or black starch is
present. If iodine solution remains brown, starch is absent.

TESTING FOR REDUCING SUGAR (GLUCOSE)

To test for reducing sugar, the benedict‟s test can be used.

1. Boil water in a beaker. Switch off the heat source.
2. Pour 5cm Benedict solution into a test tube and place in the beaker for 5 minutes.
3. Add a few drops of the test substance to the test tube.
4. Wait for a few minutes.
5. What colour does the solution turn?

*If the solution remained blue –no glucose present

*If the solution turned green –small amount of glucose present
*If the solution turned yellow –some glucose present
*If the solution turned orange –large amount of glucose present

104
TEST FOR FATS
1. Translucent spot test

a) Take a filter paper.

b) Rub the food sample on a filter paper.
c) Hold the filter paper towards the direction of the sunlight and observe carefully.
d) Do you see a translucent spot or not? If the translucent spot is present, fats are
present. If the translucent spot is absent, fats are absent.

2. Emulsion test

a) Put a food sample into a test tube.

b) Add water to make a solution.
c) Add ethanol and shake.
d) Do the contents remain clear or turn cloudy? If it remains clear, fats are absent. If
the solution turns milky it means that fats are present.

TEST FOR PROTEIN

105
 1. Grate or mash some test substance.
2. Shake it up vigorously in a test tube with a bit of water.
3. Add 1 to 2 drops of copper sulphate to the test tube.
4. Add about 5ml of sodium hydroxide to the solution.
5. What colour does the mixture turn?

If the solution turned pink to violet –proteins are present.

106
DRUGS

A drug is a chemical substance that has an effect on our body when it is introduced.

The difference between medicinal and non-medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs are taken to cure an illness. They are also used to reduce the symptoms
of illness and make you feel better. Examples are painkillers- paracetamol, antibiotics-
penicillin and cough medicines. Medicinal drugs are not usually harmful to the person
taking them unless abused.

Non-medicinal drugs do not have any medical use. They are often taken with the
intention of changing the mood of the user. Some non-medicinal drugs are legal, for
example alcohol and nicotine in tobacco. Some non-medicinal drugs are illegal, for
example cannibas (dagga), cocaine and heroin.

Commonly abused drugs

Tobacco, Alcohol, solvents(like glue), stimulants(like cocaine) give people energy and
help to keep them awake, sedatives(like dagga, sleeping tablets) help to calm people
down and can make them feel sleepy, hallucinogens(like ecstasy, cannabis) make people
see and hear things which are not really there.

Dangers of misusing medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs are used to help a person to get better by curing a disease or by treating
any symptoms that they are suffering from. Misuse of medicinal drugs happens when
someone continues to take the drug even though their disease has been cured or the
symptoms they were suffering from have gone away. People misuse medicinal drugs for
the following reasons:
*The drugs make them feel better and more relaxed or gives them a high that they enjoy.
*They have become addicted to the drug found in the medicine they are taking and
cannot stop taking the medicine.
The most common medicinal drugs that are misused are:
- Sleeping pills - Medicines containing codeine
- Painkillers - Diet pills
- stimulants

Medicinal Plants Used in Botswana

*Sengaparile (Devil‟s claw): used to treat arthritis and rheumatism
*Monepenepe (Cassia abbriviata): a small tree, the bark and roots of which are used to
treat headaches, diarrhea and skin diseases.
*Mukwa tree: used to treat stomach problems.

Allergic Reactions to Drugs

When people are sensitive to a certain substance they are said to be allergic to it.

Examples of symptoms of mild allergic reactions

107
*Sneezing *Itchy ears and eyes
*Runny nose *Tickly throat
Mild allergic reactions are easily treated with drugs known as antihistamines.

Symptoms of severe allergic reactions

*Difficulty in breathing (like asthma) *A drop in blood pressure
*Unconsciousness *Itchy rash all over the body (hives)
*Swelling of lips, face, neck and throat (this can prevent the person from breathing)
Severe reactions are commonly seen in people who are allergic to bee sting, certain foods
(ie peanuts), and certain medicinal drugs.
Drugs that are known to cause allergic reactions are penicillin, tetracycline (an
antibiotic), codeine and drugs used to treat epilepsy.

108
THE HUMAN BODY: TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE HUMAN
BODY BLOOD

Blood is a reddish liquid that circulates around the body.

Functions of Blood
Blood perform the following functions:
- Transportation - Regulation of body temperature
- Defence against diseases - Blood clotting

[Link]
i) Haemoglobin in red blood cells combine with oxygen in the lungs. It is then carried to
all cells of the body.
ii) The blood also carries carbon dioxide from the tissues of the lungs.
iii)Blood takes the digested food materials such as glucose, amino acids, lipids, vitamins
and minerals from the intestine and carries them to the liver for storage.
iv) The hormones of the glands are carried by the blood to the tissues.
v) Nitrogenous waste such as urea are carried to the kidneys by the purpose of excretion.

2. Regulation of Body Temperature

-The blood distributes the heat produced in body tissues throughout the body. Thus a
uniform body temperature is maintained.

[Link] Against Diseases

The white cells destroy harmful bacteria and germs that enter the body.

[Link] Clotting
Blood platelets help in blood clotting at the site of injuries.

Different Blood Components

A & C – White blood cell

B – Red blood cell
D – Platelets
E - Plasma

109
Components of blood have different functions described on the table below:

COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS
RED BLOOD CELLS
-They are red because they contain a molecule called -Red blood cells carry oxygen
haemoglobin. and carbon dioxide around the
-Haemoglobin is the molecule that caries oxygen body.
around the body inside the red blood cell.
-They are shaped like a disc.
-They have no nucleus.
-They are produced in the bone marrow.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (also known as -They defend the body against
LEUKOCYTES) diseases.
-These are the cells of the immune system. *Phagocytes- detect and eat up
-There are different types of white blood cells and bacteria or germs (therefore they
have different shapes. are large and change shape).
-They have a nucleus *Lymphocytes- identify the
germs with its huge nucleus and
sends out antibodies.
BLOOD PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES) -When a wound occurs, they stick
-They are not proper cells; they are small fragments together with other substances to
of cells without a nucleus. form a blood clot. This stops
-They are produced in the bone marrow. blood from coming out of the
body.
BLOOD PLASMA -Most of the substances found in
-Plasma is 90% water. The other 10% contains blood are transported around the
minerals, proteins, hormones, antibodies, proteins body in the plasma.
involved in blood clot formation, and waste products
dissolved in water.

BLOOD GROUPS
There are four blood types known as A, B, AB and O.

Uses of Blood groups in medicine

 Blood groups enable medical practitioners to develop a wide range of cures by
studying antigens and antibodies.
 Even though they are not 100% effective, blood groups can be used to explain
some paternity issues.
 Blood groups help in developing antibodies for vaccination against diseases.
 Blood groups can help in the development of certain antibiotics.
 Blood groups allow for the administering of safe blood transfusions.

110
BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Is when the blood of one person (a donor) is given to another person (the recipient) by
letting it flow into the body of the recipient through a needle placed in one of their veins.

Safety measures taken during blood transfusion

1. Blood must be checked first for its compatibility with other types of blood. Blood
of different blood groups can mix well. When they mix well they are said to be
compatible. There is also a case where blood groups do not mix well but rather
clot, and they are said to be incompatible. Blood groups of a similar type mix well
together. However blood group O can be donated to all other blood groups, that is
why it is known as a universal donor. Blood group AB can receive all other blood
groups, so it is known as a universal recipient.

Blood Group Recipient

Donor A B AB O
A Compatible Incompatible Compatible Incompatible
B Incompatible Compatible Compatible Incompatible
AB Incompatible Incompatible Compatible Incompatible
O Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible

2. Blood must be tested for diseases such as Hepatitis, HIV/AIDS and other STIs.
This is to ensure that the recipients are not given infected blood from the donors.
3. Blood must be warmed up to normal body temperature. This is to ensure that
there are no disparities between the blood donated and the victim‟s blood.
4. All equipment that is used such as containers, needles and tubes must be sterilized
to ensure utmost hygiene.

THE CICURLATORY SYSTEM

The Human Heart

111
The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The heart is a double pump-
Arteries take blood away from the heart while veins take blood to the heart. The heart is
divided into four chambers. The two chambers at the top are called the atria. The one on
the left is called the left atrium or auricle, while the one on the right is called the right
atrium or auricle. The two chambers at the bottom are called ventricles. There is the right
ventricle and the left ventricle.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart on the right side through the vena cava. It passes
through the right auricle to the right ventricle. When the heart contracts(beats) it pumps
blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.

Oxygenated blood passes from the lungs to the left side of the heart through the
pulmonary vein into the left auricle. It then passes to the left ventricle where it is pumped
out of heart through the aorta.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD VESSELS

Blood Vessel Structure Function

Arteries -Have thick elastic Carry oxygenated blood
mascular walls without except pulmonary artery, ie
valves blood flows at high
pressure.

-Have thinner, less Carry deoxygenated blood

elastic walls and one way except the pulmonary vein,
valves ie blood flows at low
pressure.

Veins
Capillaries Have walls that are one Provide cells with nutrients
cell thick and no valves and oxygen from the blood
cells.

Common Diseases of the Circulatory system

Diseases that affect the circulatory system are:

112
 1. Heart attacks

It can occur as a result of the following:

-Coronary arteries blocked by a clot, which leads to coronary thrombosis.
-Arteries can be clogged by cholesterol, which leads to atherosclerosis.
-Arteries can rapture or break,. This is called aneurysm.

2. Strokes
It may occur as a result of any of the following:
-Arteries at the brain can be blocked by clots.
-Arteries at the brain can be blocked by cholesterol.
-Arteries at the brain can rupture causing aneurysms in the brain.
A stroke can lead to paralysis and death in severe cases.

3. Anaemia
It is a shortage of oxygen in the body due to:
-shortage of red blood cells
- shortage of blood.
-sickle-shaped red blood cells.
-not enough iron in the diet.
-the destruction of red blood cells by diseases.

4. HIV/AIDS
It is a virus which has the following effects on the circulatory system:
-destruction of white blood cells
-poor immunity
-vulnerability to different diseases

5. Irregular heart rhythm

This occurs when the atria contract abnormally.

6. Blood leaking back into atria

This occurs as a result of the valves not functioning effectively.

7. Spasm
This is an uncontrolled, repeated contraction of the heart muscles in the coronary artery
walls.

113
Causes of circulatory diseases
-Smoking: contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.
-Raised levels of cholesterol in the body: cholesterol can end up blocking the blood
vessels.
-High blood pressure caused by high level of salt in the diet. It can lead to a strain on
arteries.
-Diabetes: high levels of sugar in the blood may not be tolerable to the blood vessels.
-Inheritances: there is an observed trend whereby those from families with circulatory
diseases tend to end up having them.
-Old age: as organs and tissues age, their effectiveness lowers.
-Stress: individuals with high stress levels have reportedly been associated with
circulatory problems.

Prevention of circulatory diseases

*Make exercise a habit.

*Eat a correct diet.
*Avoid eating too much salt to avoid the risk of hypertensive disease.
*Avoid taking drugs, including the smoking of cigarettes.
*Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
*Have your cholesterol levels checked regularly.
*Do not take drugs during pregnancy so that the unborn child can develop tissues and
organs fully.
*Try to avoid high stress situations.

Breathing

It is the taking in of air (inhaling) and taking out of air (exhaling). When breathing
oxygen gets into our bodies through lungs.

114
Breathing in (inhaling)
- The ribs move up and out.
- The diaphragm contracts and rises.
- As a result, the volume of the chest is increased.
- The lungs expand.
- Air is forced into the lungs.

Breathing out (exhaling)

- The ribs move down and in.
- The diaphragm relaxes and comes downwards.
- As a result, the volume of the chest decreases.
- The lungs contract.
- Air is forced out of the lungs.

Exchange of gases by lungs

115
Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the bloodstream. The blood transports oxygen to all
parts of the body where is needed.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells where it is as a waste product of metabolism. It is
carried by the blood to the lungs. It crosses into the lungs by diffusion. It exits the lungs
during exhalation.

Levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled air and exhaled air

Gas exchange in the lungs means that the amount of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is
much larger than the amount of carbon dioxide found in the air that is inhaled.
Amount in inhaled air Amount in exhaled air
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Oxygen 21% 16%

Air breathed out will turn lime water milky, while air breathed in will not turn the lime
water.

Effect of physical exercise on the rate and depth of breathing

During exercise the pulse rate is high. This means that the heart is beating faster per unit
time. The heart beats faster to carry more nutrients and oxygen to the body parts. As a
result, the breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to respiring cells and remove
carbon dioxide from them.

Effects of smoking on lungs

Smoking has the following effects on the lungs:

- It increases the chances of developing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
emphysema.
- It blackens the alveoli and damages their linings.
- It combines with haemoglobin and prevents oxygen from combining with the
haemoglobin.
- It contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels.

EXCRETION: The excretory System

Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions) that
take place in the body.

Excretory organs and their products

Excretory organs Excretory products

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water vapour
Skin Water, salts, nitrogenous waste
Kidneys Urea
Digestive system Bile pigments

116
Common problems of the Excretory System
 Kidney failure: This is when the kidneys cease to function effectively. It results in
the poor excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
 Hepatitis: This is a liver disease that might render the ineffective excretion of bile
pigments.
 Perspiration lapse: The skin might reach a state when it cannot remove sweat
effectively.
 Lung diseases: Bronchitis, pneumonia and emphysema may destroy the lungs to
the extent that they do not remove wastes effectively.
 Ineffectiveness of excretory hormones: Hormones such as the antidiuretic
hormone and aldosterone may not function effectively.
 Urinary tract infections (UTI) – affect the bladder and urethra that are usually
caused by bacteria also appear in the in the faeces as E-coli.
 Kidney stones – crystals of salts and minerals such as calcium that form in the
urinary tract
 Kidney failure – caused by infection, poisoning or overdose of drugs, a sudden
drop in blood pressure (shock) and heart failure

Prevention of problems of the excretory system

 Drugs and alcohol generally strain the kidneys and the liver. Efforts should be
made to avoid drug abuse at all costs.
 Smoking has been found to be dangerous to the lungs. It worsens lung diseases. It
should be avoided.
 A healthy diet that is rich in skin enhancing vitamins is recommended. Healthy
skin carries out the work of perspiration very well.
 Regular medical checkups of the excretory organs are important.

The difference between Excretion and Egestion

Excretion is the removal of waste products produced by the processes that take place in
cells while Egestion is the removal of undigested food as solid waste (faeces).

117
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM: ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Magnetism
Is a property of matter which produces a field of attractive (bringing together) or
repulsive (forcing apart) forces. Magnetism is the force that causes a nail or paper clip to
be pulled toward a magnet.
When we change something from being non-magnetic to being magnetic, we say that
magnetism is induced in the material.

Methods of Magnetisation
There are two main ways that we can induce magnetism in non-magnetic materials:
 Electrically
 Stroking an object with a magnet

Inducing Magnetism Electrically

A coil of wire is wrapped around a piece of iron or steel and an electric current is passed
through it. The iron or steel only act as a magnet when the electric current flows, the
molecules become arranged in one direction. This is known as polarization. Polarization
is what makes something magnetic. When the electricity is switched off, they lose their
magnetic properties. This kind of magnet is called an electromagnet.

Inducing Magnetism by Stroking

There are two kinds of stoking: Single stroke and double stroke method
 Single stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked in one direction with a
strong magnet.

 Double stoke method: a piece of iron or steel is stroked by two strng magnets
using opposite ends of the magnets. This produces a stronger magnet.

118
Magnetic properties of Iron and Steel

Magnetic properties of iron Magnetic properties of steel

Iron gets magnetized quickly Steel gets magnetized slowly.
Iron loses its magnetism quickly Steel loses its magnetism slowly
Iron is used to make temporary Steel is used for making permanent
electromagnets. magnets

Uses of Magnetic Materials

- Magnetic recording media ( video and audio tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape.
The information is encoded onto a magnetic coating on the tape)
- Computer floppy disks and hard disks
- Credit cards, debit cards and ATM cards
- Some television and computer screens
- Speakers and microphones
- Electric motors and generators
- Magnetic compasses
- Decoration
- Toys
- Magnetic levitation transport (Maglev)
- Magnets can pick up magnetic items

Proper care for magnets

Proper care of a magnet means taking the following steps:

 Don‟t ever drop or hit a magnet. Most magnets are brittle and can break easily.
 Don‟t ever place a magnet in a flame.
 When you store a horseshoe magnet, you must place a keeper plate on the end of
the magnet to protect the poles.
 Store magnets so that the south pole of one magnet is facing the north pole of
another. Never store magnets with the same poles facing each other.

Electric Charge

Electrostatic Charging causes static electricity. Static electricity is electricity which does
not move. When we charge objects by friction, and they retain their charge, the charged
objects are said to have static electricity.

119
The two types of charging: positive and negative

All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made up of protons,
neutrons and electrons. An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, and their
total charges balance each other. Protons are positively charged and electrons are
negatively charged. The protons are bound very tightly into the nucleus and cannot
escape but the electrons can move towards an atom or away from it.

To measure the size of an electric charge we have to use standard units. The SI unit of
charge is the Coulomb (C). One coulomb is the amount of charge accumulated in one
second by a current of one ampere.

Repulsion and Attraction between charges

Repulsion

Repulsion is a force that pushes two objects apart. Two positive or negative charges will
repel each other.

Attraction

Attraction is a force that pulls two objects together. A positive charge will attract a
negative charge.

Sources of electrical Energy

-Battery (chemical energy)

-Solar cell (solar energy)
-The dynamo (kinetic energy)

Energy changes in a power station

Most of the electricity that is used throughout the world is generated in large power
stations that burn coal or oil. The energy changes in a power station are:

120
Chemical Energy (fuels)

Heat energy (boiler)

Heat energy (steam)

Kinetic energy (turbines and generator)

Electrical energy (generator)

*The burning of fossil fuels in a boiler produces heat energy that changes water into
steam.
*The steam is used to turn a large turbine. As the turbine turns, it also turns a large
dynamo called a generator.
*The generator converts this kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Effects of Electricity

The Heating effect of electricity and its applications

Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy.

A number of devices in the home use the heating effect of electricity:

 Electric heater * Electric kettle
 Electric iron * Electric toaster etc

121
The Chemical effect of electricity and its applications
Electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy.

A solution of copper sulphate is able to conduct electricity. You will have seen some of
the signs of a chemical reaction;
- Bubbles of gas were made at the carbon rod connected to the positive side of the
battery.
- The carbon rod connected to the negative terminal of the power supply became
covered with copper.
The chemical effect of electricity is used in a number of applications:
1. Electrolysis- is the breaking down a liquid chemical compound (an electrolyte) by
passing an electric current through it. For example it is used in industries to
extract metals such as copper and aluminium from ore.
2. Electroplating- is similar to electrolysis.
3. Electrical cells (batteries)- the batteries that we use in torches and radios are also
examples of the chemical effects of electricity.

The Magnetic effects of electricity and its applications

When a coil of wire is wound around an iron nail and current is allowed to pass through
the coil, a magnetic field is created. When the current flows, the iron nail is turned into a
magnet. We call this an electromagnet.
Electromagnets are used in:
1. Communication devices such as the telephone, radio and television.
2. Industry to operate cranes, generators, motors and transformers.

122
 3. The home to operate electric door bells and some toys.

Electric Power Consumption: The Power Rating of an Electric Appliance to its

Electrical Energy Consumption

The power of an appliance tells you how much energy it consumes in one second. To
consume something is to use it up. Power is measured in units called watts (W) and
kilowatts (kW).
Power (W) = Volts x Amps or W = Vx A
One kilowatt = One thousand watts: 1 kW = 1000W
One megawatt = One million watts: 1mW = 1 000 000W

An electricity meter placed in your school or house by the power corporation records the
number of units used.
The cost of using any appliance can be calculated using the formula:
Cost = electric power x time x cost per kWh
Or
Cost = number of units(power x time) x cost per unit

Some examples:
1. Calculate the cost of running a 100W light bulb for four hours if the Power
Corporation charges P0. 95 per unit.
100W = 0.1 kW
Cost = 0.1 x 4 x 0. 95 = P0.38
Or
Cost = (0.1 x 4) x 0.95 = 0.4 x 0.95 = P0.38

2. Calculate the cost of using a 3kW heater for 30 minutes (1kWh costs P0.95)
30 minutes = 0.5 hrs
Cost = 3 x 0.5 x 0.95 = (P1.425) = P1.43

Reducing the Cost of Electricity

- Use fluorescent light bulbs in your home.

- Switch off lights in rooms when no one is in them.
- Add insulation to your roof and water geyser.
- Use ceiling fans instead of air conditioners.
- Don‟t fill the kettle every time you boil it, only add as much water to the kettle as
you need etc.

Safe Use of Electricity in the Home

Fuses: It is a safety device used to prevent wires from becoming too hot. A fuse contains
a strip of metal that will melt easily when heated or when overloaded with current. In this
way the appliance is protected from damage.
Fuses are normally rated 1A, 3A, 5A and 13A.

123
The earth wire

The earth wire is connected to earth for safety purposes. An appliance that has a metal
casing must be connected to earth. If there is a broken wire in the appliance and it touches
the metal casing of the appliance and you then touch that appliance, you are the direct
contact between the live electric wire and the earth. You can suffer from a serious
electrical shock.

Modern appliances are double insulated, this means that the electrical parts in the
appliance are not in contact with the outer casing of the appliance, eg hairdryers, radios,
etc. These appliances usually carry the double insulation symbol

Live, Neutral and Earth wires in an electric cable

Three-core electric cable contains three insulated (plastic coated) wires.

Colour Name Function

Brown Live wire Carries the electric current from the mains to
the appliance.
Green and Earth wire Transfer electric current from the appliance to
yellow the earth if there is any problem.
Blue Neutral Carries electric current from the appliance to
the mains.

Wiring a mains plug correctly

A fuse must always be connected to the live wire so that the electricity stops flowing
when the fuse breaks.

A switch must also be to the live wire so that the appliance is not live when it is switched
off.

124
Steps to be followed when there is an electric fault in a circuit
- Inspect the mains switch board (fuse box).
- Check if any of the circuit breakers (trip switches) are down.
- If one of these switches is down, it tells you where the problem lies, eg if the
stove switch is down, the stove is causing the problem.
- If the plug switch is down, make sure the mains switch is down and check the
plug connections of any appliance connected.
- If there is a problem with wiring, rewire the plug and switch the mains back on.

General rules to follow when dealing with electrical appliances

1. Always turn off the electricity at the main fuse box before doing any electrical
work.
2. Make sure that plugs are wired correctly and have the correct size of fuse.
3. Check cables and plugs for damage. Replace any broken or cracked plugs and
damaged cables.
4. Do not pull the plug from a wall socket by pulling on the cable. Hold the plug
itself.
5. Never use wet hands to switch appliances on and off or to carry working
appliances.
6. Never use electrical appliances in a bathroom or near a kitchen sink.
7. Do not plug too many appliances into one socket. Use multi-adaptors as little as
possible.
8. Switch off televisions which use an outside aerial and computers during a
thunderstorm.

125
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

It is made up of the sun and the 9 planets.

Earth System: Earth Spheres

Our planet Earth is one of the 9 planets which circle the sun. It is the only planet that
bears life.

Geo-Science or Earth Science

It is the study of the earth and its systems.
These include soil, rocks, climate seas and oceans, river patterns, vegetation, atmosphere.

Spheres that make up the Earth and their features

The earth is made up of 4 spheres.

1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Biosphere
4. Atmosphere

[Link]
It is the solid part of the planet earth. It is made up of the layers known as the crust and
the upper mantle. The body of the earth is made up of 3 layers, the crust, mantle and the
core.

Mantle -molten (semi liquid) due to high pressure and high temperature (1600oC). It is
made up of minerals which contain iron and other dense minerals.

126
Crust - solid rocky crust that covers the whole planet. It is the visible part of the earth that
we live on.

Outer core- liquid made up of iron and nickel.

Inner core -solid due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.

[Link]
It is the water part of the earth and it includes oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and
streams.
Water in the earth heats up more slowly and cools down more slowly than land and so the
earth‟s temperature does not change rapidly. The continous movement of water is
described by the water cycle.

 Liquid water is changed into water vapour in a process called evaporation. Most
water evaporates from the oceans.
 Water vapour changes to liquid water in a process called condensation.
 Water in a liquid (rain) or solid form (hail or snow) falls back to the Earth‟s
surface in a process known as precipitation.
 Water returns to the oceans as surface runoff or groundwater.

[Link]
The zone where life is found. It is made up of living organisms (plants and animals).

It is divided into biomes. A biome is a large area which is characterized by a similar

climate, flora (plants), fauna (animals) and soil eg grassland.

[Link]
A thin layer of air which surrounds the earth. It is held in place by the force of gravity.

It consists of gases: Liquids Solids

–Nitrogen 78% Rain water Dust

127
- Oxygen 21% Water vapour Smoke
-Other gases 3% Salt
Ice

Importance of the atmosphere to life on Earth

- Contains water vapour which may condense to form clouds and eventually rain.
- It is an important part of the water cycle.
- Almost all matter occurs in the atmosphere.
- Contains carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
- Shields life on earth from radiation from the sun.
- Air and wind movement help in pollination.

Interaction Between the Spheres of the Earth

The earth’s spheres are interdependent.

- Water moves between different spheres in a system known as water cycle.
- Water (hydrosphere) is found in the clouds (atmosphere) and flows through the
soil into underground aquifers (lithosphere).
- A layer of air in the atmosphere shields plants and animals (biosphere) from
radiation.
- Birds (biosphere) fly through the air (atmosphere) and fish (biosphere) swim in
the sea (hydrosphere).
- Nutrients flow between different spheres.
- Atmosphere provides oxygen to biosphere for respiration and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.

Careers in Geo-science
1. Economic and mining geologist
Looks for metallic and non-metallic resources, studies mineral deposits, finds
environmentally safe ways of disposing of waste materials from mining activities.
2. Geologist
Studies the materials, processes, products, physical nature and history of the earth.
3. Climatologist
Studies weather processes; climate and climate change and pollution.
4. Mineralogist
Studies mineral formation, composition and properties.
5. Soil scientist
Studies soils and their properties to determine how to sustain farming and how to look
after our soils.
6. Paleontologist
Studies fossils to understand past life forms and their changes through time and to
reconstruct past environments

128
129
130