SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY: GENE TECHNOLOGY

Genetic Engineering
A Gene is a small bit of chromosome (thread like structure). It is made out of
DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder (shape called
double helix).

Technology of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a method biotechnology (the science of using living organisms to make
products such as wine, cheese, sour milk, yoghurt etc) involves manipulation of an organism‟s
gene.

The Significance of Genetic Engineering to:

Medicine
Scientists use it to diagnose and treat certain diseases such as cancer and diabetes. They can also
use it to predict and prevent certain diseases.

Agriculture
It can produce better crops and livestock. For example, it can be used to develop crops that are
drought resistant, pest resistant, more productive and to enhance livestock to produce more milk
and meat.

Forensic Science
Is about using science to help conduct criminal investigations and understand how accidents
happen. This science can also be used in court cases. For example, Used for paternity testing (to
confirm or reject a woman‟s claim about the father of her baby), to identify unknown corpses
and skeletons by comparison of DNA with that of close blood relatives.

Energy Generation
It can be used to produce biofuel crops that grow more quickly and are pest and drought
resistant.

The potential benefits of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering has many benefits to agriculture and to medicine such as

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 1. By making use of cloning, it is possible to bring historic animals, such as dinosaurs, back
to life and help to prevent species to become extinct.
2. With the new medical technology that is being developed, perfect genes could be
introduced into human cells to correct diseases that might be incurable.
3. Stem cell research may lead to the production of organs and tissues to regenerate
damaged ones in a person‟s body, eg to connect a severed spinal cord which could result
in a paralysed person to eventually walk again. Stem cells are found in the mother‟s
placenta after the birth of a newborn baby.
4. By studying cell repair and old age diseases, it is possible to increase the active life span
of humans to 120-150 years.
5. We are facing a tremendous explosion as well as the negative effects of global warming
which are serious challenges to produce enough food. Genetic engineering will make it
possible to feed this world.
6. It is possible to modify micro-organisms to remove all pollutants from soil and water.

Some advantages of genetic engineering in Agriculture

1. Crops are more productive and can produce higher yields.

2. Crops are resistant to pests and diseases, thereby reducing the need for poisonous sprays.
3. Crops have a better flavor and colour, and more food value.
4. Livestock are stronger and healthier.
5. Livestock produce more meat and milk.

Limitations of Genetic Engineering

1. Genetically modified food is unacceptable to a number of people. They believe that it is

unhealthy and dangerous food.
2. Vectors or carriers of genes may pass to other species in the wild.
3. This could lead to new diseases that might be difficult to combat and that could also have
a negative effect on the ecosystem.
4. This technique is very expensive and only a few countries are involved.
5. A large failure rate is experienced by researchers.
6. Some scientists believe that the technology is not refined enough- more time is needed to
refine it and ensure success.

Ethical and moral issues of gene technology

a) Some people believe it is morally wrong to change the genetics of living things.
b) It lowers the respect for human life, plants and animals.
c) Some religious people believe that this technology interferes with God‟s work.
d) If some people want “designer children”, what is the fate of “imperfect” babies?

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PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: LIVING MATTER

Adaptation of plant and animal species to their environment

Adaptation is a characteristic of a living organism that makes it suited to a particular

environment.
There are two main types of adaptations:
- Behavioural parttens
- Physical feature

Animals

Behavioural parttens
Hibernation= is whereby some animals survive the cold and severe winters by sleeping through
them.
Aestivation= is whereby some animals survive very hot or dry periods by sleeping through them.
Breeding seasons= these are arranged so that babies are born during favourable periods such as
spring or summer.
Nocturnal= is whereby some animals only move about at night when it is cool.
Comouflage= many animals camouflage to hide from the predators or to catch their prey, eg
chameleon.
Water shortage
- Animals in the desert produce little urine and faeces eg the camel.
- Desert animals wake up early to graze when there is some dew (water droplets) which
animals take with the grass.

Physical features
- Honey bees have special mouth parts to suck nectar from flowers.
- Fish use fins to move in water and grills to breathe under the water.
- Birds have wings to fly.
- A polar bear has a thick fur coat which traps air to act as insulation.
- Animals (polar bear) has a thick layer of fat under the skin to insulate it against heat loss.
- Giraffe has long neck to reach branches of tall trees.
- Cheetah runs faster than other animals.

Plants
Physical features
Xerophytes eg survive in dry areas eg cactus
- Have thick waxy layer (cuticle) to prevent water loss through transpiration.
- Desert plants have long roots to absorb water from underground..
- Fleshy and thick stems to store water.
- Have thorny leaves to reduce transpiration.
Hydrophytes eg water lily- survive in wet conditions
- Plants need to be supported by water and move as the water move eg water lily has large
leaves with large air spaces so that they float in water.
- Roots are not important because there is no need for water to hold the plant.

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 - Desert plants have small leaves to reduce transpiration.

Behaviour
- Curly leaves to reduce transpiration.
- Plants lose leaves in winter to reduce transpiration.
- Trees and other plants grow quite far apart – less competition for water.

Human activities that may impact negatively on plant and animal adaptations
- Ploughing which kills plants and destroys the habitat of animals.
- Mining which brings infertile soil to the surface.
- Draining wetlands which destroys plants and animals that cannot live anywhere else.
- Overgrazing which causes erosion and the death of plants and animals.
- Killing animals for food.
- Killing animals such as jackals that compete with humans for food.
- Removal of plants for traditional medicine and for collection purposes.
- The use of agro-chemicals (for example, fertilizers, weedkillers and pesticides) which
either kill or affect plants and animals.
- The use of fossil fuels which causes acid rain (killing forests) and global warming
(affecting the climate)
- Oil pollution- 1 litre of used motorcar oil can pollute 1 million litres of fresh water.
- Releasing untreated sewage or industrial waste which will pollute the soil and water.

Effects of human activities on the adaptation of plant and animal species

- Death of plants and animals; some plants and animals cannot survive if their habitats are
destroyed, eg if trees and other plants in a tropical forest are removed some animals will
die.
- Adapting to new habitat; some plants and animals manage to survive in a new habitat by
adaptation eg by * changing the food source
*changing its characteristics
*Polymorphism
*development of resistance

ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem is a particular place in the environment with all its living and non living
components.

Characteristics of an ecosystem
There are two main characteristic of an ecosystem which are Abiotic and Biotic factors.
Abiotic factors (chemical) are the non-living parts of the ecosystem eg soil, rainfall, humidity,
temperature, light intensity(how bright the light is), wind direction and speed, rocks, levels of
pollutants, etc.
Biotic factors (Biological) are the living parts of the ecosystem, such as the plants, animals,
microscopic organisms, etc. These organisms are classified into three; Producers, consumers and
decomposers.

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Other terms involved in an ecosystem
Habitat- is a living place of an organism eg where plants grow and animals live.
Community- is a group of animals and plants living together in the same habitat eg river is a
habitat where animals like fish, frogs and snakes, as well as plants such as reeds and water lilies
may all be found.
Population- this is a group of individuals of the same species that are found in a particular place.
Producer- this is an organism that is able to produce the food to feed itself in its habitat eg
grasses, shrubs,trees and water plants. They produce food through photosynthesis. All other
organisms (which cannot produce food) depend on producers.
Consumers- animals which cannot produce their own food eg goats, zebra, etc. Consumers xcan
be divided into three, primary, secondary and tertiary.
Decomposers- bacteria and fungi which can break down waste materials and dead organisms.

The relationships among the organisms

Organisms relate to one another and their environment in different ways. One organism may
need another as a source of food, shelter or protection etc. Examples of relationships include:
1. Symbiosis; two organisms live very closely together and each benefits from the
association, eg The bacteria which live in roots of legume plants. The bacteria fix
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which plants need for growth.
2. Parasitism; only the parasite benefits in some way from another organism (which is
known as the host), eg a tapeworm absorbs nutrients in the human gut and the malarial
parasite feeds and reproduce in the human blood.
3. Competition; organisms compete for food, eg plants will compete for water and nutrients
in the soil, sunlight and for growing space.

Feeding Relationships of Organisms

Energy flow through living things

The relationships where by an organism eats another create a pattern of energy flow and show
the interdependence between living organisms. Energy flows are usually described as food
chains, food webs and food pyramids.

Food chain
It‟s a simple linear diagram of energy flow from one single type of organisms linked together by
their feeding relationships. A food chain always starts with a plant or plant product.

For example: maize plant ---------> locust ----------> hen -----------> eagle

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Food web
A food web is a food relationship showing organisms sharing a food source. A food web is made
up of two or more food chains linked together.

Food pyramid
Many plants (producers) are needed to feed a smaller number of primary consumers. The latter
has to be more than secondary consumers. This is represented in a form of a pyramid.

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The size of the triangle shows the relative number of organisms of different feeding levels. At
each level of the pyramid, the population is smaller than that of the organisms below. Energy is
lost passing up the food chain from one organism to another. Not all of the food that an animal
eats can be passed up the food chain, energy is lost due to a number of factors including:

*Respiration by organisms- the energy that the organism produces for itself.

*Inefficiency of digestion process- not all food that is ingested is digested.

*Inefficiency of absorption process- some of the food that is digested is not absorbed and is
released as faeces.

Pollutants in the ecosystem

Pollutants are harmful substances that have an effect on us or the environment, e.g industries
making substances are disposed-off in large areas of water in rivers or just in the bush. The
poison is contained in these waste products may be consumed by organisms in the environment
and they get passed from one organism to another as organisms eat each other in a food chain.

Concentration of Pollutants through food chains and food webs

Other examples of pollutants are tar, smoke, dust, gases, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
pesticides, herbicides, sewage.
Poisoned grass ------------> impala --------------> jackal --------------> vulture

Producers are treated with insecticides to protect them. Poison will be taken by impala as well
and more concentrated. The poison becomes concentrated even more in jackal. The vulture eats
many bodies of the jackals and the poison becomes even more concentrated.

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In this process the pollutants become more and more concentrated in the bodies at each feeding
level.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

A flower is the sex organ for plants.

Functions of parts of a flower

PART FUNCTION
Flower stalk (h) Attaches the flower to the rest of the plant.
Receptacle Holds all the parts of the flower together.
Calyx (g) Consists of many sepals which cover and protect the flower
before it opens (bud stage).
Corolla (e) Consists of petals that can be brightly coloured, strong smell,
sweet nectar to attract insects and birds.
Anther (f) Produces male sex cells (pollen grains).
Filament (c) Supports the anther.
Ovary (d) Produces the female sex cells (ovules).
Stigma (a) Recieves the pollen grains.
Style (b) Guides and direct the pollen tube towards the ovules in the
ovary. It also supports the stigma.

There are four parts of a flower that are non reproductive. These are the Stalk, receptacle, calyx
(sepals), corolla (petals).

The reproductive parts of a flower

Stamen – is the male part of a flower. It is made up of the anther and filament.
Pistil – is the female part of a flower. It is made up of the ovary, stigma and style.

POLLINATION
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.

Types of pollination

1. Self pollination
-Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
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-Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another flower in the
same plant.

2. Cross pollination
Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the
same species/kind.

Agents of pollination

Things which carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower, eg insects and wind.

Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers

Petals are large Petals are small
Petals are brightly coloured Petals are dull coloured
Petals contain nectarines Petals contain no nectarines
Petals have a sweet scent Petals have no scent
Sepals are green Sepals are green
Sepals are small Sepals are small
Filament and anthers are contained in the Filament and anthers are loosely hanging
petals outside the petals
Pollen grains are sticky Pollen grains are small and smooth
Stigma is straight and stiff The stigma is feathery

FERTILISATION

A process whereby the male sex cells (pollen grain) and the female sex cells (ovule) join / fuse to
form a zygote.

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Pollen grain lands on the stigma and starts to grow a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows all the
way down the style to the ovary and reaches an ovule. In the ovary the nucleus of the pollen
fuses with the nucleus of the ovule and form a zygote. The zygote will develop into an embryo
which is the beginning of a new plant. More than one ovule can be fertilized in the ovary but
each ovule is fertilized by a single pollen grain.

Changes in the flower after fertilization

- The petals and stamen dry up and fall off.
- Each fertilized ovule develops into a seed.
- Each ovary develops into a fruit around the cluster of seeds.

Fruits
Fruits results from the ovary.

Seeds

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Testa – protect the inner part of the seed
Cotyledon – stores food for the seed
Plumule – grows into a shoot
Radicle – grows into a root

SEED DISPERSAL
The scattering of seeds away from the mother plant. This reduces the competition for water,
nutrients, growing space, carbon dioxide, sunlight so that they grow well.
Methods of seed dispersal

1. Animal Dispersal
Scattering of seeds by animals eg burdock, fig, etc.

Characteristics
-Edible (can be eaten)
-Sticky
-Have hooks or spines

2. Wind Dispersal
Carried away by the wind
-They are light
-They are fluffy
-They have wing like structures
-They have parachute like shape

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 3. Self mechanism
Dispersed by the plant itself. Pods dry up and burst open throwing away seeds eg beans

4. Water Dispersal
Seeds are light and float easily on water, eg coconut, sea bean.

Importance of seed dispersal

Seed dispersal prevents competition between the parent plant and the new plants growing from
the seeds. The new plant would compete for
-sunlight
-nutrients
-growing space

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THE NATURE OF MATTER

Dissolution of matter

Dissolution is a process that occurs when a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.

Solute – a substance which dissolves in a solvent eg sugar.

Solvent – a substance that a solute dissolves in eg water.
Solution- a mixture of solute and solvent eg water + sugar = sugar solution

Universal solvent – is a substance in which other substances would dissolve eg water

Concentration of a solution
How much solute is dissolved in the solvent.

This can also be described by a percentage of mass.

20% salt solution means that 20% of the total mass of the solution is salt.

Mass of the salt 16g

Mass of water 64g

Calculate the concentration of the solution.

Mass of a solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= 16g + 64g
= 80g (solution)
Concentration = 16 / 80 x 100 = 20%

Types of solutions
Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions

A saturated solution –is a solution which can no longer dissolve any more solute at that
temperature.
Unsaturated solution –is a solution that can still dissolve more solute at that particular
temperature.
A super-saturated solution – is a solution that contains more solute than what it can normally
hold at that particular temperature.

Applications of saturated and super saturated solutions

1. Drink concentrates
Some drinks are prepared as saturated solutions and some as super-saturated solutions (those that
needs to be diluted before consumption) eg, orange squash etc.

2. Purifying solids

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If a chemical substance contains small parts of the other substance, such as dirt and sand, we say
it is impure and it can be purified by crystallization. A super-saturated solution is made of the
solid plus its impurities.
When the super-saturated solution is cooled the solute but not the impurities will crystallize. The
pure crystals can then be obtained by filtration.

3. Deep sea diving

When divers dive to great depths in water, the pressure of the water on their bodies causes
nitrogen to dissolve more easily in their blood. This causes their blood to become a super-
saturated solution of nitrogen where much more nitrogen is dissolved in their blood than is
normally possible.

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COMPONENTS OF AIR

Air is a mixture of gases

Component %
Percentage
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases/ rare gases 0.97

PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide can be prepared using the action of an acid on a carbonate.

Word equation for the reaction

Hydrochloric acid + Calcium carbonate --------> Carbon dioxide + Calcium chloride
+ Water

Reactants: - Dilute hydrochloric acid

-Calcium carbonate

Observation: -Production of bubbles

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-Water comes out of the inverted test tube and it is replaced by a colourless gas with no
smell.

Test for carbon dioxide

Pour lime water in the test tube containing the gas and if it changes from colourless to milk or
cloudy the gas is carbon dioxide.

Properties of carbon dioxide

. It is colourless . It does not support burning
. It is odourless . It turns lime water milky or cloudy
. It is denser than air . It is tasteless
. It is slightly soluble in water to form carbonic acid

Common use of carbon dioxide

. It is used in fire extinguishers to put off fire. . It is used to make fizzy drinks.
. It is used in dry ice to keep things cool. . It is used for cooking or baking
. It is used by plants to photosynthesis

PREPARATION OF OXYGEN

Oxygen can be prepared using hydrogen peroxide and manganese (iv) oxide (manganese
dioxide) as a catalyst. (Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to produce oxygen on its own but at a
slow rate)

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Observation: -Production of bubbles
-Production of heat
-Water in the test tube is displaced by a colourless gas

Test for Oxygen

Put a glowing splint in the test tube containing the gas and if the glowing splint relight or
recandles it means the gas is oxygen.

Word equation for the reaction

Manganese (iv) oxide

Hydrogen peroxide -------------------------------> Oxygen + Water

Properties of Oxygen
* It is tasteless * It is slightly soluble in water
* It supports burning * It is colourless
* It is odourless * It is less dense than air
* It is very reactive

Common uses of Oxygen

* It is used by living things to respire * It is used as a fuel by space rock
* It is used to purify steel * It is used to cut metals
* To assist patients with breathing problems
* Can be combined by acetylene gas to produce very hot flame for welding

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: BUILDING MATERIALS

1. Materials for constructing a traditional house

Material Use Good properties Bad properties

Thatch Roofing -Poor conductor of heat -Burn easily
grass -Cheap and readly -Thick layer is needed to stop
available water from entering the house
Cow dung -Decorating -Make soil particles -People may dislike its smell.
and moulding stick together and -It is easily washed away by
bricks makes strong bricks. rain.
Rafters Holding thatch -Strong and not -Many rafters are needed to
attacked by bugs hold the thatch adequately.
Clay Building walls -Freely available -Can easily fall during heavy
and moulding -Good insulator rains
bricks

2. Materials for constructing a modern house

Material Use Good properties Bad properties

Corrugated Roofing -Strong -Good conductors of heat
iron sheets -Water proof leading to over heating in
summer and over cooling
in winter
Cement Moulding and -For strong bond with -Dust may be dangerous if
binding bricks sand to make bricks. inhaled
-Make strong brick to
brick joints.
Glass Making windows Transparent therefore -Very fragile.
allow light to pass -Sharp and dangerous if
through. broken.

Selection of different building materials

One should consider the following:
-Does the material have the right properties for the purpose you are going to use it for.
-How expensive the material is.
-Is the material easily available.
-Colour of the material.

Insulation
Is a method used to prevent or minimize heat flow to or from something. Insulation in home
prevents too much heat absorption in summer and heat loss in winter inside the house.

Internal temperature in a house can be controlled by the;

-Window position -Roofing material
-Roof overhang -Colour of house

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-Thickness of the walls

i)Window position; they should face away from the sun to prevent sun rays from entering the
house.
ii)Roof overhang; the roof should be overhanging the walls so that they are shaded to keep the
house cool.
iii)Colour of the house; light colours do not absorb and radiate heat easily. Therefore the house
will keep cool in summer and warm in winter.
- Dull colours are the best absorbers and radiators of heat and therefore the house will be
hot in summer and cold in winter.

iv)Thickness of the walls; thick walls will not conduct heat well and the room will stay cool in
summer and warm in winter.
v)Roofing material; clay tile or thatch are poor conductors of heat and the house will stay cool
in summer and warm in winter.
- Corrugated iron sheets which are good conductors of heat will make the house to be hot in
summer and cold in winter. Therefore insulators such as fibre glass and ceiling are used.

VENTILATION

Is the movement of air within a building. Ventilation is good because air in a room is replaced by
fresh cooler air from outside.

Structures that ensure ventilation in a building

-Windows -Air bricks
-Door -Wall thatch gap
-Roof vent

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As the air warms up in a room it rises towards the ceiling. This air will leave the building
through windows placed at a high point and cooler fresh air will continue to move into the room
through the lower part of the door and the windows. Ventilation by convection can also be
improved by placing a vent in the roof.

The need for good ventilation

-It allows the air in a room to be replaced by cooler and fresh air.
- It removes bad smells like puffs, tobacco smoke
-Burning of fossil fuels in unventilated room produce carbon monoxide (toxic) which affects the
ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen around the body.
-High concentrations of carbon dioxide affects the ability of the body to use oxygen.

SANITATION
Measures are taken to ensure that sewage and refuse are taken care of.
Refuse – waste from our daily activities
Sewage – waste materials produced by our bodies e.g. urine and faeces

The need to dispose off waste properly

-Sewage and refuse can cause diseases
-Sewage waste has an unpleasant smell. Untreated sewage can enter the natural water system and
pollute the water way.
-Refuse can pollute the environment
-Uncollected waste can attract flies, rats and other unwanted animals which spread diseases.
-Refuse can make the environment look bad.

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Hygienic ways of disposing sewage
*Spade method: about a 15cm deep-hole is dug with a spade and after defecation the faeces are
covered well with soil.
*Pit latrine: faeces are slowly broken down by micro-organisms
*Flush toilets: use water to help dispose sewage through sewer pipes
*Chemical toilets: consists of a collecting bucket with a disinfectant. The buckets are emptied
regularly and disposed off else where. These are used as temporary facilities (at functions)

Refuse Disposal
1. Compost heap – organic matter can be buried underground and used to make compost.
2. Burning – refuse can be burnt (but not recommended on large scale as it causes air
pollution)
3. Burying – a hole is dug and refuse is buried underground.
4. Collection by council to the dumping sites or landfills.
5. Recycling – paper, metals, glass and cans can all be recycled.

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HEALTH AND SAFETY

Hygienic Surrounding: Living Safely

Prevention of common injuries

-Minor cuts -Bump and Bruises -Minor burns -Muscle strain
-Electric shocks

Common injuries caused by these hazards can be prevented

Type of hazard Common Steps that can be taken to prevent injuries

injuries caused
Knives and other Cuts *Work slowly and with care.
sharp kitchen *Do not leave knives lying around that are not
implements being used.
*Keep knives in a drawer away from children.
*Make sure your knives you knives are sharp.
Blunt knives are more dangerous than sharp
knives because you have to apply more force
when using them.
Household tools Cuts and bruises *Read the instructions about how to use a tool
and gardening properly and follow any safety rules.
implements *If you do not know how to use a tool, ask
someone who does to show you.
*Do not use a tool for an application that it was
not designed for.
* Make sure that tools are well maintained.
*Work slowly and with care.
Fires and heaters Burns and *Always make sure that the heater can be seen.
breathing This will stop people from tripping over or
problems colliding with the heater by accident.
*Do not use the heater to burn things or set fire
to things.
*Always turn a heater off if no one is going to
be in the room for a long time.
*Do not stand too close to a heater.
*Make sure that the fire or heater is in a
properly ventilated room. This prevents the
build-up of gases.
Electrics and Burns and shocks *Make sure that all appliances are wired
electrical correctly and earthed.
appliances *Do not plug in too many appliances into one
socket.
*Do not use electrical appliances near water.
Obstacles and Bruises, grazes, *Keep your environment clean, neat and tidy.
obstructions sprains and *Do not leave things lying around in passage

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 fractures ways or in places where people walk.
Lifting or moving Muscle strains *Do not attempt to lift things that are too heavy
heavy objects and back injuries for you. Ask someone to help you.
*Take your time. If an object begins to feel too
heavy, then put it down and take a rest.
*Use the correct lifting techniques
Broken glass Cuts *Clean up broken glass straight away and make
sure that you collect every single piece. Some
pieces may be very small but these can still
cause cuts.
*Do not place glass objects close to the edges of
surfaces where they can be easily knocked off.
*Use reinforced glass for applications where the
glass may have to carry weight or cope with
shocks from time to time.

Safe physical movement

This means carrying out actions in a safe way to prevent injuries from happening.

-Carry out your physical actions slowly and carefully and know your physical limits.

-The correct way to lift objects

Lifting objects can cause muscle strain and back injuries if the correct technique is not used.
When lifting a heavy object, you should lift the object with your legs bent and back straight. This
reduces the amount of strain that is placed on the spine and muscles of the lower back and allows
the stronger muscles of the legs to lift most of the load.

-The correct way to sharpen a knife

If you draw it towards you, the blade moves towards your fingers and body and if you make a
mistake, you can cut your fingers and your body.

-Do not try to catch falling objects

We can hurt ourselves badly if we try to catch falling objects before they hit the ground, e.g.
catching a falling glass, may shatter in our hands and cause cuts.

Using recommended safety and protective devices

Protective Devices

*Gloves –safety items used to protect the hands from injury, e.g. oven gloves worn handling hot
objects in the kitchen.

*Gardening gloves also worn to protect hands from corrosive and poisonous substances.
* Eye protection –safety glasses, goggles and welding masks worn to protect eyes from injuries

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*Face masks –cover the mouth and nose and prevent foreign objects from entering the mouth,
lungs and nose. Most worn to protect the user from fine dust and mist that is made by activities
such as sanding and spraying chemicals.

Strong boots –worn to protect the feet from damage by objects falling on them or when the
person is working in an area where there may be hazardous objects on the ground that could
damage the feet.

Protective headwear –e.g. hard hat used to give the hat protection in activities where there is a
risk of falling objects.

Safety Devices
These are things that make the equipment safer to use or that help control the situation.

Fuses
A piece of wire which has a low melting point that is placed in areas or series in the circuit
electrical appliance. The fuse will melt and break the circuit if the current flowing is too big due
to short circuits. This prevents fire.

Fire extinguishers
It is used to put out fire. Some contain carbon dioxide. All materials used in fire extinguishers
are non-flammable materials.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND CARE

PREGNANCY

Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the fusion/ meeting of the male sex cell (sperm) and the female sex cell (ovum) to
form a zygote.

Process of fertilization
During unprotected sexual intercourse, millions of sperms are released from the penis through
the cervix into the vagina. The sperms then swim into the uterus up to the oviduct where only
one sperm will be allowed to enter. The sperm meets the ovum then loses its tail and its tail and

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then hardens. The nucleus of both will fuse to form a zygote. After fertilization a ball of cells
called a zygote is formed. The cells begin to multiply and form an embryo or a blastocyst. The
embryo then attaches itself to the walls of the uterus and sink into it. The process in which the
embryo attaches itself to the uterus wall is called implantation.

The process by which the sperm fuse with the egg is also known as conception. After this we
say the woman is pregnant.

Signs of Pregnancy

-Morning sickness – feeling nausea or vomiting especially in the morning.

-Weight gain – as the foetus grow, it contributes to the weight of the mother.
-Missed periods – after fertilization the embryo develops in the uterus and the ovaries do not
allow any more eggs (ova) to mature.
-Swollen belly – the growing foetus pushes the belly out.
-Tenderness of the breasts – the tissues called mammary glands grow
-Tiredness – pregnant women often feel much more tired than normal. This can start as early as
the first week after fertilization.
-Food cravings – they crave (have a strong desire of eating the food they have never liked
before). They even move for more strange food.
Development of the zygote

27
The embryo stage lasts for about two months. From the second month the embryo begins to look
like a human being, and from this time until birth the embryo is called a foetus.

Placenta – allows substances to pass from the mother‟s blood to the foetus eg oxygen and
nutrients.
-Waste materials from the foetus to the mother eg carbon dioxide, urea and uric acid.

28
Amniotic sac – a bag which surrounds and protect the embryo. It also produces the amniotic
fluid.
Amniotic fluid – protects the embryo from external shock.
Ambilical cord – connects the embryo to the placenta. It carries materials such as nutrients and
oxygen from the mother to the foetus. It also carries waste materials such as carbon dioxide and
urea from the foetus to the placenta.

Multiple Birth
The birth of more than one child. This result in either twins, triplets or quadruplets.

Conditions leading to multiple birth

i) Identical Twins = created when a single fertilized eggs split into two identical
zygotes. The two embryos grow in one amniotic sac with different ambilical cords
and share the same placenta. They are of the same gender, height and complexion
because they are from one ovum and sperm.

29
 ii) Non identical/ Fraternal Twins = Sometimes more than one egg is released at a
time. Non identical twins results from two fertilized ovum by two different sperms.
Each embryo will have its own placenta and amniotic sac. The two embryos will
grow at the same time and develop into two different babies. These type of babies are
called fraternal twins.

These twins have different

-sex
-complexion
-resemblance
-height

ANTE-NATAL CARE

Ante-natal means before birth. Ante-natal care is the name for the medical treatment that the
pregnant woman receives to make sure that the baby develops healthy inside her uterus. This is
done at the ante-natal clinic. The doctor or nurse checks if the health of the mother, the foetus to
see if it is in the correct position in the uterus and if it is growing well.

30
A pregnant woman should not take substances that may cause harm to the foetus, e.g. alcohol,
smoking and other drugs. Taking harmful substances may cause the following:-
- The child may be born a mental abnormality
- The child may be born with a physical abnormality
- The mother may miscarry ( the foetus may die during the early stages of pregnancy)
- The child may be stillborn ( be born dead or die very soon after birth)

NUTRIONAL NEEDS FOR A PREGNANT WOMAN

-Proteins for building new tissues in the foetus.
-Calcium for strong bones
-Food rich in iron for the formation of blood and red blood cells.
-Fibre to prevent constipation

THE MAIN STAGES OF BIRTH

After about 280 days or 9 calendar months in the uterus the baby is normally ready to be
delivered.

1. Contractions begin
The muscles of the uterus wall start to contract and tighten and the mother starts to feel these as
labour pains.

2. Breaking of the waters

As the uterus muscles contract, they cause the amniotic sac (amnion) to break. When this sac
breaks, the amniotic fluid escapes and flows out of the mother‟s body through the vagina.

3. Dilation of the cervix

Continued contractions of the uterus muscles causes the cervix muscles to relax and open up.
This makes the cervix to dilate or increase in diameter. When the cervix has dilated enough,
there is enough room for the baby to pass through.

Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

31
 4. Delivery (expulsion) of the baby
Contraction of the after uterus muscles become stronger and the mother also starts pushing.
These two forces together help the baby get out of the uterus, through the cervix, vagina and into
the outside world.

5. Delivery of the after-birth (placenta)

When the baby is delivered, the placenta is still attached to the uterus wall. Some minutes after
delivery the placenta and the umbilical cord are pushed out of the uterus and pass through the
mother‟s vagina as the after-birth.

CHILD CARE

Breastfeeding and Bottle feding

Breast feeding is better than bottle-feeding in many ways, it has various advantages than bottle
feeding.

Breast feeding Bottle feeding

Brings the mother and the child close Allows the mother and the child to be
seperated
The milk is free The milk costs money
The milk is ready made and does not The milk has to be prepared and this
take time to prepare takes time
The milk is always at the right The milk may be too hot or too cold
temperature
The chances of milk contamination are The chances of milk contamination are
very small very high
The milk contains the right The nutrients of milk may vary from
combination of nutrients manufacturer to manufacturer.
The milk contains antibodies which The milk does not contain antibodies
help the body fight diseases

Breastfeeding
The mother starts producing milk in her breasts before birth of the baby. Babies have sucking
reflex that allows them to automatically suckle on their mother`s breast for milk. Breast milk is a
source of nourishment for a baby. It contains ideal balance of fats, carbohydrates and proteins to
allow the baby to grow and develop in a healthy way. It provides antibodies that help the baby`s
immune system to develop and fight off early infections.
The first milk produced during the first few days after birth is called colostrum. It contains lots
of antibodies for the baby. After a few days, the breasts start to produce normal breast milk. The
baby gets foremilk and followed by hindmilk. Foremilk is watery milk that quenches the baby`s
thirst. Hindmilk is thicker and creamier milk that feeds the baby.

32
Advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding

ADVANTAGES OF BREASTFEEDING DISADVANTAGES OF

BREASTFEEDING
It provides all nutrients for the baby to grow It is not convenient for mothers that work away
and develop in a healthy way from home
It provides antibodies that protect the baby I can pass diseases like HIV from mother to the
against diseases baby
It does not cost any money It can pass harmful substances such as
medicines form mother to the baby
It is clean and sterile if the mother is healthy It is difficult if the mother does not produce
enough milk
It is the correct temperature for the baby It is difficult if the baby cannot suckle properly
It helps the mother and baby to form a loving It is difficult if the mother is not well
bond

Bottlefeeding (formula feeding)

It is a powder that contains food and nutrients for the baby. The formula must be mixed with
clean water and given to the baby with a clean bottle or a cup to prevent germs being passed onto
the baby. Water used to mix baby formula must be clean and be free of germs. It may contain
microscopic germs that can cause diseases like typhoid and cholera and even intestinal infectious
disease shown by symptoms like diarrhea. Bottles and teats should be washed in hot, soapy water
and then sterilize in boiling water for about 10 minutes.

Advantages and disadvantages of bottle feeding

ADVANTAGES OF BOTTLE FEEDING DISADVANTAGES OF BOTTLE

FEEDING
It is convenient for working mothers If it is not prepared correctly , the baby may
not get enough nutrients
It prevents diseases such as HIV from being It does not provide antibodies , so the baby
passed from the mother to the baby may get sick
It prevents the transfer of harmful substances It is expensive and requires preparation time
such as medicines from the mother to the baby
It provides an alternative for mothers who are It may become contaminated with germs and
unable to produce enough milk pass on diseases to the baby
It provides an alternative for babies that cannot The water needs to be sterilized before it can
be breastfed be used to mix the formula
The bottles, teats and cups must be sterilized
before use

Burping
During feeding, the baby swallows air and it becomes trapped into the baby`s stomach. This
painful and the baby cries, hence needs to be held up against the shoulder and gently rub the
baby`s back until it burps.
33
Nutritional needs of a lactating (breast-feeding) mother
Breastfeeding uses a lot of energy and nutrients from the mother`s body .The mother must eat a
balanced diet to replace the energy and nutrients needed to make breast milk. Breastfeeding
mother needs;
 Carbohydrates for energy
 Fruit and vegetables for vitamins and minerals
 Protein for healthy muscle and nerve development
 Diary products for calcium needed for good bone development
 Fat for rich hindmilk
 Drinks plenty of water, fruit juice and milk. she needs 8 to 10 glasses of fluid each day to
produce enough milk

Breastfeeding mother should avoid;

 Alcohol
 Caffeine found in tea , coffee , cola drinks and chocolate
 Tobacco smoke
 Medicine, check with the doctor whether it is safe to take specific medication.

Nutritional needs of the baby

A baby grows quickly in its first year of life. The baby needs the right nutrition during this
period to grow and develop properly. The baby`s diet includes;
 Energy from carbohydrates and fats
 Protein for healthy muscle and nerve development
 Vitamins and minerals for healthy development and a strong immune system

Immunisation
It gives the baby or child antibodies to fight disease. There are two types of immunisation;
 Passive immunisation involves the passing of antobodies from the mother to the baby
through the placenta before birth and by breast milk during breastfeeding.
 Active immunisation is the use of medicines called vaccines to prevent deadly childhood
diseases such as polio, etc. Vaccines are given as drops or injections by trained nurses or
doctors.

Immunisations with vaccines in Botswana is free at clinics and hospitals. The table summarises
how vaccines are carried in Botswana;

34
Age Vaccine Disease it protect Method
against
Birth BCG Tuberculosis Injection
Hep B (1) Hepatitis B Injection
2 months DPT (1) Diphtheria , whooping Injection
cough and tetanus
Hep B (2) Hepatitis B Injection
Oral polio (1) Polio Drops in the mouth
3 months DPT (2) Diphtheria , whooping Injection
cough and tetanus
Oral polio (2) Polio Drops in the mouth
4 months DPT (3) Diphtheria , whooping Injection
cough and tetanus
Oral polio (3) Polio Drops in the mouth
9 months Hep B (3) Hepatitis B Injection
Measles Measles Injection
18 months DPT (4) Diphtheria , whooping Injection
cough and tetanus
Oral polio (4) Polio Drops in the mouth
6 years DPT Diphtheria Injection
Oral polio (5) Polio Drops in the mouth

Importance of testing for HIV during pregnancy

The virus that causes AIDS can be passed from an HIV infected mother to her baby. This is
called Mother To Child Transmission (MTCT) of HIV. The virus can pass from the mother to
the baby in three ways;

 By contact with the mother`s blood and boldly fluids during labour and birth
 In the mother`s breast milk during breastfeeding

Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT)

Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) involves methods to limit the
possibility of the mother transmitting HIV to her baby. PMTCT methods include;
 Giving the mother antiretroviral (ARV) drugs during pregnancy, labour and birth. The
ARV lower the amount of the virus in the mother`s body so that there is a smaller chance
that will pass on to the baby.
 Giving the baby ARV medicines during birth and after birth.
 Minimising the baby`s contact with the mother`s blood and bodily fluids during labour
and birth .This can be done in hospitals or clinics where the doctors use safe medical
practices. If possible, the mother could have a caesarian section or operation instead of a
natural birth.
 Not breastfeeding the baby. The baby should be given only baby formula for the first six
months. After six months, the baby can start having soft foods and liquids.

35
Proper methods of childcare
Babies are helpless when they are born. They need a lot of care from their parents and care
givers.

Washing a baby
A baby must be kept clean to prevent skin irritations and the spread of diseases. A clean, soft
washcloth, warm water and mild baby soap when you wash a baby.
 Washing the hair. wrap the baby in a towel, wet the baby`s hair with warm water and
rub shampoo or soap into the hair. Rinse the hair with clean, warm water and dry the hair
with a soft dry towel.
 Washing the face. wet a clean, soft washcloth with warm water and gently wipe the face
and neck .Wipe the inside folds of skin around the baby`s neck.
 Washing the body. The umbilical cord should not be wet when the baby is bathed. Wash
the baby with a washcloth dipped in warm water. A mild soap can be used but has to be
wiped off when finish bathing. After the umbilical cord has fallen off, wash the baby in
bath of shallow warm water. Check the temperature of water by the edge of the elbow.

Dressing a baby
After bathing the baby, ensure that the baby is dressed in clean soft clothes. Make that the extra
clothing is availed to keep the baby warm.

Changing a baby`s nappy

A baby`s nappy must be changed frequently. If you leave a baby in dirty nappy will feel
uncomfortable, smelly and may get baby rash.

36
INVESTIGATING FORCES

TYPES OF FORCES

A force is a push or a pull exerted by one object on another.

Direction of a Force
A force has direction as well as magnitude. This is shown by an arrow.
-------------
5N

Objects exert forces on each other

A force is created by one object when it acts on another,

e.g – a man pushing a car.
- a donkey pulling a cart.
- a boy kicking a ball.

Resultant Forces Acting on a Body

Resultant force is the overall force that result from the action of two or more forces on a body.

If two forces acting on a body are of equal size and in opposite direction, the body will not move
because the forces cancel each other.

-----------------> <-----------------
3N 3N Force = 3N -3N = 0
-A stationery object remains stationery.
-A moving object keeps on moving at the same speed in the same direction.

SAME DIRECTION
If two forces are acting on the same direction, the two forces are added together.

---------------------> --------------------------->
3N 5N 8N
Resultant force = 3N + 5N = 8N ------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------
Resultant Force
OPPOSITE DIRECTION
If two forces act in the opposite direction, we substract.
4N 3N
-----------------------------> <---------------------

4N – 3N = 1N -----------

37
 <-------------
Resultant Force
Classification of Forces
Different types of forces are placed into two groups i.e Contact or Non-contact(action-at-a-
distance) force.

Contact Forces
Result when two objects are physically touching each other.

Non-contact (action-at-a-distance) force

Results when two objects are not physical in contact. Act at a distant.

Contact Non-contact
Impact force Gravitational
Strain force Magnetic
Friction Electrostatic
Air resistance
Applied force

Effects of Forces

- A force can change the size and shape of a body e.g squeezing a tennis ball, stretching the
spring.
- A force can change the speed and direction of a body e.g applying the brakes of a car or
accelaration.
- A force can make a moving object to accelerate eg kicking aball.
- A force can stop a moving object.
- A force can move an object from rest.
- A force can cause a body to rotate (spin or turn).

Applications of Forces

-Movement
when objects move on the surface of the earth, they are able to grip because of frictional force.
Objects will slip and fall without friction, e.g a moving car.

-For stopping moving objects

When an object is moving and you want to stop it, you exert force on it and it stops e.g braking a
car.

-For increasing or decreasing the speed in cars.

A car moves faster because the driver exert force on the accelerator.

-For lifting heavy metals

Lifting up heavy metals in scrapyards using magnetic force, e.g cranes.
Importance of Force of Gravity to Life on Earth

38
Force of gravity is the force in which the earth attracts towards itself. It is directed downward
towards the centre of the earth, e.g a ball thrown up into the sky cones back.

-It keeps objects on the surface of the earth and prevents falling.
-It keeps earth and all planets in their orbits around the sun.
-It keeps the moon and all the satellite in their orbits around the earth.
-High jumpers are able to fall back to ground.
-People who play balls are able to play without the ball going forever.

Force of Friction
Friction force develops when two objects are in contact and each oppose the movement of
another.
(-the amount of friction depends on the texture of both surfaces. –weight acting on the surface.)

Effects of Friction on Motion

-Friction opposes the movement.

Direction of movement
----------------------------->
Push ----->
Direction of
Friction force
<-----------------

-It generates heat

-It wastes energy = e.g when pushing an object, some of your pushing energy moves the box
some is lost to friction.
-It wears off surfaces = as surfaces rub against each other, the heat produced makes them to wear
and tear.

Friction in Fluids
It occurs when an object is in contact with a fluid and a force is applied to either the object or to
the fluid,
e.g – water flowing through a hosepipe
- an aeroplane flying through the atmosphere.

Factors Affecting Friction in Fluids

a)Nature of the liquid = the thicker the fluid e.g liquid soap the greater the friction
= the lighter the fluid the less the friction

39
The ball in the water reached the bottom first and later in the liquid soap. This means there is less
friction in water than in the liquid soap.
b)Shape of an object moving through the fluid = the larger the surface area of the object moving
the greater the friction.

A steam-lined objects move much easier through fluids than flat objects. A stream-lined object
cuts through fluid and reduces resistance to the movement.

Reducing Friction in Fluids

1. Streamlining – streamlined objects are cone shaped so that they can quickly move
through a fluid.
2. Use fluids with the lowest viscosity.
3. Reduce the viscosity of a fluid. This can be done by heating the fluid.
4. Use objects with smooth surfaces.

40
Application of Fluid Friction

*Swimming –help organisms to float and swim in water more easily.

*Transport – aeroplanes and ships use propellers to move forward. There is friction force
between the propeller and the water.
*A shark is streamlined to reduce the friction between its skin and the water but at the same time
it uses the friction force between its fins and the water to propel forward.
*Friction between the air and the parachute helps it land safely.
*Cars with automatic gear change use the friction force between the gear oil and the driving shaft
passing through the oil to propel the car forward.
*A pilot adjust large flaps on the wings to increase the friction (air resistance) betweenthe wings
and the air to help the aircraft to a stop.

Measuring Force

A force metre is used to measure force. It is measured in Newtons(N). The standard (SI) unit of
force is Newton.
e.g Earth exerts a force of 1N on an object of 100g
2N on an object of 200g

Weight
A force by which the gravity of the earth attracts objects towards its centre. Weight is a force and
so it is measured in Newtons. It is measured using a force metre.

Relationship Between Weight and Mass

The relationship between weight and mass is very important.

Weight(N) = Mass(Kg) x Gravitational pull(10N/Kg)

W = mg
e.g Weight of an object of mass 50Kg => W = mg
= 50 x 10
= 500N

Mass(g) Mass(kg) Weight(N)

100 0.1 1
250 0.25 2.5
400 0.4 4
750 0.75 7.5
1000 1 10

Weight in different places

An object of the same mass weighs 1/6 less in the moon of its weight on earth.

e.g mass on earth = 300kg and weight in earth

W = mg

41
 = 300 x 10
= 3000N

Moon => W = 1/6 x 3000N

= 500N

Differences between Weight and Mass

Mass Weight
-How much matter an object contains -Force of gravity acting on the mass of
an object.
-Constant(same everywhere) -Changes as the distance from centre of
earth increases.
-Does not depend on the size of force of -Depends on the size of the force of
gravity exerted on the object. gravity exerted on the object.
-Measured in kg/g -Measured in Newtons(N).
-Scalar quantity -Vector quantity

Atmospheric Pressure
The force exerted by the air on all the objects in the atmosphere.

Effects of Atmospheric Pressure

Sucking
Reduces the air pressure in the straw and the atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up the straw.

42
The Syringe
Pulling the piston backwards produces low pressure in the cylinder and the higher atmospheric
pressure on the surface of the water pushes water into the cylinder.

Ears pop
Earsdrums pop a bit as the atmospheric pressure drops and the pressure inside your ears become
equal to atmospheric pressure when driving up a steep hill.

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure

A mercury barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Aneroid barometer is also used to
measure atmospheric pressure. Units are mm of mercury(mmHg) or kilopascals(Kpa).

43
The mercury in the glass tube will drop until the column is about 760 mm in height creating a
vacuum at the top. The atmospheric pressure acting on the mercury in the bowl pushes the
mercury up the tube because of the vacuum.

If the atmospheric pressure pushing down the surface of the bowl of mercury increases, then the
mercury column rises. If the atmospheric pressure decreases, then it pushes down less on the
mercury in the bowl and the mercury column drops. We measure atmospheric pressure by
measuring the height of the column of the mercury from the surface of the mercury in the bowl
to the surface of the meniscus of the mercury in the tube.

Prediction of Weather Pattern

Atmospheric pressure can be used to predict weather. Barometer readings are received from
many weather stations and plotted on a map and then all the points with the same pressure
readings are connected with a line which we call an ISOBAR (Iso means „the same‟)

Isobars are lines which connect points of equal barometric pressure.

-Isobars that are closely spaced indicate strong winds.
-Isobars that are spaced far apart indicate light wind.

A high (H) is an area of high pressure surrounded by lower pressure.

A low (L) is an area of low pressure surrounded by high pressure.

A low pressure area indicates a high possibility of rain and wind will blow from areas of high
pressure to areas with low pressure.

Forecast rain (using barometer)

If the pressure drops rapidly, a low pressure approaching and there is a greater chance of rain.

Using clouds to forecast temperatures

During the day
If the sky is clear, more heat reaches the earth‟s surface and leads to warmer temperatures. If the
sky is cloudy some of the sun‟s rays are reflected of the cloud back to the space. This leads to
cooler temperature.
However at night clouds traps the heat emitted from the earth‟s surface and leads to warmer
temperatures.

44
Linear motion
It is the movement of an object in a straight line between two points.
Distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.

Distance
The length of the path taken to get from one place to another, e.g. the total distance the boy
walked to school is 40m + 300m +400m + 530m = 1270m. However the shortest distance from
school to his house is 800m.
Distance is measured in units of length

Displacement
The shortest distance an object moves in a particular direction, e.g. in the example above the
shortest distance from the boys house to school is 800m in an easterly direction. When he arrives
at school his displacement is 800m east of his house.

Distinguish between distance and displacement

distance displacement
Describes the length of the path between Describes the shortest length of the
two points. between two points and direction of one
relative to the other.
Distance is described in units of length. It is described in units of length together
with a direction.
Distance is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

Speed
It is the distance travelled in a certain time.
The rate at which an object travels,
Speed= distance/ time (s=d/t)

A car travels 120km in 2 hours. Calculate the speed?

S=?
D=120km
T=2hours

S=d/t
S=120km/2hours = 60km/h

Velocity
The rate at which an object moves in a particular direction is velocity. It can also be defined as
the speed of an object in a specified direction.
Velocity = displacement/ time
Example, it takes a man 100sec to walk 3000m from A to B west of A
Velocity = displacement/ time

45
Velocity = 3000m/ 100sec = 30m/sec west

Difference between velocity and speed

speed velocity
Describe the time taken to travel a certain Describes the time taken to travel a certain
distance. distance and the direction of travel.
Calculated as distance/ time Calculated as displacement/time
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

Acceleration
It is the increase of velocity or speed over a period of time.
Acceleration = change in speed or velocity/ time taken for change
Example 1
a car changes speed from 0 to 60m/sec in 5.8 sec
Acceleration = velocity or speed / time
Acceleration = 60m/sec / 5.8sec = 10.3m/s2
This means every second the cars velocity increases by 10.3m/sec

Example 2
A car is measured doing a speed of 8m/s at point A and a speed of 20m/s at point B. the time
taken for the car to travel between the points A and B is 4sec. therefore the acceleration of the
car between points A and B is
Acceleration = (Speed at point B) – (speed at point A) / time taken to travel between A and B
Acceleration = (20m/s) – (8m/s) / 4s = (12m/s) / 4s = 3m/s2
The car‟s velocity increases by 3m/s every second.

Uniform and Non-uniform motion

Motion with Non-uniform velocity

Non-uniform velocity means that the velocity of the object changes as time goes by. The velocity
may increase (accelerate) or decrease (decelerate) as time passes, e.g. a car staring from 0
velocity at a stop and accelerating away. The car velocity increases during the first four seconds,
such motion is called non-uniform motion.
Motion with uniform velocity
Means the velocity of the object does not change as time goes by. An object covers the same
distance in a given amount of time, e.g. a car started at 0 velocity at the stop and accelerated at
4m/s2 to reach a velocity of 16m/s after 4 seconds. The car does not accelerate an more for the
next 6 seconds. The velocity of the car does not change and so the car is moving at uniform
motion velocity (uniform motion).

Plotting Graphs of:

1. Distance vs time for non-uniform motion

46
The graph is a straight line with the same gradient or slope. Distance travelled by the car per
second is the same every second that passes by, i.e. constant velocity. The distance the car travels
per second becomes bigger with each second i.e. a car is accelerating.

2. Distance vs time for uniform motion

Qualitatively motion of objects falling in a fluid

Objects are able to move through fluids.

1. The object will accelerate (velocity increase) as it falls through the liquid (non-uniform
motion). It is acted on by force of gravity.
2. The object falls far enough and stops accelerating and maintains constant velocity as long as it
is able to fall (uniform motion).
3. The object hit the ground/ bottom of the container and its velocity decreases rapidly (non-
uniform motion).

There are two forces acting on the object falling in fluid

Terminal Velocity
Maximum constant velocity that an object can travel as it falls through a fluid.

Far a falling object gravity and drag force (air resistance) acts in the opposite direction. As force
of gravity accelerates an object, the velocity of an object increase and so the drag force also
increases. The object continues to fall and the two forces become the same. There is no resultant
force acting on the object and so the velocity of the object becomes constant. When this happens
the falling object has reached its terminal velocity.

47
NB: Terminal velocity is reached when the upward force of drag is equal to the downward force
of gravity.

The terminal velocity of an object is affected by;

- The density of the fluid.
- The texture of the surface of the object.
- Shape of the object.

48
5.5: PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Light waves from a light source move in a straight line from the source.
When rays of light strike an object, one of three things can happen to the light rays:
- The light rays can bounce off the object. When this happens, we say that the light is
reflected. Mirrors and most other objects reflect light.
- The light rays can pass through the object (refraction). When this happens, we say that
the object is transparent. Anything that you can see through, such as glass or Perspex, is
a transparent object.
- The light rays can be absorbed by the object. This is what happens with an object
appears black.

Reflection by a plane mirror

(Reflection is the bouncing off of light)

All light that reaches the surface of a mirror is reflected. A plane mirror reflects light evenly in
the same direction and the source of the light can be seen clearly in the mirror.

The Angle of Incidence and Angle of Reflection

The above diagram shows the light ray arriving at the mirror (the incident ray), then the light
ray being reflected away (the reflected ray) by the surface of the mirror at another angle.
A perpendicular (900) line to the surface of the mirror at the point where the incident ray touches
the mirror is drawn, i.e. the normal line
- The angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the normal and the incident ray.
- The angle of reflection(r) is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

49
This diagram demonstrates the two laws of reflection:
First law of reflection:
The incident ray, the reflected, and the normal are all on the same plane. (A plane is a flat
surface like the surface of the paper of this page).
Second law of reflection:
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection: (i= r)

Reflection from an uneven surface

A rough surface like wood, clothes or stone will reflect light rays but the rays are not reflected in
an orderly fashion. The rays are spread out in a disorderly fashion and the reflected light is
diffused.

Plane Mirrors
Images formed by plane mirrors has the following properties:
- The image is upright.
- The left side of the object appears as the right side of the image and the right side of the
object appears as the left side of the image. This is called lateral inversion.
- It is the same size as the object.
- It is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.

Uses of a plane mirror

They include:
- In houses and shops to look at ourselves.
- In periscopes (submarines use it to look at objects on the surface of the sea while the
submarine is underneath the water.
- Plane mirrors are used in devices that need to reflect laser light, such as CD, DVD
players.

Curved Mirrors
Concave Mirror
Images formed by concave mirrors have the following properties:
- Appears much bigger than the object if the object is close to the mirror.
- The right way up or upright if the object is close to the mirror.
- Smaller than the object if the object is far from the mirror.
- Upside down or inverted if the object is far from the mirror.

50
Uses of concave mirrors
- Shaving or make-up mirrors, as they give an enlarged image.
- Used as dentists‟ mirrors to see teeth inside the mouth.
- Used as headlamps of vehicles to produce a strong beam.
- Used in torches or search lights.
- In some types of telescopes (i.e. reflector telescopes) to enhance vision.

Convex Mirror
Images formed by convex mirrors have the following properties:
- The image is smaller than the object.
- Is always the right way up or upright.

Uses of convex mirrors

- They are used as rear-view mirrors on vehicles
- They are used as security mirrors.
- For lookout for oncoming traffic around a blind corner.

REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

Refraction of light is the change in direction of light when it travels from one medium into
another medium.

Refraction of light through a Glass and Water

The above drawing shows the path of light ray passing from air through a rectangular block of
glass.
AB is the incident ray.
BN is the normal at the contact point with the glass.
BC is the refracted ray.
CN is the normal at the contact point with air.
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CD is the emergent ray (the light ray that comes out of the glass).
i refers the angles of incidence.
r refers to the angles of refraction.

We see that:
- At point B, the ray is refracted closer to the normal when the ray enters from a less
dense optical medium (the air) to a denser optical medium (the glass block).
- At point C, the ray is refracted away from the normal when the ray passes from a dense
optical medium (glass) to a less dense medium (air).
- The emergent ray (CD) is parallel to the incident ray (AB).
- If the light ray entered the glass block perpendicularly, the ray would not be refracted.
This means that light rays are only refracted when they enter the interface of two
mediums of different optical densities at an angle.

The same happens when a light ray passes from air to water. This is the reason why an object in
water looks closer to the surface than it really is.

The Refraction of Light through a Prism

A prism is a triangular block of glass.
The refraction of light rays passing through a glass prism is different from the refraction through
a rectangular glass block because the sides of a prism are not parallel to each other. Unlike a
glass block, when light passes through a prism, the incident and emergent rays are not
parallel.

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Refraction by lenses
A lens consists of a piece of glass or other transparent material with one or two curved surfaces.

There are two different types of lenses, convex (converging) lenses and concave (diverging)
lenses.

Convex Lens
Convex or converging lenses are thicker in the middle than at the edges. Light rays that pass
through a convex lens are refracted towards each other and they converge (come together) at a
single point. This point is known as the focal point.

A convex lens causes parallel light rays to refract inwards and converge at a focal point (F).

Concave Lens
Concave or diverging lenses are thicker at the edges than in the middle. Light rays that pass
through a concave lens are refracted away from each other- they diverge as shown below.

A concave lens causes parallel rays passing through it to diverge and refract outwards so that
they appear to come focal point F.
Measuring the focal length (f) of a converging (convex) lens

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Lenses are used in optical instruments like microscopes, telescopes, cameras, etc, it is necessary
to know exactly what the focal length of the lens is because the focal length determines the
position of the lens in the particular optical instrument.

Uses of Optical instruments

a) Microscope – to enlarge very small objects.
b) Camera – to focus and enlarge images onto film.
c) Telescopes – to enlarge objects in the night sky.
d) Binoculars – to enlarge distant objects on earth.
e) Spectacles – to correct defects of the optical system of the eye.

The Colour Components of white Light

Light from the sun or other sources appears to be white light, while it is made up of many
different colours of light. Light rays are waves and different colours of light have different
wavelengths. When light passes through a prism it splits into different colours. The colours are
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet (ROYGBIV).
Red is refracted least and violet is refracted most.
[NB: The rainbow of colours is known as a spectrum and the splitting of white light is called
dispersion.]

Rainbow Formation
When the sun shines on water drops as they fall through air, the light is refracted as it enters the
rain drops. The arrangement of colours is exactly the same as when light dispersed through a
prism because the water droplets act as prisms.

54
The Eye

It is an organ that detects light. It uses a convex lens to form a small inverted and real image.

Parts and Functions of the Eye

Part Description Function

Cornea A clear curved layer in front -bends light rays inwards.
of the eye. -covers and protects the eye.
Pupil An opening in the centre of -admit light into the eye.
iris
Iris A ring of muscles behind the -control the amount of light entering the
cornea eye.
-contracts and relax to control the size
of the pupil.
Ciliary muscle A ring of muscles -contract and relax to change the shape
of the lens to focus objects at different
distances clearly.
Lens A transparent jelly-like -refract light rays so that it focuses
convex lens images on the retina.
Retina Contain light sensitive cells- -a screen where images are formed.
rods and cones -rod cell allow us to see in dim light
-cone cell allow us to see colour & in
bright light
Optical Nerves Nerves from the retina to the -carry electrical impulses from the

55
 brain retina to the brain.
Choroid layer Black layer behind the retina -prevents internal reflection.

How we see

We can see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused on the retina. To
see an object:
- Light enters the eye through the cornea, which bends it slightly inwards.
- The light then passes through the pupil.
- Then it passes through the lens, which bends it even more to focus it on the retina.
- When light falls on the retina, an upside-down image of the object is formed.
- The optic nerve then takes the messages from the retina to the brain.
- The brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside-down image so that you see it
upright.

Accomodation
It is an ability of the eye lens to change shape to focus near and distant objects.

Near objects
Ciliary muscles relax and the lens becomes thicker and shorter.

56
Distant objects
Ciliary muscles contract and the lens becomes thin and longer.

Focusing in dim light

Iris contract and the pupil becomes bigger so that more light enters the eye.

Focusing in bright light

Iris relaxes and the pupil become smaller as that less light enters the eye.

The diagram below shows the pupil changing from dim light intensity to bright light
intensity ( X -> Y)

X Y

Eye Defects and Their Correction

This happens when the eye lens is not able to change the shape of their lenses sufficiently to
produce a sharp, focused image on the retina.

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1. Short-sightedness (Myopia)
The person can see nearby objects clearly and cannot see objects that are far away. They appear
blurred. The image is formed before the retina.

A: Causes
- Eyeball is elongated and the retina is too far back.
- The lens is too curved and cannot be made flat.

Light rays converge before the retina.

Correction
Spectacles with a concave lens to diverge the incoming rays before they reach the cornea.

2. Long sightedness (hypermetropia)

The person cannot see near objects clearly but can see far objects clearly. The lens cannot be
made thick enough to reduce the focal length.

Causes
-Too short eye ball making the retina too close for the focal length.
-The lens cannot be made round enough.

Light rays converge after the retina.

Correction
Spectacles with convex lens to refract the rays before reaching the cornea.

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3. Lack of accommodation (Prebyopia)
Occurs in older people when the lens loses its flexibility. The lens and the ciliary muscles cannot
change the shape of the lens to focus near and far away objects on the retina.

Correction
Biofocal spectacles whose lenses has a top part for looking at distant objects and bottom part for
looking at close by objects, e.g. reading.

4. Astigmatism
A person cannot focus on horizontal and vertical lines at the same time. If the horizontal lines
appear in focus, the vertical one appears blurred.

Correction
Spectacles with cylindrical lenses are used. These are special combinations of convex lenses.

5. Colour Blindness
Faulty cones in the retina. Cannot see red or green.

Eye Diseases

Eye Disease Signs Cause Treatment

Cataracts Clouding/ opaque eye -Old age - replacing the lens
Can lead to lens -Ultra violet rays surgically.
blindness -reduced sharpness of damaging the lens.
vision
-diabetes
-boil on the margins
of eyelid
Sty Boil on the margins of -Poor general health - Antibiotics
eyelid. -Diabetes - Sulphur drugs
- Hot compress
Trachoma -Redness of the -Bacteria (chlamydia - Sulphur drugs

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Can lead to membrane trachomitis) - Antibiotics
blindness -Watery discharge -Overcrowding - Hot compress
-Itchy eyes -Poor hygiene - Improved hygiene
-Swollen eyelids
Sensitivity to light
Conjuctivitis - Swelling under the Germs that can -Cleansing eyelids and
surface of the eyelid. spread by fingers/ lashes with cotton wool
- Watery discharge towels soaked in warm water
- Discharge (mucus twice a day.
and pus) - Eye drops/ ointment
-Burning sensation in - Antibiotics
the eyelid - Sulphur drugs
Night Difficulty in seeing an Lack of vitamin A in -Eat food rich in
blindness night the Diet vitamin A
- Vitamin A tablets
Glaucoma - Patchy lose of -Inrease in pressure -Surgery and
Can cause vision/ clarity of of the eyeball which medication to reduce
diabetes and colours damages the optic the pressure
blindness - Painful eyeball nerves
Retinal Flashes of light are Retina separated Surgery to reconnect
detachment seen from the eyeball due the retina
to injury or it may
just happen

Applications of Light

Parts of a Camera

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1. Lens
Focuses or directs the light rays from an object onto a film at the back of the camera.

2. Diaphragm
Opens and closes the aperture to control the amount of light entering.

3. Aperture
The hole in the centre of the diaphragm which opens and closes to control the amount of light
entering.

4. The shutter
When a picture is taken the shutter opens and closes quickly to let a small amount of light in the
camera. Normally the shutter is closed to prevent light reaching the film.

5. The film
Very sensitive to light and located at the back of the camera. Form images when a picture is
taken.

6. The casing
Painted black on the inside to absorb any stray light.

COMPARISON OF THE EYE AND CAMERA

EYE CAMERA
Lens Lens
Iris Diaphragm
Pupil Aperture
Eyelids Shutter
Retina Film
Choroid Casing

Uses of Different Colours in Communication

Colours can be used to communicate messages to humans, animals, birds and insects.

1. Traffic Control
- Traffic lights
- Lights on vehicles
* Brake lights
* Indicator – showing that the car is turning
* Red lights for ambulance
* Blue lights for police
* Red cross for ambulance
* Road marks
* Safety clothing (white or red stripes)

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2. Red button on remote control (on/ off)

3. Colour coding of electrical cables

4. Colour communication in nature

- Insects like bees and butterflies are attracted to colourful flowers.
- Some insects and frogs use bright orange, yellow and red colours to warn predators that they
are dangerous or to attract other insects for mating or to lure prey.
- Animals, snakes, insects and frogs use colour combinations to camouflage themselves in order
to catch prey or to avoid other predators.
- Fungi use colour to warn predators such as humans that they are poisonous.
- Different species of animals, plants, insects and birds are easily identified by their colour
combinations.

HEAT ENERGY

Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

When an object is heated, the particles gain more kinetic energy. They move apart and the
volume of the object increases. Then the object expands.

Contraction of solids, liquids and gases

When an object is cooled, its particles lose the kinetic energy and move closer. The volume of
the object decreases and the object contracts.

Demonstration
Solids –using a ball and ring
Liquids – heating coloured water
Gases – using a syringe

Uses of Expansion
1. The thermometer
Alcohol and mercury inside the thermometer will expand when heated and contract on cooling
and thus allows us to read the temperature.

2. Bimetallic strip

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Consists of two strips of metals bound together which expand differently when heated. It bends
towards the metal that expands least. Bimetallic strips are used in thermostat to regulate the
temperature, e.g. in devices such as iron, kettle, air conditions, fire alarm, etc.

When the temperature is too high, the strip bends and breaks the contact in the electric current.
When the temperature drops below a certain point the bimetal strip straightens and closes the
contact.

In a fire alarm is opposite what happens in other devices. When the temperature increases the
bimetal strip bends and closes the contact in electric circuit, the fire alarm goes on. When the
temperature drops the bimetal strip straightens and breaks the circuit, the alarm will be off.

Problems associated with expansion and contraction

1. Containers for liquids bursting
Containers must have a space left in the container for the liquid to expand.

2. Buckled railway line

Gaps must be left in railway lines to allow the steel to expand when it is heated.

3. Overhead electric cables are made loose to allow for contraction during winter. If they
are too light, during winter when they contract, they would become too tight and the piles
may break.

4. Barbed wire fences erected in summer must also be left a little slack to allow for
contraction during winter.

5. Gaps are left on bridges to allow for expansion and contraction.

6. Ordinary glass cracking

Glass expands unevenly and cracks

7. Plumbing
Pipes must be given a room to expand and contract when they are laid so that they do not twist
and break.

Methods of heat Transfer

Conduction
Transfer of heat through an object by vibrating and colliding particles without any sign of
movement.

Not all materials will conduct heat very well. Most metals, i.e. iron, copper, zinc, gold, silver and
aluminium are good conductors of heat.
Most non-metals, e.g. rubber, wood, plastic, paper, water, gases and wool are poor conductors of
heat. These materials are called thermal insulators.

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Convection
It is a process by which heat is transferred through fluids (i.e. in liquids or gases) by the
movement of fluid particles.

Convection in Water

Convection causes the warm water to circulate from the bottom of the beaker to the surface and
then back down to the bottom again as it cools. This circulation is known as convection current.

Convection in air
Convection in air happens in exactly the same way as in liquids. Warm air at ground level rises
because the particles move at higher speeds and they occupy a larger volume which in turn leads
to lower density.

Good and bad emitters / absorbers of heat

Dark coloured objects are good absorbers of heat when cold and also good emitters of heat when
hot.
Light coloured objects are poor absorbers of heat when cold and poor emitters of heat when hot.

Conduction, Convection and Radiation in everyday life

Solar water heaters

The infrared (radiation) from the sun pass through the glass cover of the solar panel and absorbed
by the black painted copper pipes in the solar panel. The heat is conducted through the copper
pipes to the water inside the pipe.

The hot water in the pipes rises by convection to the geyser. Here the heat is conducted through
the copper pipe coil to the water in the geyser. As the water in the copper pipe cools, it sinks and
flows back to the solar panel (convection current).

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Vacuum Flask

It makes use of the bad radiation and absorption of heat.

 Plastic lid –a good insulator, so it reduces heat loss or gain by conduction.
 Vacuum –reduces heat loss or gain by convection or conduction as there no particles.
 Silver surfaces –reduces heat loss or gain by radiation as the surfaces reflect heat.
 Glass walls –insulator, soil reduces heat loss or gain by conduction.

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CAR ENGINE

The water around the cylinder becomes hot due to

the heat from the cylinders. The colour of the
radiator is black because is a good absorber of
heat and good emitter of heat. Water passes
through the radiator pipes and the fan cool the
water in the pipes so that the cold water passes
around the cylinders again.

Radiator (Absorbers of heat)

Good- dull black surfaces
Poor- light in colour
-bright shiny surfaces

Radiator (Emitter)
Good – dull black surfaces
Poor – light in colour
- Bright shiny surfaces

Temperature Regulation

Insulation effects of fat in animals

Animals have a layer of fat beneath their skin. This layer of fat is a very good insulator of heat. It
prevents most of the heat produced within the body from escaping to the outside. Animals such
as seal or whale have a thick layer of fat to insulate their body against cold temperatures of sea
water.

However, fat can be a disadvantage in hot conditions when the body needs to lose excess heat.
This may result in death due to heat stroke.

Changing blood flow to the skin

Many animals and birds are able to control the flow of blood to and from their skin. In this way
temperature is increased or decreased by conducting heat through the skin.

Body covered with hair or fur

Mammals have their bodies covered with hair and fur which traps tiny pocket of air. Since air is
a poor conductor of heat, little body heat is lost to the surroundings through conduction. Because
the air is trapped in tiny spaces, no serious loss of heat can occur through convection. In very
cold climates the bodies of animals are covered with fur. The fur is thickest in animals that live
in the coldest places. When it is hot, the fur lies flat to trap as little air as possible. When the
weather is cold, the fur stands out to trap more air and to form an insulating layer on the body.

Body covered with feathers

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The bodies of birds are covered with feathers. The feathers trap pockets of air which insulate the
body. When it is hot, the feathers lie flat to trap as little air as possible. However, if the bird starts
to overheat, its feathers will stand out very far to allow air to circulate near the skin, and to aid
cooling. When the weather is cold the feathers are fluffed out to trap air and form an insulating
layer on the body.
A combination of a thick layer of fat and a thick layer of fur or feathers will produce the best
insulation.

Hibernation
Some cold blooded animals such as snakes, lizards and frogs may hibernate. They bury
themselves in the ground or under rocks and go into a deep sleep to avoid the cold. Some warm-
blooded animals also hibernate, when their body temperature falls. Hibernating animals can
survive for longer periods without food or water.

Shivering
This is an important mechanism for heat gain when the body becomes too cold. It is the
uncontrollable muscle contractions that generate heat for the body.

67
COMMUNICATION IN HUMANS

Communication is sending and receiving information and responding to the message.

Sense Sense Organ Stimulus

Sight Eye Light
Smell Nose Odour
Feeling Skin Pressure(pain, texture, temp)
Hearing Ear Sound, noise
Tasting Tongue Sweet, sour, bitter

ENHANCING THE SENSE OF SIGHT

-Microscopes, magnifying glasses will magnify very small objects
-Telescopes and binoculars magnifies and bring far away objects closer
-Spectacles helps the eye to form images on the retina and have a clear sharp focus.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous controls and coordinates the parts of the body so that they work together e.g. heart
beat, cycling, walking etc.

Composition of the nervous system

Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves

The brain and the spinal cord are known as the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the nerves
are known as the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

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Functions of the nervous system
Allows information to be communicated in two directions
- From the brain to the organs and tissues of the body
- From the sense organ to the brain

1.Sensory nerves carry electrical Impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system.
2.Motor nerves carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

-A stimulated sense organ sends impulses along a sensory nerve to the CNS
-The CNS works out a possible best response to the stimulated sense organ and sends impulses to
the muscle and glands along the motor nerves which will carry out the response.
Voluntary Actions
Are actions which we can control and think about e.g. reading, walking, writing etc.
Involuntary Actions

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This is an automatic action performed without thinking about it e.g. swallowing, coughing,
breathing, heart beat, digestion, shivering through cold, reproductive cycle, producing saliva in
the mouth.

Simple Reflex Action

Are actions done without thinking. The message does not go to the brain but it is sent from the
sense organ to the spinal cord and back to the muscles. E.g. knee jerk –jerking away from pain
-pupil of the eye changing with light

Learned-reflex actions
Actions we do automatically but that we have learned to do as response to a particular stimulus.
We learn the reflex through experience and being trained to do things in our lives, e.g. –being
trained to go to toilet when the bladder is full
- Catching a ball
- Riding a bicycle
- Swimming

HORMONES
Hormones are chemical messengers that control the activities of one or more organs. They are
produced and released by glands in to the bloodstream.

Hormones controls and coordinates functions of the body such as:

-Reproduction -Coping with stress
-Water loss and gain -Energy use and storage
-Growth development

HORMONE GLAND THAT FUNCTION/ EFFECTS OF THE

PRODUCED THE HORMONE
HORMONE
Insulin Beta cells of the Decrease the amount of glucose in the blood.
pancreas Controls energy use in the body.
Glucagon Alpha cells of the Increases the amount of glucose in the blood.
pancreas Controls energy use in the body.
Testosterone Testes Regulates male reproduction. Controls the
development of male secondary sexual
characteristics.
Oestrogen Ovaries -Causes secondary sexual characteristics in
females.
-Causes the lining of the uterus to become
thick.
Progesterone Ovaries Maintains the lining of the uterus
Growth hormone Pituitary gland Stimulates growth
Parathormone Parathyroid gland Increase blood calcium level and decreases
blood phosphate level
Thyroxine Thyroid gland Controls metabolic rate
Thymosins Thymus gland Helps develop a child‟s immune system

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Adrenaline Adrenal gland(the Prepares the body for action in threatening
adrenal medulla) situations
Cortisol Adrenal gland(the Regulates the body‟s response to physical
adrenal cortex) stress such as starvation. Helps the body to
cope with these stresses.
Anti-diuretic hormone Pituitary gland Affects the kidneys and regulates how much
(ADH) (anterior pituitary) water is lost from the body in the urine.
Follicle Stimulating Pituitary glands Activates other hormones, for example for
Hormone (FSH) sperm and egg production

Hormones and medical conditions

There are some conditions that are caused by hormonal imbalances in the body.
Examples
Conditio Hormone Problem with Some signs and Treatment
n involved hormone symptoms
Type-1 Insulin Pancreas does not -Frequent urination The patient is given synthetic
diabetes produce insulin -Dehydration insulin to replace the insulin
mellitus and so blood -Thinness that they are not producing.
glucose is not -Sugar in urine
controlled -Very high blood
properly. This is glucose
known as insulin concentration.
deficiency. -Occurs in young
people and children.
Type-2 Insulin The pancreas -Frequent urination The patient is given
diabetes produce insulin -Person is often medicines that increase the
mellitus but the body does overweight or obese. body‟s sensitivity to insulin.
not respond to -Occurs in older, Exercise and healthy eating
this insulin and so middle- aged people. are also recommended.
blood glucose is -High blood glucose
not controlled concentration.
properly. This is -Tiredness
known as insulin
resistance.
Hypothy Thyroid The thyroid gland -Weight gain If the problem is with the
roidism hormone does not produce -Tiredness gland not producing thyroid
thyroid hormone. -Feeling cold hormone, then the person is
This can be a -A person who is given artificial thyroid
problem with the iodine-deficient will hormone. If the problem is
gland itself also have an with a lack of iodine in the
(common) or with enlarged thyroid diet, then the person is given
a lack of iodine in gland. This is known iodine.
the diet (rare) as a goitre.

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ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electric Circuits: Symbols used in circuit diagrams

Cell Two cells

Connecting wire

Ammeter

Bulb

Resistor

Voltmeter

Switch

Variable resistor

Circuit Diagrams

The path electricity takes is called a circuit. A path that allows electricity to move from a source
to a device and back to the source is called a complete circuit or a closed circuit. Current will
flow in a circuit with gaps (an open circuit). Circuit diagrams are drawn using symbols.
For example: A circuit diagram made up of 1 cell, 1 switch and 1 bulb.
(5 lines)

A circuit diagram made up of 2 cells, 1 switch and 2 bulbs.

(5 lines)

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Series and Parallel circuits

A series circuit is where components are connected together so that there is only one path for the
electrical current to flow through.
(5 lines)
Three cells connected in series and 3 bulbs connected in series.

A parallel circuit is where the components are connected together so that there is more than one
path for electrical current to take.
(7 lines)
Three cells connected in series and three bulbs connected in parallel.

If two or more cells are connected in series we call this a battery. For example, a standard 12
volts battery is made up of 6 cells connected in series.
(If cells are connected in series, the voltage of the individual cells are added together to give the
total voltage of the battery that is formed.)

Electric Current

Electric current is the amount of charge that flows past a fixed point in a conductor every second.

The S I unit for electric current is the ampere (A)

An ammeter is the instrument used to measure current. An ammeter has terminals marked (+)
(positive terminal is red) and (-) (negative terminal is black). The red terminal should be
connected to the positive side of the circuit and the black to the negative side. An ammeter is
always connected in series in the circuit.
(When electricity flows it is referred to as an electric current: The electric current is caused by
the flow of electrons around the circuit.)

The electric current moves from the positive part of a cell to the negative part while electrons
move from the negative to the positive. For electrons to flow, there must be a complete path or a
complete circuit.
(5 lines)

Current in a series circuit

If more cells are used in a circuit more current can flow and the bulb(s) are brighter.
Electric current in a series circuit is the same everywhere. E.g.
(5 lines)

Current measured by Ammeter1 = Ammeter2 = Ammeter3 (A1 = A2 = A3)

If A1 measured 0.3A, A2 would measure 0.3A and A3 will also measure 0.3A (A1.

Current in a parallel circuit

In a parallel circuit the current from the source is a sum of the current in the separate branches.

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 (5 lines)

Current measured by Ammeter1 is equals current measured by Ammeter2 and Ammeter3.

If A1 measures 0.58A, A2 measures 0.28A and A3 measures 0.3A. So current in A1 =
A2 + A3
0.58A = 0.28A + 0.3A
= 0.58A

Potential Difference

Potential difference (p.d) is a measure of the difference in electrical potential energy between
two points in a circuit.
[NB: A source of electricity or electrical energy is needed in order for current to flow. The
electrical source give electrons the energy to flow in a circuit. The force that drives electrons
through a circuit is called the voltage or electro-motive force (e. m. f)

The SI unit for potential difference is the volt (V) and the instrument used to measure voltage is a
voltmeter.
A voltmeter also has two terminals, positive (red terminal) and negative (black terminal). The red
terminal should be connected to the positive part of the battery or cell and the black terminal to
the negative part of the battery or cell.
A voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to the component in a circuit.
(6 lines) measuring voltage across a resistor (bulb) in the circuit

Potential difference (voltage) across components in a series circuit adds up to the total p.d. of the
cell or battery.
For example: (6 lines)

Potential difference (p.d.) (voltage) across components in a parallel circuit is the same
everywhere as the p.d of the cell or battery (known as the terminal p.d.)
(7 lines)

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RESISTANCE – tendency not to allow electric current to follow in a
circuit.
An electron traveling through the wires and loads of the external circuit encounters resistance.
Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of charge. For an electron, the journey from terminal to
terminal is not a direct route. Rather, it is a zigzag path that results from countless collisions with
fixed atoms within the conducting material. The electrons encounter resistance - a hindrance to
their movement. While the electric potential difference established between the two terminals
encourages the movement of charge, it is resistance that discourages it. The rate at which charge
flows from terminal to terminal is the result of the combined affect of these two quantities.

A potential difference will push a current through a device, like a light bulb. A larger potential
difference will push a larger current through the device. The amount of current that flows for a
given potential difference depends on the resistance of the device. The bigger the resistance
the less current that will flow. Resistance is measured in ohms.

Putting resistors together in series makes it more difficult for electric current to flow. The total
resistance of a number of components wired in series is the sum of their individual resistances.

MEASURING RESISTANCE OF METALLIC CONDUCTORS

Resistance measures the opposition the object offers to the flow of electricity.

Resistance Symbol: R
Unit: ohm
ohm Symbol: Ω
Measuring Instrument: ohmmeter
ohmmeter Position: „in series‟

Good conductors have low resistanace.

Insulators have very high resistance.
Set the multimeter switch to the lowest resistance setting.
Tough the leads of the multimeter to the ends of metallic conductor e.g. light bulb.
The digital reading on the multimeter screen is the resistance of the conductor.

The Memory Triangle

Place your finger over the electrical property you wish to calculate.
What you then see is what you do.

V = RI V

I V
R
R I

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 R = V
I

WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits.
Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and
repair.

OHM'S LAW
Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage goes
up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the current goes
down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But
calculating precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical ... nor,
really needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm's Law would be to simply apply
the concepts involved:

SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low, normal, or
too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be high if resistance is
low, or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too high, current will be high .

CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the resistance is
low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high, current will be low.

RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or too high.
If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too high, current will
be low if voltage is okay.

NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current goes up as
resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up. Bypassed devices reduce
resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase resistance, causing low current.

OHM'S LAW FORMULA

When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit. The following special
relationship exists among the voltage, current and resistance within the circuit: the size of the
current that flows in a circuit varies in proportion to the voltage which is applied to the circuit,
and in inverse proportion to the resistance through which it must pass. This relationship is called
Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows:

E=IR
Voltage = Current x Resistance

E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V)

I Current flowing in the circuit, in amperes (A)

R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms

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In practical terms "V = I x R" which means
"Voltage = Current x Resistance".

1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance.

NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How you learned Ohm's
law will determine which one you will use. Personal preference is the only difference; anyone will
get you the correct answer.

OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT

Mathematical formulas can be difficult for many who don't use them regularly. Most people
can remember a picture easier than a mathematical formula. By using the Ohms law symbol
below, anyone can remember the correct formula to use. By knowing any two values you
can figure out the third. Simply put your finger over the portion of the symbol you are
trying to figure out and you have your formula.

Mandatory Practical Activity

Set Up a Simple Electric Circuit Using Appropriate Instruments to Measure

a) Currrent
b) Potential Difference (Voltage)
c) Resistance

Establish the Relationship Between Current, Potential Difference and Resistance.

Set up an electric circuit – battery, conducting wire, switch, rheostat (variable resistor),
ammeter and resistor in series; a voltmeter is placed in parallel to the resistor.
Set the rheostat at maximum resistance.
Close the switch and record the current and voltage.
Use the rheostat to obtain a different current – record the new current and voltage.

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Continue to use the rheostat to obtain new currents and new voltages.
Record all the data in a chart and graph the results putting voltage on the x-axis.

Conductor 1

The rheostat or variable resistor is used to change the current in the circuit.

Voltage V/I
Current
0.1 A 2V 2/0.1 = 20
0.2 A 4V 4/0.2 = 20
0.3 A 6V 6/0.3 = 20
0.4 A 8V 8/0.4= 20
0.5 A 8V 10/0.5 = 20

There is a direct relationship between voltage and current: V/I = constantThe value of the
constant is a direct indication of the resistance of the „conductor‟.Therefore the relationship
between V, I and R is: V/I = R

Conductor 2

Current Voltage V/I

0.1 A 5V 5/0.1 = 50
0.2 A 10 V 10/0.2 = 50
0.3 A 15 V 15/0.3 = 50
0.4 A 20 V 20/0.4 = 50
0.5 A 25 V 25/0.5 = 50

Shown also is how to use the graph to find the value of the current if the voltage (e.g 17.5 V) is
known and also how to find the voltage if the current is known (e.g. 1.5 A) for Conductor 1 and
2.
Relationship Between Voltage, Current and Resistance: V/I = R
Worked Examples on R = V/I Relationship

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Calculate the resistance of a conductor if the current flowing in it is 3 A and the potential
difference across the ends of the conductor is 12 V.

R = V/I V
= 12 V
3A R I

= 4Ω

Calculate the current flowing in a conductor if its resistance is 5 Ω and the potential difference
across the ends of the conductor is 30 V.
I = V/R

= 30 V
5Ω

= 6A

Calculate the voltage across a conductor if its resistance is 4 Ω and the current flowing through it
is 2 A.

V = RxI V

=4Ω x 2A= 8V
R I

THE RESISTANCE OF TWO OR MORE RESISTORS IN A SERIES

R T = R1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in series are also called Potential dividers

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THE RESISTANCE OF TWO OR MORE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE RESISTANCE OF A RESISTOR

- The longer the wire (length) ,the greater the resistance of the conductor
- The thinner the wire (cross sectional area), the greater the resistance of the conductor
- Type of material of the conductor eg copper has very small resistance while of
nichrome is high

THE USE OF RESISTORS IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

When an electric current flows through a resistor, it causes two effects: -

-the resistor gets hot (heating effect uses)

* the heater elements of stoves, irons, kettles, room heaters, and hot water geysers.

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-the voltage drops across the resistor because energy is spent inside the resistor to
drive the electrons through the resistor (uses)
* TRAIN MOVEMENT
SPEED VOLTAGE RESISTANCE
Increases Decreases Increases
Decreases Increases Decreases

*In power tools such as electric drills to reduce or increase the speed of the drill.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Earth Systems: Structure of the Earth

Different layers of the earth

The earth has 3 main layers, i.e. Crust, Mantle and Core which is divided in into 2, the outer and
inner core.
Crust is made up of continental and oceanic crust between 8 and 40 km thick.
Mantle is molten in parts due to high pressure and high temperature. Its about 1900 km thick.
Core: Outer is liquid. It is made up of iron and nickel.
Inner is solid due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.

Earthquakes and Tsunamis

An earthquake (also known as a tremor) is the shaking of the ground caused by sudden
movements in the earth‟s crust and the upper mantle.

Earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth‟s crust that creates vibrations
called seismic waves.

Three main types of seismic waves

*P-wave (primary wave) is a seismic wave similar to a longitudinal wave. It causes the earth or
rock particles to vibrate backwards and forwards.
*S-wave (secondary /slow wave) transmits energy in the same way as a transverse wave. It
causes the rock particles to vibrate up and down.
*L-wave (long / love wave) is a type of transverse wave but vibration is from side (motion is in
the horizontal plane) and at angles to the direction that the wave is travelling. These waves are
destructive to buildings foundations.

Tsunamis are large oceanic waves that are caused by earthquakes that happen under the floor of
the ocean.

Effects of earthquakes, volcanoes, floods and drought on people’s lives

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Earthquakes
-Death and injuries
-Destruction of houses
-Destruction of infrastructure (buildings, roads, power supplies, water pipes, sewage pipes etc
-Cause landslides
-Cause liquefaction
-Cause tsunamis

Volcanoes
Volcanic eruptions emit poisonous gases like hydrogen sulphide which irritates the eyes, nose
and throat and sulphur dioxide causes choking. (Their danger is caused by its hotness and
toxicity)

Floods
Floods create homelessness by displacing people from their homes. Damage or destroy houses.
They cause drowning of people and damage of bridges, plants, trees and farms. They also kill
animals. They also lead to higher prices for the available food.

Drought
-Less food is produced than required for the needs of the population.
-Malnutrition happens because of food scarcity.
-Economy drops especially in countries where agriculture is a big source of income.
-Overcrowding in cities and towns happens because people leave the drought stricken rural areas
to look for work.

Action of human beings may have contributed to increase in natural disasters

1.Land slides
Humanity contributes to the occurrence of landslides by removing trees and doing building
constructions on steep slopes.

2.Earth-quakes
Activities of man like mine blasts and doing nuclear tests can contribute to the occurrence of
earthquakes.

3.Tsunamis
People contribute by indirectly causing landslides and some of these landslides cause tsunamis.

4.Floods
Some floods are caused by the carelessness of humanity and some governments, for instance
letting people stay close to river banks where there are no defensive constructions. This may be
due to lack of planning or proper planning. (There may be no dams or reservoirs to contain flood

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water, there may be no storm drainage on the roads. Excessive urban development leading to
lack of open land where water can be absorbed by the soil.

5.Oversight of geotechnical problems or lack of geotechnical investigation

The development of residential areas in places where no proper tests of the soil were done. This
may lead to a natural disaster where houses sink into the ground.

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