2024/04/18

1. Knowing Life Sciences

KNOWLEDGE AREA: Life at the molecular, cellular and tissue
2. Investigating Phenomena in Life
level
Topic 1: Chemistry of life
Sciences
3. Appreciating and Understanding the
Cell structure and function: the roles of organelles
History, Importance and Applications
of Life Sciences in Society

 Access information  Apply knowledge in new

 Select key ideas contexts Organization
 Recall information  Use knowledge in a new way
 Describe knowledge of NS  Analyse information/data
Critically evaluate scientific
 Build a conceptual framework 
information
Differences in size, shape
 Organise or reorganise
 Recognise relationships and structure of cells.
knowledge
between existing knowledge
 Write summaries
and new ideas
 Develop flow charts and mind
 Identify assumptions Structure of each cell
maps
 Categorise information component
 Recognise patterns and trends

1
 2024/04/18

CELLS
These are the basic unit of life
 Cells are made up of many of the organic
compounds we discussed earlier.
 They are made up of proteins, lipids and TISSUES
Are a group of similar cells that work together to carry a
carbohydrates. common function. Different tissues form organs
 There are small structures within the cell
that carry out various functions.
SYSTEMS
 These structures are called organelles. Various organs work together to carry out a single function.
 Cells are organized in such a way that they All these organs together form a system
form very efficient and complex organisms.
ORGANISM
Different systems function together to form an organism

 Can you give some examples of: 1. Plant cell and animal cell
1. Cells 2. Parenchyma, xylem and muscle, bone
2. Tissues 3. Leaf, flower, root and heart, brain and
3. Organs lung.
4. systems 4. Transport, digestive and reproductive
system

2
 2024/04/18

 Different cells have different sizes.

 Some cells are microscopic while others are  Since cells are so small the normal units of
macroscopic. measurement are too large to use.
 Microscopic cells are so small they cannot be  Therefore different units of measurement are
seen with the naked eye. used.
 They can only be viewed under the microscope.  These units are smaller than centimeters and
even millimeters.
 Some examples of microscopic cells are plant
cell, animal cell and bacteria.  The units of measurement used here are

 Macroscopic cells are large enough to be seen microns and nanometers.

with the naked eye. This means that you do not  In order for us to understand how small these
need the microscope. units really are we compare it to a unit of
 Examples of macroscopic cells are the human measurement that you are familiar with, that is
egg which is as big as the full stop at the end of
this sentence and the ostrich egg cell. millimeters

A micron is represent by the symbol μm. Express the size of the red blood cell in
 A nanometer is represented by the symbol microns. Show all working.
nm.
 The relationship between the micron and
nanometer is shown below…
a. 1mm = 1000 μm
b. 1 μm = 1000 nm
 This information can be used to convert
from nm/ μm to mm or even cm.
 Some examples of the sizes of cells are
a. The human egg is 0.1mm or 100 μm
b. Red blood cell is 0.007 mm

3
 2024/04/18

 0.007 mm = 0.007 X 1000

 Cells have many different shapes and
= 7 μm structures.
 For example some cells have a regular shape
Since 1 000 μm = 1 mm while others have an irregular shape.
 A regular shape means that it as a shape that
can be named, circle, square or rectangle
So to convert form mm to μm we multiply by
etc.
1000 and
 An irregular shape is one that cannot be
To convert from μm to mm we divide by 1000. named and maybe changing, like the
amoeba.
 The shape of the cells has to do with the
function it performs.

 The table below shows the relationship between cell shape

and function. Cell Shape/size Reason for
Cell Shape/size Reason for shape/size
shape/size Red blood cell Biconcave discs This shape allows the
Human nerve cells elongated So that they are able to cell to fit in the blood
transmit impulses over vessels and therefore
great distances allows for easy
movement.
Spongy mesophyll cells Irregular shape This shape means that the
cells cannot fit closely Parenchyma cells Irregular Allows for large
together therefore large spaces between the
spaces are formed between cells that allow for
the cells. These spaces are the movement of
used for transport of gases substances from one
and water. part of the organ to
another.

4
 2024/04/18

 A generalized plant cell  The cytoplasm is surrounded by the cell membrane.

is made up of a cell wall  The cell membrane may also be called the plasma
and the protoplasm. membrane.
 The cytoplasm contains many small structures.
 The protoplasm is all the
 These structures maybe called organelles or
living part of the cell. cytoplasmic inclusions.
 The cell wall surrounds  Examples of the organelles in the plant cells are the
the protoplasm. mitochondria; plastids; ribosomes; vacuole;
 The protoplasm is made
dictyosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
up of the cytoplasm and  Examples of cytoplasmic inclusions are pigments and
lipids
the nucleus as shown in
 In the plant cell the nucleus has a nuclear
the diagram alongside. membrane, nuclearplasm, nucleoli and the
chromatin network.

 In the animal there is no cell

wall.
 Therefore there is only a
protoplasm.
 The protoplasm is made up of
the cytoplasm and nucleus.
 The cytoplasm contains the
following organelles cell
membrane, mitochondria, ER,
dictyosomes and ribosome.
 The nucleus is the same as
the one in the plant cell.
 The most important thing
about the nucleus is that it is
bound by the nuclear
membrane.

5
 2024/04/18

 Look at the previous slide and tabulate 4  Differences between plant and animal cell(√)
visible differences between plant and animal
cells. Plant cell Animal Cell (√)
1. Outermost boundary is 1. Outermost boundary is
the cell wall the cell membrane (√)
2. Has a regular shape 2. Has an irregular shape
(√)
3. Chloroplast present 3. No chloroplast present
(√)
4. Has a single large 5. Small vacuole. (√)
vacuole

6
 2024/04/18

 The middle lamella is a thin membranous layer.

 The cell wall is  It is found between two plant cells.
made up of 3 parts.  The primary cell wall is found on the inside of

 These three parts

the middle lamella.
 The primary cell wall is made up of cellulose.
are the:
 All mature tissue contain the primary cell wall.
 The secondary cell wall develops on the inside
a. The middle lamella
of the primary cell wall.
b. Primary wall
 The secondary cell wall is found in only in some
c. Secondary wall
specialized cells.
 It can be made up of lignin or suberin.

 The protoplasm is all the living parts of the

 Since it is found on the outside one of its most cell.
important is protection. It provides all  It is made up of the cytoplasm and the

the contents of the cell with protection. nucleus.

 It encloses cell.  Also includes all the organelles and

 Gives the cell shape. inclusions found in the cytoplasm.

 Provides a framework and support for the cell.  Parts of the protoplasm is shown

 The middle lamella binds the cells together. in the diagram alongside.
 The cell wall is permeable, so it is involved in
transport, allow most substances to pass
through.

7
 2024/04/18

 The cell membrane may also be called the

 The cytoplasm includes the cell membrane, plasma membrane or the plasma lemma.
the sol, the gel, inclusions and organelles.  It is the outermost boundary of the
 The organelles are membrane bound cytoplasm.
structures that have specific functions.  No one has seen the cell membrane,
 Some of these organelles are plastids, because it is so thin that it cannot be seen
mitochondria and ER. even with the most powerful electron
microscope.
 We shall look at some of the structures of
 Scientist however have studied the cell
the cytoplasm. membrane, studying its behavior under
various conditions and used these result to
come up with theories or models on the
structure of the cell membrane.

These lipids and proteins are

arranged in the following way:
 One such model or theory is called the There are two layers of
fluid mosaic model. phospholipids that are stuck
together.
The protein molecules are
 Thismodel was put forward in 1972 by Singer arranged throughout these two
and Nicholson. layers.
Some the protein molecules go
 According to this model the cell membrane right through the two layers ,
is made up of lipids and proteins. while some only go partly
through the two layers.
There are small openings
found at regular intervals.
These openings are called
pores and they are about 1
nm in size.
They allow only some
substances to pass through.

8
 2024/04/18

 Substances need to enter and leave the cell in

order for the cell to carry out its functions.
 In an animal cell the cell membrane functions to  For example waste substances like carbon
protect the contents of the cell because it is dioxide need to leave the cell and glucose need
the outermost layer. to enter the cell for cellular respiration.
 The most important function of the cell  These substances need to move across the
membrane is that it controls the entry and exit membranes of the cell in order for them to enter
of certain substances only. and leave a cell.
 There 3 ways in which substances can enter and
 Unlike the cell wall it does not allow all
leave the cell.
substances to enter or leave the cytoplasm. It
 These 3 ways are:
selects the substances that are allowed to
enter or leave the cell membrane. Therefore 1. Diffusion

the cell membrane can also be called the 2. Osmosis

selectively permeable membrane. 3. Active transport.

 Diffusion is the movement of liquid or gas  Gases enter and leave the cells through
particles from a region of high diffusion. Oxygen enters the cells and
concentration to a region of low alveoli of the lung by diffusion and carbon
concentration until equilibrium is reached. dioxide leaves the cells and the alveoli of the
 These particles are able to move because of lung by diffusion.
their kinetic energy.  Glucose and amino acids leaves the
 Therefore the rate of diffusion can be intestines and enters the cells by diffusion.
altered by increasing or decreasing the
kinetic energy of these particles.

9
 2024/04/18

 Osmosis is the movement of a liquid from a

region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration across a differentially permeable  Water enters and leaves plant and animal
membrane until equilibrium is reached. cells by osmosis.
 Another way of say this is the movement of a  This water carries useful substances such as
liquid from a dilute to a concentrated solution nutrients with it as it enters the cell.
across a differentially permeable membrane
 It also carries waste substances out with ,it
until equilibrium has been reached.
as it leaves a cell.
 Water usually moves into and out of a cell by
osmosis.
 When water enters a cell by osmosis then
endosmosis has occurred.
 When water leaves a cell by osmosis then
exosmosis has occurred.

 Substances usually move or are moved from a

region of high concentration to a region of  Mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm of
low concentration. both plant and animal cells.
 Sometimes it is necessary to move in the  Their numbers vary in the different cells.
opposite direction, that is from a low to high  The more active the cell the larger the
concentration. number of mitochondria present.
 When this occurs we say that they are
 Therefore a muscle cell will have many more
moving or being moved or absorbed against a
concentration gradient. mitochondria than say for example the skin
 This type of transport is called active
cell or the amoeba.
transport.
 This transport needs energy in order for it to
occur.

10
 2024/04/18

 The mitochondrion  The inner

has a cigar or
elongated shape. membrane is
 They can also be folded into finger
spherical or thread- like structures.
like in shape.
 These structures
 It is surrounded by a
double membrane. are called the
 The double
cristae.
membrane is made up  The inner
of an outer membrane
membrane and an
inner membrane. encloses a ground
substance.

 The ground substance is called the matrix.

 The DNA, RNA and the ribosomes are found  Themitochondria is the site of cellular
in the matrix. respiration.
 The diagram below is of the mitochondria.  Cellular respiration is the process during
 This diagram is called a micrograph. which energy is released.
 Try to identify the different parts of the  Since they are responsible for the release of
mitochondria in the energy they are often called the
micrograph. powerhouse of the cell.

11
 2024/04/18

 Plastidsare found in plant cells only.  These are the:

 They are small in size.
a) Chloroplast
 They may be disc-shaped, ovoid or
irregularly shaped organelles.
 There are 3 types of
plastids.  These are green organelles.
 They are green in colour because they contain
the pigment chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll has two important functions:
1. Gives parts of the plant their green colour.
2. It traps sunlight for photosynthesis.

b) Chromoplast c) Leucoplast

 These are colourless plastids.

 These are plastid have an irregular shape
 These plastids are found in the parts of the
 They maybe coloured red, orange or yellow.
plant not exposed to sunlight.
 The pigments carotenes and xanthophylls are
 Their function is to store foods in different
responsible for this colour.
forms e.g. starch, lipids and proteins.
 They give colour to fruit, flowers and leaves

12
 2024/04/18

 The chloroplast is a  The ground

disc shaped substance is
organelle. called the stroma.
 It is surrounded by a  Found in the
double membrane, stroma are stacks
an inner and outer
of coin likes
membrane
structures.
 A ground substance
 Each stack is
is found within the
double membrane. called the
granum

 Each granum is  The chlorophyll is

made up of many found within each
coin like thylakoid.
structures.  One granum is
 Each coin like joined to another
structure is called by the intergranal
the thylakoid. lamella.
 Each thylakoid is  Also found in the
made up of stroma are starch
membranes called granules and Intergranal lamella
lamella. ribosome.

13
 2024/04/18

 Carefully study the micrograph below.

 The starch granules are used to store starch
 The ribosomes are used during the
manufacture of enzymes that are used for
the process of photosynthesis.

 Study the micrograph below and answer the

questions that follow:

1. Identify the organelle shown.

2. Give two visible reasons for you answer.
3. Make a labelled drawing of the above
micrograph.

14
 2024/04/18

 Theseare a system of tubes that are

1. Chloroplast enclosed by membranes.
2. Presence of starch granule and grana
3. Your teacher will draw the diagram on the
board for you.

 These are the smooth ER and the rough ER.

 They are found in both plant and animal
cells.
 They seem to be continuous with the cell
membranes and nuclear membrane.
 There are two types of ER.

 The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it

to give it the rough appearance, while the
smooth ER has no ribosomes.

15
 2024/04/18

 The Golgi apparatus is also called the

dictyosomes.
 It was first identified in 1898 in the brain
cells by Camillo Golgi.
 They occur in both plant and animal cells.
 They occur in larger numbers and are bigger
in size in secretory cells.
 They are well developed in the goblet cells
in the alimentary canal.
 Therefore it is thought that they have a
secretory function.

 These are small, grain-like substances.  The vacuoles are fluid filled organelles
 They are found in the cytoplasm, or on the  Each vacuole is surrounded by a membrane.
ER, in the plastids and even in the  This membrane is called the tonoplast.
mitochondria.  The tonoplast encloses a liquid.
 Each ribosome is made up of two parts,
 This liquid is called the cell sap.
protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 The cell sap is a solution of water and
 The ribosome is the site of protein
dissolved substances.
synthesis.
 Some of these dissolved substances are
 This means that it is the place on which
proteins are made. salts, sugar and protein.

16
 2024/04/18

 Vacuoles also have a type of pigment called  These are more or less round vesicles.
anthocyanins.  They are mostly found in animal cells.
 These anthocyanin are responsible for the
 They are surrounded by a single membrane.
blue, violet, dark red or scarlet colour of
certain parts of the plant.  The lysosome contain digestive enzymes.
 The cell sap also creates pressure within the  Lysosmes fuse with the food vacuole and
cell. the digestive enzymes are released into the
 This pressure is called turgor pressure. food vacuole.
 Turgor pressure maintains the shape of the  These enzymes digest the food.
cell.  This type of digestion is called
 Vacuoles are found in both plant and animal intracellular digestion.
cells.

Intra means within Intracellular digestion is when digestion occurs

inside the cell.
 Therefore intracellular means within
the cell.
Inter means between.
 Therefore intercellular means between the
cells.

Can you explain what intracellular digestion

means?

17
 2024/04/18

 The centrosome is an area of the cell.  The centrioles are made up of small tubular
 They contain cylindrical structures called bodies or microtubules.
the centrioles as shown below:  The exact function is unknown.
 However during cell division in animal cells,
the centrioles move towards the ends of the
cells.
 These ends are called the poles.
 At the poles centrioles are responsible
for forming the spindle fibers.

 The nucleus is a large, darkly stained body  The nucleus is bound by a double membrane
found in both plant and animal cells. called the nuclear membrane.
 In animal cells they are found in the centre  The nuclear has pores on it. These pores are
of the cell in plant cells they are not found called nuclear pores. These pores allow
in the centre because of substances to enter and leave
the large vacuole. the nucleus.
 Within the nuclear membrane
there is a ground substance
called the nucleoplasm.

18
 2024/04/18

 Two important structures are embedded in A single chromosome is made up of two

the nucleoplasm. chromatids that are held together by a
 These two substances are the nucleolus and centromere.
chromatin network.
 The chromatin network is a tangled mass of
thread like structures.
 These thread-like structures are called
chromosomes
 Each chromosome is made up of two parts.
 Thenucleolus is a darkly stained body
 These two parts are the chromatids and found at the centre of the nucleoplasm.
centromere.

 The functions of the nucleus are as follows:  Cells:These are the basic unit of life
1. It controls all activities of the cell.  Tissues: Are a group of similar cells that
2. It controls the production of enzymes. work together to carry a common function
3. It is responsible for the transmission of  Microscopic cells: are so small they
hereditary characteristics from parent to cannot be seen with the naked eye.
offspring.
 Macroscopic cells: are large enough to be
seen with the naked eye.
 Protoplasm: is all the living part of the
cell.

19
 2024/04/18

 Diffusion is the movement of liquid or gas

particles from a region of high concentration  Active transport is when a substance is
to a region of low concentration until moved or absorbed against a concentration
equilibrium is reached gradient and it requires energy.
 Osmosis is the movement of a liquid from a  Cellular respiration is the process during
region of high concentration to a region of which energy is released.
low concentration across a differentially  Intra means within
permeable membrane until equilibrium is
 Intracellular means within the cell.
reached.
 Inter means between.
 Endosmosis is when water enters a cell by
osmosis.  Intercellular means between the cells.

 Exosmosis is when water leaves a cell by  Intracellular digestion is digestion that

osmosis. occurs within the cell.

Similar cells that work together to perform a

The basic unit of life is a … common function is the…

A. Cell A. Cell
B. Tissue B. Tissue
C. Organ C. Organ
D. System D. System

20
 2024/04/18

Cells that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
are called… The protoplasm…

A. Macroscopic A. is all the living part of the cell.

B. Microscopic B. includes the cytoplasm and nucleus.
C. Nanometic C. A only
D. None of the above. D. Both A and B.

The function of the cell wall is… The cell membrane is made up of …

A. To enclose the cell A. Fatty acids and glycerol

B. Control all activities of the cell. B. Lipids and carbohydrates
C. Give the plant its green colour C. Proteins and carbohydrates
D. To trap sunlight D. Proteins and lipids

21
 2024/04/18

The middle lamella is a part of the… The cell component that is not involved in osmosis
is…
A. Cell membrane A. Chloroplast
B. Cell wall B. Mitochondrion
C. Nuclear membrane C. Cell membrane
D. Tonoplast D. Cell wall

The micrograph is of…

The semi-permeable membrane that encloses the
animal cell is…
A. Chloroplast
A. Cell wall B. Mitochondria
B. Cell membrane C. ER
C. Tonoplast D. Golgi apparatus
D. Nuclear membrane

22
 2024/04/18

The micrograph is of the… The micrograph shows the …

A. Chloroplast A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria B. Mitochondria
C. ER C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus D. Golgi apparatus

The organelle shown is the… Small disc shaped, pigment containing organelles found
A. Chloroplast in plant cells only are…
B. Mitochondria
C. ER A. Plastids
D. Golgi apparatus B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus

23
 2024/04/18

The powerhouse of the cell is the…

The darkly stained body in a cell is the…

A. Chloroplast
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
C. Nucleus
D. Golgi apparatus
D. Golgi apparatus

The projections on the inner membrane of the

mitochondria is the… The membranous vesicles which have a secretory in
function is…
A. Golgi apparatus A. Golgi apparatus
B. Leucoplast B. Leucoplast
C. Cristae C. Cristae
D. Grana D. Grana

24
 2024/04/18

The colourless plastid…

A. Golgi apparatus
B. Leucoplast
C. Cristae
D. Grana

25