IMMT International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing

Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 (43pp) [Link]

Topical Review

Porous metal implants: processing,

properties, and challenges
Amit Bandyopadhyay∗, Indranath Mitra, Jose D Avila,
Mahadev Upadhyayula and Susmita Bose
W. M. Keck Biomedical Materials Research Lab, School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering,
Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States of America

E-mail: amitband@[Link]

Received 23 December 2022, revised 26 March 2023

Accepted for publication 9 June 2023
Published 13 July 2023

Abstract
Porous and functionally graded materials have seen extensive applications in modern
biomedical devices—allowing for improved site-specific performance; their appreciable
mechanical, corrosive, and biocompatible properties are highly sought after for lightweight and
high-strength load-bearing orthopedic and dental implants. Examples of such porous materials
are metals, ceramics, and polymers. Although, easy to manufacture and lightweight, porous
polymers do not inherently exhibit the required mechanical strength for hard tissue repair or
replacement. Alternatively, porous ceramics are brittle and do not possess the required fatigue
resistance. On the other hand, porous biocompatible metals have shown tailorable strength,
fatigue resistance, and toughness. Thereby, a significant interest in investigating the
manufacturing challenges of porous metals has taken place in recent years. Past research has
shown that once the advantages of porous metallic structures in the orthopedic implant industry
have been realized, their biological and biomechanical compatibility—with the host bone—has
been followed up with extensive methodical research. Various manufacturing methods for
porous or functionally graded metals are discussed and compared in this review, specifically,
how the manufacturing process influences microstructure, graded composition, porosity,
biocompatibility, and mechanical properties. Most of the studies discussed in this review are
related to porous structures for bone implant applications; however, the understanding of these
investigations may also be extended to other devices beyond the biomedical field.
Keywords: porous metals, load-bearing implants, 3d printing, additive manufacturing,
mechanical properties, biological properties

∗
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any fur-
ther distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the
title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd on behalf of the IMMT
2631-7990/23/032014+43$33.00 1
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

1. Introduction improving medical care and medication, patient self-heath

awareness, and the ability to catch early-stage illnesses, the
Porous metals were first introduced in 77 AD when gold- average lifespan of society has increased, and demand for
smiths used a newly discovered granulation process to prepare an increase in the operational life of load-bearing articulat-
aesthetically pleasing jewelry [1]. To this day, derivations ing implants has also increased. Alternatively, for the younger
of this approach are used when processing porous metals members of society, greater trust in medical care has allowed
or metallic foams. Modern derivations began in the early for more reparative surgeries, which return normal biomech-
20th century when powderized metals were sintered to form anical motion of a limb or joint. One challenge associated
first-of-a-kind porous metals for various engineering applica- with implantation into a more youthful society is that the
tions. Since then, this method has been used successfully to implants will most commonly undergo more significant mech-
prepare filters, batteries, self-lubricating bearings, etc. [2, 3]. anical stresses with an increased exposure rate. Therefore, a
Although the commercial investigation into porous metals push for improved implant performance and lifespan is imper-
began in 1925, the progress was slow until the 1980s [4]. Since ative; investigating and innovating porous metallic implant
then, the widespread commercial availability of varying por- structures with stiffness closer to bone and interconnected
ous metallic materials for various applications has steadily porosity is deemed highly significant. These implants should
increased. Porous metals are often the best option in structural promote metabolite and nutrient exchange and allow bone
engineering, where lightweight and high mechanical prop- ingrowth leading to improved implant-tissue anchorage and
erties, high surface area, and/or interconnected porosity are interfacial strength [16]. Furthermore, a porous implant sur-
needed. Although porous ceramic [5, 6] and porous polymeric face allows for the introduction of a compliant layer; this
materials [7–11] are also available, porous metallic materials layer should mimic the natural bone joint, such as the hip
offer unique properties that are often difficult to accomplish joint, and reduce wear-related issues [17]. The consolida-
with other material systems. For example, porous polymeric tion of these requirements when considering implant mater-
materials lack in both sufficient mechanical strength and high- ial design will allow for the reduction in revisional surger-
temperature stability. Alternatively, porous ceramic materials ies and increase operational life. A significant reason behind
possess inherent brittleness, which limits their use in applica- the lack of interest in porous metallic materials until recently
tions requiring high toughness and fatigue resistance [12, 13]. was the lack of substantial mechanical strength and lower
Using porous metals for orthopedic implants began with fatigue resistance [13]. However, recent manufacturing tech-
osseointegration devices [14]. Early on, many disadvantages niques have improved the properties of porous metals, and the
with the use of dense metals as orthopedic implants were drive to develop improved and longer-lasting implant struc-
observed; specifically, the main disadvantage was the mis- tures have reinvigorated interest in the area.
match in effective Young’s modulus of the bulk implant struc- Mechanical properties and the applicability of porous struc-
ture (110 GPa for titanium (Ti); 193 GPa for stainless steel tures for load-bearing implantation sites depend highly on
(SS316L); 220–230 GPa for cobalt-chrome alloys) and the factors such as pore interconnectivity, open porosity, pore
surrounding bone, which ranges from 10–30 GPa. Compared size, phases present, compositional variations, grain size, etc.
to the host tissue, the difference in effective stiffness of the Naturally, most studies investigating porous metal applicabil-
implant inherently allowed for the physical phenomena known ity for biomedical implants. Therefore, studying a novel fab-
as stress shielding. When the effective stiffness of the implant rication technique focus on and evaluate the mechanical prop-
is significantly greater than that of the surrounding hard tis- erties, corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, and biological
sue, the implant shields the host tissue from applied loads; compatibility, of biomaterials; all of which are directly linked
this promotes uneven localized loading events and limits bone to the cell morphology and factors of which have an influence
compliance during mechanical loading. The stress shielding on cell attachment and integration into the host tissue.
event may cause premature failure by aseptic loosening, where Material structure cell morphologies, to an extent, tend to
the host tissue becomes idle from insufficient use, also known depend on the fabrication techniques and, in some cases, the
as bone resorption. The second is the separation and frac- parameters used in the fabrication process. For instance, ran-
ture at the host tissue–implant interface due to insufficient tis- dom foaming processes form closed-cell porosity, where the
sue anchorage [15]; bulk non-porous implant materials tend to pore morphology depends on the fabrication process paramet-
exhibit weaker interfacial bonding with the surrounding bone ers. Similarly, open-cell porous structures may be fabricated
tissue. Surface texturing, such as surface roughening or lattice- by solid-state fusion of metal powder, fibers, decomposition of
designed surface porosity, may remedy this issue and thus lead foaming agents in liquid metals, or vapor deposition. While the
us to the topic at hand. solid-state fusion of powdered metals and the vapor deposition
The typical lifetime for total hip replacement (THR) methods can produce controlled and higher open-cell poros-
remained nearly unchanged for the last fifty years, averaging ities, using foaming agents in molten metal matrices usually
10–15 years of operational use [16]. This was particularly so produces lower and less predictable porosities in closed-cell
because most THR surgical procedures were performed in [18]. Thus, some of the fabrication techniques, based on the
patients age 65 or greater, thus, creating a lack of impetus type of pore morphology produced, are discussed and tabu-
for an implant of a greater operational lifetime. However, a lated in table 1 [13], and some of the commercially available
general trend of these procedures being performed on much fully porous and porous-coated implants, their applications
younger patients has been observed in recent years. With and description are reported in table 2 [19].

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Table 1. Porous metal fabrication techniques categorized based on implants has certain limitations. Closed porosity reduces a por-
the pore morphology. ous structure’s effective modulus and density, reducing the
Porosity type Fabrication methods Pore distribution susceptibility for the occurrence of stress shielding. However,
bone ingrowth would be compromised due to the lack of inter-
Gas Foaming Method connected open porosity and surface wettability, thus limiting
Random
Closed-Cell Decomposition of Foaming protein adhesion and subsequent cell attachment. Therefore,
agents
bone cement or another fixation means must hold the implant
Plasma Spraying Method Graded
for osseointegration. Again, depending on the fabrication
Metal powder sintering method used, the closed-cell pores can be either random or
Metal fiber sintering
graded in distribution. The method for producing metal foams
Plasma-spraying
Non-homogeneous from molten metal due to gas introduction can be categorized
Replication
Open-Cell Combustion synthesis into gas foaming and in situ gas generation by decomposition
Space-holder technique of foaming agents [26]. While gas injection into molten metal
Wire mesh oriented orderly and decomposition of foaming agents would produce ran-
Vapor deposition Homogeneous domly distributed porosity, plasma spraying would produce
Additive manufacturing graded pore distribution [13].

2.1.1. Gas foaming method. The method of self-formation

With each technique, challenges may arise, but porous
of metal foams has been considered one of the most econom-
implants have inherent challenges that need to be resolved.
ical methods. The porosity in the metal foams generated by
Porous structures display lower mechanical strength, which
such methods is produced via self-evolution based on phys-
is disadvantageous for load-bearing and load-bearing artic-
ical principles. Thereby, the stochastic nature and unpredict-
ulating applications. The fatigue life of porous structures is
ability of the cell structure are inevitable. Moreover, since the
significantly reduced due to stress concentration sites at the
metal melt has high surface energy and low viscosity, certain
neck region of each pore. The increased surface area of por-
additives and surfactants would be required to stabilize the cell
ous structures tends to increase corrosion rates. Moreover, as
walls by lowering surface energy and increasing the viscos-
mentioned before, surface porosity affects implant anchoring
ity, thereby increasing the bubbles’ stability [19]. A specific
by influencing bone ingrowth. Porous metal structures’ corro-
method of the gas foaming process is melt gas injection (MGI),
sion and wear properties depend on the structure’s porosity,
as displayed in figure 2; this method involves using conven-
hardness, and resistance to plastic deformation. It is neces-
tional foundry procedures to prepare a metal matrix composite
sary to understand a porous structure’s physical, mechanical,
consisting of additives and surfactants. In previous work, the
and biological properties based on its porosity, microstruc-
additives have been ceramic particles such as SiC or Al2 O3
ture, and composition, some of which vary drastically depend-
and are added into the melt. In its molten state, gas is injected
ing on the fabrication process. Therefore, in this review art-
as small bubbles throughout the melt; the additives trap the gas
icle, different fabrication processes for manufacturing por-
bubbles, delay their coalescence due to their higher interfacial
ous metal structures have been discussed; microstructural and
energies, and stabilize the cell walls. Moreover, the presence
compositional influences of these processes have been elab-
of the additives increases the viscosity, decreasing the velo-
orated on. Additionally, an effort has been made to compare
city of the rising bubbles [26–28]. Then, using a conveyor belt
porous implant structures’ physical, mechanical, and biolo-
system, the generated foam is carried away, cooled, and solidi-
gical properties based on their fabrication process. In sum-
fied. In this process, it was observed that the size of the bubbles
mary, a knowledge-based discussion of the challenges and
was controlled by changing the gas flow rate, the propeller’s
possible future direction for the fabrication and application
design, and the propeller’s speed. The metal foam produced
of porous metallic implants is presented; some currently pro-
by this method offered a density gradient and elongated or
duced implants have been summarized in figure 1.
distorted cell morphology with corrugations in the cell wall.
Additionally, the produced unit displayed anisotropy, hetero-
2. Fabrication methods for porous metals geneity, and lower mechanical properties [29–31]. It was later
observed that these metal foam features could be improved by
Porous metal structures can be classified into closed-cell and pulling the foam vertically [32]. For more complex part fab-
open-cell porous structures, as listed in table 1. Considering rication, numerous attempts were made by casting the semili-
that the type of porosity is dependent, to an extent, on the fab- quid foam into melds or shaping it using rolls, as displayed in
rication process, several fabrication methods have been dis- figure 2(b) [33, 34].
cussed in this section.
2.1.2. Decomposition of foaming agents in a melt. An
alternative method for producing metal foams is by produ-
2.1. Fabrication methods for closed-cell porous metals
cing gas within the melt itself; this is typically done by adding
While closed-cell porous metal structures might be help- foaming or blowing agents to the melt and not by gas injec-
ful in various industrial applications, their use in orthopedic tion from an external source. The foaming agent decomposes

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Table 2. Commercially available porous metal structures or porous coatings and their applications.

Fabrication methods Commercial name Description Application

TM
CSTi Powder Sintering with pressure. Hip and Knee
Porous Ti coating Surgeries
Porosity: 50%–60%
Pore Size: 400 µm–600 µm
Stiffness: 106–115 GPa
CoCr beads Powder Sintering
Porous CoCrMo coating
Sintering Porosity: 30%–50%
Pore Size: 100 µm–400 µm
Stiffness: 206 GPa
Fiber Metal Sintering
Porous Ti coating
Porosity: 40%–50%
Hip Surgery
Pore Size: 100 µm–400 µm
Stiffness: 106–115 GPa
TritaniumTM Low-temperature arc vapor deposition
of the polyurethane foam shell
Porous Ti coating
Porosity: 60%
Pore Size: 616 µm
Stiffness: 106–115 GPa
Vapor Deposition
Trabecular MetalTM Chemical Vapor Deposition Hip and Knee
infiltrating Carbon skeleton. Surgeries
Open cell
Porous Ta
Porosity: 75%–85%
Pore Size: 550 µm
Stiffness: 2.5–3.9 GPa Hip and
Porous Plasma RegenerexTM Porous Ti Shoulder
Processing Porosity: 67% Surgeries
Pore Size: 300 µm
Stiffness: 1.6 GPa
StiktiteTM Porous Ti coating Hip and Knee
Porosity: 60% Surgeries
Pore Size: 500 µm
Stiffness: 106–115 GPa

within the melt, generating gas in situ, thus producing metal with porosity >50% [43]. The metal powder is added to the
foams [37–39]. Once the desired viscosity is obtained, the carrier gas, which is injected into the hot plasma jet stream,
melt and the foaming agent are added to the casting mold. where the metal powder is brought to its melting point, acceler-
The foamed metal expands gradually at a constant pressure ated, and impinged onto the substrate with high kinetic energy.
conforming to the mold, illustrated in figure 2(c) [40]. The The plasma spraying process can be done in a controlled envir-
metal foams produced by this technique have displayed a onment to avoid the influences of the surrounding atmosphere
high degree of homogeneity [40, 41]. Typical foaming agents [42]. The schematic representation of the process is shown
observed in the field have been TiH2 and ZrH2 [41]. Porous in figure 3(a) [13]. The porosity of the coating produced by
aluminum slabs or cast Al alloys with 10–20 vol. % SiC or this method is altered by varying the spray parameters. The
Al2 O3 particles have been produced by the decomposition of porous coating deposited on the substrate comprises of the
the foaming agent method [40, 41]. starting material matrix with some spontaneously generated
phases owing to the short reaction time. The porosity of these
coatings varied largely in 3 layers: a very dense inner layer
2.1.3. Plasma spraying method. Plasma spraying primarily that enabled desirable mechanical, metallurgical, and physical
produces functionally graded porous coatings or completely bonding properties, a middle layer consisting of a combination
porous parts [42]. Functionally graded porous structures offer of micro and macro pores, and an outer layer that largely con-
a rough and porous surface for the bone tissue to grow within tained macro pores [44, 45]. The porosity of these coatings is
and anchor to the implant. The versatility of this method is irregular and has low interconnectivity, figure 3(b) [42], how-
such that it can produce porous coatings on dense substrates ever current research in this field has shown that these coatings

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 1. AM-produced porous-metal structures by the research and industrial sector. (a) Porous Nitinol cage for anterior intervertebral
fusion produced by combustion synthesis, higher magnification image displaying the irregular pore morphology. Reproduced from [20].
CC BY 4.0. (b) Fabricated TiO2 nanotubes on the surface of porous Ti implant. Reproduced from [21], with permission from Springer
Nature. (c) Porous hip stems produced with varying porosity. Reprinted from [22], Copyright (2010), with permission from Elsevier.
(d) DED-LENSTM in vivo cylindrical samples with 25% porosity. Reproduced from [21], with permission from Springer Nature. (e) Micro
CT imaging of DED produced porous Ti samples and (f) the respective 3D reconstruction [23], 2010, reprinted by permission of the
publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, [Link].) (g) Porous tantalum trabecular metal (PTTM) dental implant displaying the Ti
body and Ta porous surface [24], John Wiley & Sons. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (h) 3D systems powder bed fusion produced samples
with varying cell-size and strut-size. Reprinted from [25], Copyright (2022), with permission from Elsevier and (i) powder bed fusion
produced porous acetabular cup.

can be doped with anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, recovery size of the porous surface and the strength of fixation with the
period and with natural medicinal compounds to promote cell surrounding tissue has also been determined [49]. Many stud-
attachment and phenomena such as angiogenesis, as displayed ies have concluded that open porosity improves implant wet-
in figures 3(c)–(f) [46, 47]. A. Vu reported that thymol and tability and aids bodily fluids flow, thus improving osseointeg-
carvacrol-loaded hydroxyapatite displayed bacterial inhibition ration when >100 µm pore size is present [50]. The porosity
of Staphylococcus epidermidis and reduced osteoclast resorp- is either homogeneously or non-homogeneously distributed
tion pit formation [46]. The objective was to derive a natural based on the processing method. Discussed are several fab-
medicinal system that would prompt bone healing with antibi- rication methods for producing open-cell porous implants or
otic infection prevention. coatings.

2.2. Fabrication methods for open-cell porous metals

2.2.1. Sintering. Sintering is one of the oldest and most
Most commonly, implants are fixed in place with the help evolved techniques in powder metallurgy for producing
of bone cement or metal screws. However, the major draw- density-controlled materials. The basic concept of the pro-
back to bone cement is fragmentation which can result in cess is to prepare powder (metal/ceramics) by compacting
foreign body response to the released debris; this mode of and binding powdered raw material and providing thermal
implant fixation usually leads to periprosthetic osteolysis, energy for the compacted powder for densification and grain
early aseptic loosening, and failure of the implant [48]. For growth. In this process, the powder particles bond at high tem-
quicker healing after implantation, osseointegration is crit- peratures with minor changes to the initial powder particle
ical. Osseointegration, meaning, bone tissue ingrowth into the shape. Binders hold the powder particles together, providing
implant surface. The correlation between the morphology and enough area for mass transport during solid-state diffusion.

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 2. Two established processes for producing metal foam structures. (a) Schematic diagram of the melt gas injected (MGI) process.
Reproduced from [35]. CC BY 4.0. (b) Sectional view of an alternate MGI process for manufacturing complex shapes. Reproduced from
[34]. CC BY 2.0. (c) Manufacturing process of ALPORAS for metal foam production. [36] John Wiley & Sons. © 2000 WILEY-VCH
Verlag GmbH, Weinheim, Fed. Rep. of Germany.

Figure 3. The plasma spray technique along with research produced samples. (a) Schematic representation of plasma spraying process. The
porosity of the coating may be varied by altering spraying parameters (b) Cross-sectional view of plasma sprayed coating on a substrate.
Reprinted from [13], Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier. (c) Induction plasma-sprayed carvacrol/thymol-loaded
hydroxyapatite (HA) on Ti64 substrate and (d) high magnification SEM micrographs of after-release study. Reprinted with permission from
[46]. Copyright (2020) American Chemical Society. (e) Displays HA-coated and (f) ZnSiAg-HA doped coatings on Ti64 substrate.
Reprinted from [47], Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier.

Due to this technique’s highly evolved nature, many studies the compaction pressure, and the temperature and time of
on porous orthopedic implant structures have employed sin- sintering. It was observed that the compaction pressure and
tering or modified versions of sintering for preparing porous the sintering temperature significantly impact the microstruc-
metal structures. tural and mechanical properties of the porous sintered metals.
The porosity of the sintered structures can be con- In general, it was observed that sintered Ti compacts at
trolled by tailoring the shape and size of the metal powder, 1173 K, 1373 K, and 1573 K at no applied pressure; as the

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 4. SEM micrographs of the fracture surface microstructure of porous Ti compacts sintered at (a) 1173 K, (b) 1373 K, and
(c) 1573 K. Reprinted from [51], Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier. Figure (d) displays the cross-sectional microstructure of
functionally graded Ti produced by stacked sintering. Reproduced from [45], with permission from Springer Nature. Displayed is a
(e) schematic of processing Ag-based foams with hierarchical pore structures: (e1 ) packing NaCl particles (hard template) to obtain a porous
preform, (e2 ) infiltrating the porous preform in (e1 ) with Al25Ag, (e3 ) dissolving the NaCl particles in water to generate a foam structure
with coarse pores, and (e4 ) selectively dissolving in acidic or alkaline media to generate micro/meso/macropores in the initial foam struts in
(e3 ). Various three-dimensional zoom drawing views of hierarchical porous foams produced in the present work: (f1 ) general view,
(f2 ) zoomed view showing coarse pores and pore-connecting windows, and (f3 ) zoomed view showing micro/meso/macropores developed in
struts. Reprinted with permission from [52]. Copyright (2021) American Chemical Society.

temperature increased, the porosity decreased. However, the Another alternative form of porous surface characteristics
porosity remained more significant than 30% for each tem- to implant the structure’s dense core via sintering is metal
perature, and almost 100% was observed to be open porosity. fibers instead of metal powder. This method has been invest-
Moreover, the effect of different applied pressures at differ- igated for both stainless steel and Ti fibers, and the procedure
ent sintering temperatures has also been studied, and it was used to make such porous coatings is similar to the powder
observed that the porosity decreases considerably (∼19%). metal sintering process [53–56]. The metal fibers are laid com-
However, most of the porosity still was found to be open poros- plying with the form of the implant structure, compacted, and
ity. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the then sintered at high temperatures. The solid-state diffusion
microstructure of Ti compacts sintered at 1173 K, 1373 K, and process forms a fully interconnected porous coating at each
1573 K with an applied pressure of 10 MPa can be seen in point of contact of the fibers [57]. However, the main draw-
figures 4(a)–(c), respectively [51]. back of this process is that compacting the metal fibers to
Additional investigations produced porous functionally the form of the implant structure is challenging and time-
graded Ti using the sintering method by stacking layers of consuming. Moreover, the interfacial bond between the dense
powders with varying particle sizes and the volume frac- implant core and the fiber mesh coating depends on the com-
tion of the additive (silicon), i.e. the low volume fraction of plexity of the contours of the implant structure [53]. Even
additive with finer powder (20% with 45 µm) to the high- though the sintering method of building porous structures is
volume fraction of additive with coarser powder (45% with relatively mature, several limitations exist. A most relevant
200 µm). The cross-sectional microstructure of a functionally limitation is that particle oxidation could inhibit the proper
graded porous Ti structure prepared in this manner is shown bonding of the particles because it is a high-temperature opera-
in figure 4(d) [45]. tion. Further, solid-state diffusion bonding of particles usually

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 5. Field-assisted sintering technology/spark plasma sintering (FAST/SPS) technique and the produced porous structures. (a) A
FAST/SPS apparatus displaying the working principle. [62] John Wiley & Sons. © 2014 The Authors. Advanced Engineering Materials
Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Additionally, SEM images of pores walls of porous Ti produced at
pressureless conditions with varying SPS sintering temperatures: (b) 1000 ◦ C, (c) 1050 ◦ C, (d) 1100 ◦ C and (e) 1200 ◦ C. Reprinted from
[65], Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.

results in the neck formation comprised of brittle phases and and mechanical properties (such as yield strength) and the
might result in lower mechanical toughness and fatigue res- compaction pressure seemed similar, i.e. as the compaction
istance. Moreover, the pore size and morphology are usually pressure increased, the mean porosity decreased. Also, it was
irregular and largely dependent on the particle size and shape. observed among several investigations that the porosities that
However, these limitations could be substantially improved could be produced by this method ranged between 55% and
upon by using appropriate sintering techniques [13]. 75%. It was observed that most of the pores were considered
Many modified sintering techniques have been investigated to possess consecutive and open cell morphology, with the
to produce porous metallic structures with improved porosity sizes of the majority of these pores (<700 µm) being less
and controlled pore morphology, including the space holder, than the largest space holder particle size (∼700 µm). The
the spark plasma sintering (SPS), and the replication methods. pores with larger sizes were observed to be the consequence
In the space holder method, several investigations have used of pore coalescence. Furthermore, the pore walls’ thickness is
carbamide particles as the space holder in preparing porous Ti believed to significantly impact the porous structure’s mech-
and porous Ti6Al4V alloys. Carbamide has been chosen in the anical strength. Thereby, it has been observed that, while the
space holder method because of its ideal spherical particle geo- pore wall thickness of the structure produced by this method
metry and chemical properties, such as ease of removal before is in the same range as any other powder metallurgy process
sintering [58, 59]. A properly sieved and sized mixture of Ti or (i.e. ∼100–200 µm; compared with Berger’s report), intercon-
Ti6Al4V with carbamide was weighed and compacted under nected angular-shaped micropores were observed along the
pressure. The compaction was then heat treated so that the car- pore walls suggesting that the sintering process was incom-
bamide particles dissociated at lower temperatures (∼193 ◦ C), plete because of low diffusivity. While these micropores were
and the dissociated by-products were expelled by either using considered beneficial in improving the interconnectivity of
a vacuum furnace or by the continued flow of argon. Thereby, the pores, they might significantly deteriorate the structure’s
the heat treatment cycle was typically followed where the com- mechanical properties. Different space holders or compaction
pact was first heated up to 100 ◦ C, and then slower heating techniques investigated other variants of this process [60, 61].
rates were used up to 500 ◦ C to ensure enough time for most Another variant of the sintering technique is the SPS
of the carbamide particles to dissociate, and the consequent method. SPS or field assisted sintering technique (FAST) is a
by-products were expelled. Following this, much faster heat- process similar to hot pressing where the heat required to sinter
ing rates could be used up to the sintering temperature at which the powder particles in a compact is provided by joule heating
the compaction was held for a considerable time, depending on due to the current flowing within the compact [62]. The general
the size of the compaction being sintered [58]. In this method, working principle of SPS, as indicated by figure 5(a), is that the
the size, shape of the pores, and porosity could be controlled sintering powder is compacted within a graphite die and DC
primarily by controlling the volume fraction and the shape of voltage pulses pass through the die, and the compact (in the
the space holder particles. Other parameters that determine the case of conductive sintering powder) produces joule heating,
porosity and the pore morphology are the compaction pressure with heating rates up to 1000 ◦ C·min−1 , cooling rates of up to
and the holding time during sintering. While the compaction 400 ◦ C·min−1 and maximum temperature of 2400 ◦ C, sinter-
pressure applied to prepare the pre-sintered compact varied ing conditions could be facilitated by appropriately controlling
between investigations, the dependence on the mean porosity the pulse voltages and durations [63]. Furthermore, this

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

process could be controlled by controlling the die’s measured

temperature, power, or current. The rapid heating and cooling
rates make this one of the fastest sintering processes, thereby
ensuring limited grain growth in the sintered metal [64].
The powder mixture is produced similarly to the space
holder technique to produce porous metal structures using the
SPS technique. The metal or alloy powder is mixed with vary-
ing volume fractions of space holder constituents such as NaCl
or NH4 HCO3 . Then, the powder mixture is cold compacted
under pressure to produce green compacts, sintered using SPS
in a specially designed graphite die, as shown in figure 5(b)
[65]. In the case of the study, where NaCl was used as an
additive, post-sintering dissolution of NaCl in deionized water
produced porous Ti6Al4V structures [66]. And in the case of
the study where NH4 HCO3 was used as an additive, it disso-
ciates into NH3 , H2 O, and CO2 and is expelled during the sin-
tering process and thus produces porous Ti structures [65]. In
both studies, the x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the por-
ous structure showed negligible impurity content indicating
Figure 6. Schematic representation of the (a) 3-step replication
that the space holders used were eliminated during the pro-
sintering process, (b) SEM micrograph of reticulated Ti-6Al-4V
cess. Also, it was observed that the majority phase appears to foam pore morphology of 88% porous Ti alloys. Reprinted from
be α-Ti in the post-sintered structure, and the grains developed [13], Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier.
in the sintered porous structure are mostly fine. This indicates
that the SPS process offers extremely fast heating and cooling
rates. determines the quality of foam produced by this process [68].
The porosity, pore size, and morphology of the porous By this process, Ti alloy foams of 88% primarily open poros-
structures produced by the SPS method showed similarity with ity have been attained, and the pore morphology could be
the previously discussed space holder method. In general, two observed in the SEM image shown in figure 6(b) [67]. The
types of pores were observed: Macro pores caused due to the pores formed are chiefly found to be of three types: the primary
dissociation of the space holder, and the micropores, within the porosity, comprising of smaller pores on the strut surface; sec-
pore walls of the macro pores, caused because of the incom- ondary porosity, medium-sized pores formed at the core of
plete sintering between adjacent metal particles (as shown in the hollow strut formed by previously occupied polyurethane
figures 5(c) and (e) in both the studies). Both studies also foam; and the tertiary porosity, larger open pores between the
observed that as the sintering temperature was increased or by struts. A subsequent study observed that a second coating of
heat treatment post-sintering, the pore walls became thicker, the powder slurry and second sintering on a previously sintered
and the porosity reduced (as shown in figures 5(d) and (f) in foam enhanced the density and mechanical properties of the Ti
both studies). Also, both studies produced 40%–70% porosit- or Ti alloy foams [69].
ies; most pores were well interconnected. Even though sintering is a very mature metallurgical pro-
Finally, the replication method’s third variant of the sin- cess, up to 80% of porosities could be achieved with slight
tering method is discussed here. This process is typically modification. However, the process has inherent limitations.
three-step and has traditionally been used to prepare por- Sintered porous metallic structures are susceptible to brittle
ous ceramics [13]. However, some investigations have used fracture and low fatigue resistance. Since, in this process, the
this method to produce porous Ti and Ti alloys. This method metal particles bond via a solid-state diffusion process, the
immersed polyurethane foams in a slurry and then rapidly neck formed between metal particles after sintering is usually
dried for the metal powder to positively maintain the poly- quite brittle. Also, the sintering process usually produces non-
urethane foam replica. The slurry comprises 70% by weight homogeneous pore distribution and pore morphology.
Ti6Al4V and 20% by weight H2 O and ammonia solution,
where the ammonia solution has been added to improve the 2.2.2. Combustion synthesis. Combustion synthesis (CS)
flow properties of the slurry. After repeating this process or self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) are
multiple times till the polyurethane foam struts were coated commonly used with oxide-based materials. Typically, in
entirely with the Ti6Al4V powder, the polyurethane foam and conventional SHS, condensed-phase combustion takes place
binder were removed thermally, and the remaining Ti6Al4V using solid-state reactants. A derivation to SHS would be
powder arrangement was sintered, forming an open-cell retic- solution-CS (SCS), where the initial reaction medium required
ulated Ti6Al4V foam [67]. This three-step process’s schematic is aqueous-based [70]. Additionally, if nanoparticle synthesis
is shown in figure 6(a) [13]. occurs in a flame, it is called gas-phase combustion. Most
As expected, in this process, the flowability of the slurry, commonly, the techniques are used to produce various oxide
controlled via particle size distribution, binder chemistry, the materials, a wide range of highly pure and homogenous
pH of the slurry, air bubble quantity, and the solid–liquid ratio, nanocrystalline powders [71]. CS can be accomplished in two

9
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

differing modes. The first would require preheating by an by producing 60vol% porosity and pore size of 100–500 µm.
external source up to the ignition temperature. Once the reac- A homogenous composition comprising cubic and monoclinic
tion is initiated, the reacting layer becomes the igniting heat NiTi was achieved without observing pure Ni or Ni-rich
source for the subsequent layer. The second mode is volume phases. The results showed increased corrosion resistance,
CS, in which the entire reactive body is uniformly brought rapid osseointegration within two weeks, and complete bone
up to the ignition temperature, and the reaction commences growth in six weeks.
homogenously in the reactive body. The process is considered
energy efficient as some thermodynamic systems reach tem-
2.2.3. Vapor deposition. Vapor deposition is a relatively
peratures of 500–4000 K with temperature rates of 103 –
new metallurgical process for producing high-porosity metal
106 K·s−1 [72]. This process can form alloys Nitinol (NiTi),
structures with homogeneous porosity. The method involves
NiAl, TiSi, etc [73, 74]. Among those alloys, most literat-
using medical-grade polyurethane foam to produce a low-
ure concerning porous metallic orthopedic implants primarily
density reticulated vitreous carbon skeleton (RVC) by retic-
focused on porous NiTi alloy. Thus, in this review, emphasis
ulation and pyrolyzing. These RVC skeletal structures are
has been placed on the fabrication of porous NiTi alloy via CS.
then machined and shaped into preforms, determining the
The development of porous NiTi alloys via the SHS method
pore morphology of the final porous structure. Then, using a
requires an equimolar mixture of Ni and Ti powders with
specialized chemical vapor deposition/infiltration (CVD/CVI)
comparable particle size distribution to be prepared. The exo-
technique, tantalum (commercially pure) is deposited through-
thermic reaction between Ni and Ti when producing NiTi alloy
out the RVC preforms [78]. In CVD/CVI process, generally,
is a low exothermic reaction (Ni + Ti → NiTi + 67 kJ·mol−1 ).
reactants in the gaseous phase are activated such that they
Therefore, to produce a self-sustaining combustion wave to
chemically react, and solid material is deposited on a sub-
propagate throughout the initial powder compact, preheat-
strate. The process is schematically illustrated in figure 7(a).
ing to the ignition temperature is required, as previously
The reactant gases and carrier gas enter the reaction chamber
mentioned [13]. Once the activation energy barrier is over-
at room temperature and are then heated via radiation close to
come, the combustion wave propagates throughout the green
the deposition surface or a heated substrate [78]. The heated
compact and is self-sustained [75]. In this case, a preheating
reactant gases homogeneously undergo a chemical reaction in
temperature of approximately 450 ◦ C produced a combustion
their vapor phase before striking the substrate and being depos-
temperature of 1260 ◦ C. It has also been observed that finer
ited. However, this reaction and the products of this reaction
powder particles tend to produce higher combustion temperat-
are strongly dependent on the process and operating condi-
ures for a specific preheating temperature. Important and con-
tions. Ultimately, the reaction products are deposited on the
trasting observations made on the pore distribution and the
substrate, and the gaseous by-products are eliminated from the
combustion temperatures between two similar investigations
chamber [13].
were that by altering the preheating or ignition technique of the
The porosity and the mechanical properties of the struc-
green compact, much higher combustion temperatures were
ture produced by this method depend primarily on the dura-
obtained, and the pore distribution was observed to be more
tion of the CVD process. Typically porosities produced by this
isotropic compared to the anisotropic porosity of the conven-
method are in the range of 75%–85% (as in Trabecular metal)
tional preheating method [76].
with an average pore diameter of 550 µm [79]. The scaffold-
This method’s resulting crystallographic phases most com-
like Ta structure obtained via this method is comparable to that
monly produced were B2 (NiTi) and B19′ (NiTi). Li et al
of the cancellous bone in open interconnected porosity and
observed that up to 57% porosity with about 86% open poros-
strut thickness, observable in figures 7(b) and (c). The por-
ity could be achieved with this method [77]. These results
ous structure obtained by this method displayed a 99% Ta and
corroborate with Aihara et al reported 60vol% porosity for
1% vitreous carbon by weight presence [79]. Further invest-
improved cell response. The correlation between vol% and cell
igations of the mechanical properties of porous Ta produced
size and interconnectivity will be briefly discussed here but
via this method indicated that the material’s strength, stiffness,
more so in the biological properties section of the review. Pore
and flexural rigidity increased with increasing density [80].
morphology in the NiTi alloy may be tailored by varying the
Ta has been under continual investigation as numerous stud-
particle size distribution, binder use, compaction pressure, and
ies have reported that the mechanical properties of porous Ta
preheating temperature of the green compact. Porosity due to
far exceed those of other biocompatible metals. Moreover, the
unforeseen events may be present due to differences in molar
porous Ta structure showed superior ductility to other porous
volume and Ni and Ti diffusion flux. Gas bubble formation
materials [81].
at high-temperature during the combustion phase is another
reason [77].
Aihara et al work displayed the practicality and advant- 2.2.4. Additive manufacturing. Rapid prototyping or 3D
ages associated with the low-cost CS method. Expanding printing is a relatively novel manufacturing process that has
on the fundamental knowledge and research associated with proven to produce porous implants of varying sizes, shapes,
the CS of Nitinol, Aihara et al work attained a success- and porosity—all tailorable directly from the computer-aided
ful three-dimensional anisotropic structure with open-cell design (CAD) to the machine with minimal to no tooling
interconnectivity. The produced structure exhibited compar- requirement [83, 84]. Additive manufacturing (AM) tech-
able effective stiffness of cancellous bone at 1 GPa, achieved niques used to produce porous biomaterials are displayed in

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 7. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process and produced porous structures. (a) Schematic of the vapor deposition process.
Reprinted from [13], Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier. (b) Porous Ti6Al4V scaffolds without tantalum coating (left) and
with CVD tantalum coating (right). Optical high magnification micrographs depicting the porous Ti6Al4V structure (c) before coating and
(d) after CVD tantalum coating. Reprinted from [82], Copyright (2013), with permission from Elsevier.

table 3, along with details associated with the most common the green part sufficient structural rigidity for de-powdering
vendor, process, and material details [85, 86]. In the case of and firing. Porous surface metal implants with extremely con-
porous metallic orthopedic implants and scaffolds, AM-based trolled surface porosity and texture, as shown in figure 8(b),
processes lead the recent advances. Various AM processes are can be obtained [13]. SLM and EBM, displayed in figures 8(c)
currently being used to manufacture metallic implants, figure 1 and (d), respectively—unlike binder jetting—rely on thermal
[13, 86]. The AM technologies have significantly contributed energy input during layer-by-layer production for part fabric-
to porous scaffolds to enhance biocompatibility [87–89]. ation. SLM utilizes a laser source to selectively melt and bond
The general advantage of using rapid prototyping processes the metal powder particles, whereas the EBM method uses an
over conventional powder metallurgy processes in fabricat- electron beam source—most commonly from a tungsten fila-
ing porous metal structures is that powder metallurgy, partic- ment. SLM is usually performed in an inert Argon atmosphere,
ularly sintering, produces brittle structures with limited con- while EBM is conducted under high vacuum conditions. The
trol over pore size and shape, volume fraction, and distribu- benefit of fabricating under a vacuum in the EBM method is
tion. Moreover, some conventional processes using foaming a significant reduction in oxidation products and impurities,
agents or molten metal generally result in contaminants and in general. The three variations of powder bed AM produced
impurity phases [91]. Thus, 3D printing or AM has shown to porous metal structures of complex geometries with controlled
be the future for producing patient-specific implant structures internal architectures.
with controlled shape and porosity. Studies investigating por- The schematic of the SLM method has been indicated in
ous metal-based rapid prototyping will be elaborated for some figure 8(c), and it should be noted that this method is suitable
of the more common methods. for any processable powder, either elemental or alloy, with
ideal flowability [92]. The parts could be built layer-wise on
a substrate that could be moved vertically downwards using
[Link]. Powder-bed-based metal AM methods. Several a scanning laser source in an argon environment (<0.2% O2
variations of powder-bed AM exist—binder jetting, select- levels). The powder exposed to the scanning laser is fully
ive laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM). melted, and depending on how high the laser energy dens-
Binder jetting, displayed in figure 8(a), uses print head techno- ity is, either fully dense or porous metallic structures could
logy similar to ink-jet printing; the binder selectively prints the be manufactured. Furthermore, it should be realized that the
part layer-by-layer with a binder. This process is repeated until best results of this process could be obtained from powders
the entire part is completed, commonly called the green part. with better laser absorbability and lower thermal conductiv-
The green part is then pulled from the print bed, de-powdered, ity. Higher laser absorbability of the powder ensures lower
and fired for binder burnout and densification. The binder gives laser energy density required to melt the powder, and lower

11
 Table 3. Various additive manufacturing methods, commercially available techniques, processing details, and materials.

3D printing techniques Commercial technologies/vendors Process details Processing materials Advantages/disadvantages [90]

Stereolithography by 3D systems Layer-by-layer fabrication by curing Mostly photocurable, thermoset High level of accuracy and finish,
Bioplotters by Envisiontec thermoset photopolymer via exposure. polymers relatively quick, relatively large build
Vat Polymerization
Large Area Maskless areas and model weights
Photopolymerization by DDM (200 kg)/relatively expensive,
Systems time-consuming post-processing of resin
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014

Lithography-based ceramic removal, limited photo-resins, requires

manufacturing—Lithoz support structures and post-curing
Material Extrusion Fused Deposition Modeling by Layer-by-layer deposition via Various polymers and ceramics Very common process and inexpensive,
Stratasys extrusion of usually thermoplastic include Polycaprolactone, Hydroxy suitable for prototyping/nozzle radius
polymers or polymer-ceramic Apatite (HA), Polylactic Acid, limits the part quality, accuracy, and
composite. Bioglass, Polyethylene Glycol (PEG), production speed are low for larger parts
etc.
Selective laser sintering by 3D Layer-by-layer selective sintering or Many metals or alloys such as Ti/T The powder acts as a support structure
Systems melting of powder particles on a alloys, Stainless Steel, Ni-Ti, etc. for intricate part fabrication, a variety of
Powder bed fusion
Electron Beam Melting by Arcam powder bed system via laser- or Ceramics were also reportedly used. material options/
Direct Metal Laser Sintering by EOS electron-beam-based heat source.
Selective Laser Melting from SLM

12
solutions
Laser Engineered Net Shaping by Powder particles are simultaneously Many metals or alloys such as Ti/T Ability to control grain structure, low
Directed energy
Optmec Inc. flowed through a nozzle and fused alloys, Stainless Steel, Ni-Ti, etc. raw material loss/may require
deposition
Direct Metal Deposition by DM3D using a heat source (Laser, wire arc, Ceramics were also reportedly used. post-processing for desired surface finish,
Electron Beam Welding by Sciaky Inc. and Electron Beam) warping with larger/taller structures
Objet by Stratasys Material is jetted through an ink jet A wide variety of polymers and High accuracy and low material waste,
Material Jetting Solidscape 3D printers from type nozzle, continuously or Drop on ceramics can be used. multi-material and varying color
Solidscape Demand (DOD), and solidifies on a capabilities/support material required;
Multi-Jet Fusion Technology by HP substrate, building the part only polymers and waxes may be used
layer-by-layer.
ZCorp Like material jetting, a binder is jetted A wide variety of polymers and Varying color capabilities, metals,
Binder Jetting ExOne selectively onto a powder bed, fusing ceramics can be used. polymers, and ceramics may be used,
Voxeljet the desired powder particles, which large binder-powder combinations for
lowers to accommodate the next layer varying mechanical properties/high
of powder. porosity in metals, post-processing time
can be significant
Sheet Lamination MCor Technologies Thin sheets of material are bound Metallic sheets could be used to build Low cost and fast, ease of material
together and ultrasonically welded simple geometries. handling/strength and integrity rely on
together. This process continues layer adhesive, limited material usage
by layer.
Topical Review
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 8. Binder jetting, selective laser melting (SLM), and electron-beam melting (EBM) process with produced structures and
compressive testing data. (a) Schematic of the binder jetting process for manufacturing porous metallic structures. Reprinted from [13],
Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier. (b) Typical surface resolution of a part built using the binder jetting process. Reproduced
with permission from [98]. (c) Schematic representation of SLM and EBM setups for [92] John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2008 Wiley
Periodicals, Inc. and (d) Reprinted from [99], Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier respectively. (e) Reprinted from [96],
Copyright (2013), with permission from Elsevier and (f) display microstructures of porous Ti6Al4V samples prepared via SLM and EBM,
respectively. [97] John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and, (g) comparative mechanical properties of porous
Ti6Al4V samples prepared via SLM and EBM processes. Reprinted from [96], Copyright (2013), with permission from Elsevier.

13
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

thermal conductivity implies that the melt pool remains small with wire-based DED. Currently, there are many variants of
and concentrated in the region where the laser is directed [92]. the DED technique that are commercially available, which
In the case of the EBM method, as shown in the schem- largely depend on raw material (powder-based or filament-
atic in figure 8(d), the tungsten filament housed in an elec- based), energy source (laser or electron beam-based), or CNC
tron beam head reacts with excited electrons resulting in an control (substrate controlled or source controlled) [100].
electron beam [93]. Then, using two different magnetic fields, Sandia National Lab first developed the blown-powder
the electron beam is first organized into the desired shape DED technique to manufacture a metal part directly from a
and then focussed towards the target position on the metal CAD file. The part deposition begins with directing a focussed
powder on a powder bed that is retractable, and the part is laser beam, usually Nd-YAG, on the metal substrate to pro-
built layer by layer as per the sliced information of the CAD duce the melt pool; at the same time, metal powder is injec-
model. The entire part-building process usually occurs under a ted directly into the melt pool through a coaxial deposition
high vacuum, ensuring low oxidation and low impurity phases. head by the use of carrier gas, as displayed in figure 9(a) [101].
SLM and EBM processes require post-processing to blow or Compared to conventional sintering methods, one advantage
clean the excess unbonded metal powder particles [94, 95]. of the DED technique is the ability to either entirely melt or
SLM and EBM processes can produce structures with up sinter fuse the metal particles at a fraction of the time and
to 80% volume porosities. The mechanical properties can be thermal energy requirement. Bonding between metal particles
tailored by varying the process parameters, including energy is formed in the molten state in contrast to the solid-state
input and part orientation to the main loading direction. The diffusion-based bonding observed in the sintering process.
SEM images of the microstructure of the porous Ti alloy struc- Furthermore, from the deposition methodology, it has been
tures built using SLM and EBM are shown in figures 8(e) reported that the cooling rates for this process are extremely
and (f), respectively. These images show partially melted high—in the range of 103 –105 K·s−1 . The high cooling rates
metal particles sintered at the surface [96, 97]. In one of promote solid-state phase transformation and the formation of
the studies, which compares the mechanical properties of a supersaturated solution with non-equilibrium phases. Very
SLM-made and EBM (or also SEBM) made porous Ti struc- fine microstructures are formed, having extremely low ele-
tures, it was observed that there is a considerable difference mental segregation and fine second-phase particles. Moreover,
in the mechanical properties of structures of similar poros- by altering the process parameters such as the laser power,
ity. SLM-produced porous structures were observed to have layer thickness, powder flow rate, scan speed, scan pattern, etc,
much thinner struts than the designed dimensions, whereas the effective modulus, porosity, and several other mechanical
EBM produced much thicker struts than the intended design properties can be altered. Additionally, considering the fab-
thickness. This implies that the SLM-made structures have rication process occurs in an inert atmosphere, compositional
higher relative porosity for the same designed structure than purity is unaltered [101].
the EBM-made structure [93]. Also, the microstructural com- Controlling the porosity can be done in two ways—(1) by
parison showed that the SLM-based structures comprise α′ introducing inter-particle porosity or (2) by varying scanning
phase (martensitic), whereas the EBM-based structure com- strategy. By altering the process parameters, the total energy
prises α + β equilibrium phases [96]. input—energy density—into the melt pool may be controlled;
A comparison of the effective stiffness and the ultimate lower thermal energy density facilitates partial melting of the
compressive strength between SLM and EBM-made and also metal particles, allowing for inter-particle porosity. On the
theoretical stiffness and strength of porous Ti structures of other hand, the toolpath porosity is scanning strategy-based,
similar relative density (as shown in figure 8(g)) shows that most commonly allowing for physical separation of inde-
SLM-made Ti structures have improved mechanical proper- pendent beads of deposited material, i.e. hatch spacing. The
ties compared to the EBM-made porous Ti structures and sim- scanning strategy allows for fabricating functionally graded
ilar (or slightly lower) than the theoretical values [80, 93, 96]. porosity or precise internal porosity architecture. Illustrations
A similar conclusion has been obtained for the comparative for the fabrication of porous parts using a commercial DED
investigation conducted for porous Ti6Al4V structures made process, known as laser-engineered net shaping or LENSTM
from SLM and EBM methods. EBM-processed structures tend are displayed in figure 9(b) [101], and a design concept for
to show higher ductility despite lower stiffness and strength building complex or functionally-graded porosity is shown
properties. These mechanical property differences between in figure 9(c) [16]. Such fabrication feats have allowed for
SLM and EBM-made porous structures could be attributed to the advancement of metallic biomaterials for patient-specific
the difference in the microstructural phases induced by each implantation sites.
process. A high volume of published literature investigates
LENSTM -based porous metal structures’ mechanical, bio-
medical, physical, and chemical properties. For instance,
[Link]. Directed energy deposition (DED) of porous metal- LENSTM -made porous Ti or Ti6Al4V structures were studied
lic materials. The DED technique eliminates the need for to understand the dependence of the stiffness and the strength
a powder bed; the raw material—metal powder or metal-wire of the material on the porosity and the pore morphology. As
filament—is fed into the melt pool created by a focused energy discussed above, the material’s porosity depends chiefly on
source. The energy source can be a laser, electron beam, or the process parameters and scanning strategy. It was observed
a current-discharge induced electrical arc, which is the case that about 20%–70% highly interconnected porosity, with

14
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 9. Directed energy deposition (DED) technique displaying the porosity variability. (a) Schematic of DED-based metal additive
manufacturing setup; (b) schematic for fabrication of porous structures using DED. Reproduced from [101], with permission from Springer
Nature. (c) Design concept to fabricate complex or functionally graded structures using DED by (i) partial melting, (ii) designed porosity,
(iii) combination approach, and (d) transverse and longitudinal micrographs of LENSTM made porous Ti compacts. Reprinted from [16],
Copyright (2007), with permission from Elsevier.

>90% open porosity, could be achieved using lower laser by the hatch distance; that is, as the hatch distance increases,
power, higher scan speed, higher hatch distance, and higher an increase in mean pore diameter occurred [42].
powder feed rate—equating to low powder mass flow rate
and low thermal energy density. Micrographs of LENSTM
transverse and longitudinal sections made of porous Ti parts 2.2.5. Fiber mesh-based porous implants. An additional
are displayed in figure 9(d). The micrographs displayed pref- AM method for fabricating porous coatings on implant sur-
erential pore connectivity in the longitudinal build direction faces for enhanced cementless implant fixation is via sin-
than in the transverse orientation for parts with lower poros- tering fiber meshes, comparable to the sintering of powder
ity. However, as the porosity increases, pore interconnectivity metals. The advantage of using fiber meshes instead of
becomes more uniform [16]. Another critical relation between metal powders is that the porosity of the coatings obtained
the various process parameters of the LENSTM method and through this method is almost always interconnected, enhan-
the porosity is that while the laser power, scan speed, or the cing bone ingrowth and implant fixation [13]. In this method,
powder feed rate affect the porosity, the pore size remains the metal fibers are usually compacted onto the implant sur-
unaffected by these parameters and is singularly influenced face, requiring a biocompatible coating, while the sintering

15
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 10. Twill-weaved triple orderly-oriented wire mesh (OOWM) process for porous coating production. (a) Cross-sectional micrograph
and (b) SEM image of twill-weaved triple OOWM coating, in which the mesh size is 16 and wire diameter is 500 µm. Reprinted from [103],
Copyright (1986), with permission from Elsevier. Displayed in (c) is a Ti OOWM-coated sintered sample post-tension testing revealing that
failure did not occur at the interface. Reprinted from [104], Copyright (1986), with permission from Elsevier.

process follows. During the sintering process, metallurgical A variant of fiber mesh sintering for producing homo-
bonds are formed at points of physical contact between the genously distributed porous coatings is orderly-oriented wire
fibers and the implant surface—attaining sufficient mechan- mesh (OOWM). This method uses woven continuous long
ical strength. However, the major disadvantage of using fiber metal small-diameter fibers instead of short fibers for com-
mesh is that it is unfeasible to prepare fiber mesh compact paction to form an orderly meshwork. The woven fiber mesh
on the implant surface using sufficient compaction forces for is pre-compacted to improve contact with the implant surface
complex implant shapes. Furthermore, fiber mesh loss of con- and then pressure sintered, analogous to hot isostatic press-
tact with the substrate due to relaxation post-compaction is ing (HIP). The advantage of the OOWM method over the fiber
quite common, leading to regions of poor bonding with the mesh sintering method is that the issues, such as fiber detach-
implant surface. Regarding mechanical stability, the literat- ment from the implant surface, are avoided. Moreover, twill
ure suggests that fiber mesh coatings show improved sta- weaves have been used instead of the regular weaved mesh.
bility than powder-sintered coatings; however, if the fail- These are formed by consecutively passing the metal wires
ure mode is observed, fiber mesh coatings fail via tearing above and below two crossing wires, and any two neighbor-
instead of crack propagation [53]. Also, the porosities of ing wires running parallel pass a crossing wire from above to
these fiber mesh coatings are usually limited between 30%– below, as displayed in figures 10(a) and (b). The advantage
50%, which influences the maximum possible strength of the of using a twill weave lies in the ease of mesh fabrication, and
implant fixation via bone ingrowth and is usually attained the following coating procedures also become more accessible
by non-homogeneous porosity. Although the literature on because of the improved flexibility and formability of the twill-
sintered fiber mesh coatings is available for both stainless steel woven fiber meshwork [103]. Additionally, their performance
and Ti, only Ti fiber mesh coatings are available clinically under tensional testing displayed no failure along the interface,
[53–57, 102]. as displayed in figure 10(c).

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

A final method known as ferromagnetic fiber arrays use Porosity in a metallic implant structure also introduces
ferromagnetic metal fibers to fabricate porous coatings; these inherent limitations in the mechanical behavior of the load-
use a magneto-mechanical mechanism to induce slight deflec- bearing implant structures. The implant’s mechanical strength,
tion into the porous coatings via an applied external magnetic dynamic load-bearing capabilities, and corrosive properties
field. These magnetic field-induced strains and deformations are expected to be negatively affected due to porosity. Also, the
are believed to stimulate bone ingrowth into the pores—as porosity predominantly affects the implant structure’s biolo-
reported, a minimum of 0.1% strain is necessary to stimu- gical compatibility. Thus, numerous investigations have been
late bone growth into the porous coating. Thus, metal implants conducted to understand and quantify the effect of poros-
coated with highly porous, bonded ferromagnetic fibers under ity on the mechanical behavior of porous metallic orthopedic
an external magnetic field enhance implant-host tissue fixa- implants, and in this section, the results, findings, and infer-
tion. In this method, the porous coatings were produced by ences of various studies investigating the physical, mechan-
spraying fibers with slow-setting aerosol glue, surface dis- ical and biological properties of the porous metallic structures
persed brazing powder, and then placed in a long quartz tube would be discussed.
at 1200 ◦ C [105]. The coating thus produced high poros-
ities ranging from 70%–90%, with pore size ranging from
3.1. Physical properties
100–300 µm. Moreover, ferromagnetic materials also tend to
have better corrosion resistance in a biological environment Porous metallic structures’ physical properties include poros-
than non-ferromagnetic materials [106–108]. Such properties ity, density, and hardness. The methods of measuring these
are highly sought in porous metal implants as corrosion by- properties and the reported values for these physical charac-
products can adversely affect the physiological environment. teristics will be discussed in detail in this section.

3.1.1. Porosity and density. The porosity and density of a

3. Properties of porous metallic materials
structure can be used interchangeably, in most cases, depend-
ing on engineering vernacular. This is because as a structure’s
When considering all the fabrication methods for the produc-
porosity increases, the structure’s density decreases and vice
tion of porous metallic structures, porous coatings, or func-
versa. Moreover, as discussed previously, porosity has two
tionally graded porous structures (discussed in the previous
types: open- and closed-cell porosity. If the pores are inter-
section), it can be understood that different pore shapes, sizes,
connected and allow for the free flow of fluids, they are called
and interconnectivity could be obtained. However, the type
open pores; if the pores are isolated and negate fluid flow, they
and volume fraction of porosity governs several inherent char-
are called closed pores. One commonly used method for meas-
acteristics of the porous structure and its applicability as an
uring the total porosity is gravimetry. First, the apparent dens-
implant material. It was discussed in the earlier parts of this
ity of the porous structure is calculated by measuring its total
review that one of the significant advantages of porosity in
volume and weight [65]. Then, the total porosity (PT ) is cal-
metallic implant structures is that it allows bodily fluids to
culated using the following equation:
flow through and hence facilitates bone ingrowth which would
( )
provide proper anchorage to the implant with the host tissue, ρ
thereby increasing the lifetime of the implant. However, this PT = 1 − × 100 %
ρs
bone tissue ingrowth mainly depends on the pore size and
morphology. where, ρ is the apparent density of the porous structure. ρs is
It was generally observed that the pore shape had limited the bulk density.
biological response [101], whereas pore size and intercon- The total porosity of the structure combines open- and
nectivity primarily affect the bone tissue ingrowth capability closed-cell porosity. For orthopedic implants, open and inter-
[50, 109–116]. It was accepted that interconnected pore sizes connected porosity is desired to facilitate bone tissue growth
in the 100–400 µm were required for optimal bone ingrowth and improve implant anchorage; it is necessary to know what
[50]; however, some bone ingrowth was also observed with fraction of total porosity is open porosity. One method used
pore sizes as small as 50 µm [115, 116]. In the case of sub- to measure the fraction of open porosity is the infiltration of
stantial pore sizes (>1 mm), there seemed to be a higher pos- paraffin into the open pores of the structure by boiling the
sibility of forming fibrous tissue, which is detrimental to the sample in paraffin in a vacuum chamber. Subsequently, the
implant’s lifetime as it would eventually cause aseptic loosen- weight and volume of paraffin penetrating the porous struc-
ing of the implant. Another advantage of using porous metal- ture are measured. The fabrication method and the processing
lic structures as orthopedic implants are the reduced structure parameters usually determine the total porosity that can be
stiffness. As discussed earlier, a much stiffer implant material achieved and the open porosity fraction. However, depending
induces stress shielding, weakening the surrounding host tis- on the metal or alloy being investigated, an optimal porosity
sue and causing implant loosening. Thereby, a porous metallic could be achieved, making the mechanical properties, such as
implant would have a lower stiffness than a dense implant, and effective stiffness and strength, comparable to that of the tar-
its stiffness could be modeled by altering the porosity and pore get bone structure. Previously reported, it was observed that a
morphology such that the implant stiffness is in the same range porous Ti structure with a three-dimensionally interconnected
as the surrounding bone stiffness. open-cell network achieved porosity in the range of 35%–42%

17
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

and a porous Ti6Al4V structure with porosity in the range correlated to the fine needle-like α′ -phase and β-phase [125].
of 23%–32%. Both result in mechanical properties similar to Without in-depth materials characterization, hardness testing
human cortical bone [93, 117]. will provide insight or validation into the crystallographic
phase presence.
3.2. Mechanical properties Although the correlation of hardness increase of Ti6Al4V
with LENS TM treatment was discussed, it does not say that
Similar to the physical properties desired by orthopedic varying laser parameters will affect hardness. The contribut-
implants, a load-bearing implant must meet specific mech- ing factor appears to be simply treatment vs. no treatment.
anical property criteria appropriate for the implantation site. CpTi and Ti6Al4V do not exhibit a change in hardness with the
Therefore, it is critical to understand the biomechanics of change in laser parameters, even when porosity changes. This
the host bone site for a proper match with the porous indicates that the laser parameters do not influence phase pres-
metallic implant for hard tissue replacement or implantation. ence, thus allowing biocompatible phases to remain present
The skeletal system sustains mechanical loading of several in structures with varying porosities [124, 126]. Additionally,
modes with continuously changing loading vectors; such force the hardness of a metallic material decreases as the micro-
examples can be simple reaction forces at the hip joint to structure becomes coarser, following the Hall–Petch effect;
bending moments and torsional strain along bone segmental this is because finer grain microstructures tend to create lower
bodies. Several investigative studies were conducted on the stress concentration sites due to dislocation pile up at the
bone structures to understand the different loading mechan- grain boundary and thus would require higher stress to deform
isms endured and the capacity of the load that the skeletal sys- plastically [127]. Furthermore, it was observed in several stud-
tem can endure. Generally, it was observed that the skeletal ies that the composition of the alloy and the processing tem-
system experiences loading in uniaxial compressive, flexural, perature influence the hardness of the structure. In the case of
multiaxial, and dynamic loading, such as fatigue or high strain processing parameters that influence the phase stability of a
rate [118–121]. Thus, general knowledge of the mechanical material, the hardness value also depends on these paramet-
properties desired by the porous metallic orthopedic implant ers. However, in the case of laser-prepared Ti alloys, the pro-
has been surmised in literature, which will be discussed. cess parameters tend to have a negligible effect on the varying
phase composition; thereby, the material’s hardness remained
3.2.1. Hardness. The hardness of a material is defined as its unchanged [128]. Microhardness, values of different materi-
resistance to localized penetration, scratching, bending, and/or als processed via different methods, are reported in table 4 for
plastic deformation. A material’s hardness is usually measured comparison.
using an indentation tester under a load. Varying names for the
differing methods of hardness exist. Among the most com- 3.2.2. Static mechanical properties. Static mechanical
mon examples are Mohs, Shore, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, properties of any material generally include stiffness, creep,
and Knoop. The application of each type of hardness testing yield criterion, uniaxial strength properties, and multiaxial
varies for use in minerals, polymers, and metals and even for strength properties. Since load-bearing implants are likely
thin materials. The hardness number is based on the applied to be subjected to compressive loads, ample literature has
force divided by the surface area of the indent and sometimes reported the compressive behavior of different porous metals.
assesses the microstructural phase changes of the material Considering that the primary reason for using porous metals
[122]. The resulting units are in force per area, but it is not in orthopedic implants is to alleviate stress shielding, the
to be mistaken for pressure. effects of porosity and stiffness of the porous structure on
AM-based literature typically uses the microhardness char- the compression strength have been investigated extensively.
acteristic to quantify the degree of hard phase presence result- Furthermore, research has also examined the tensile strength
ing from the fabrication process. DED-processed porous CpTi properties and the multiaxial behavior of porous metals. Most
will typically not display an increase in hardness when pro- of the static mechanical properties reported in the literature
cessed in this fashion; however, the hardness will increase for and discussed in this section have been enlisted in table 5.
LENSTM Ti6Al4V. The presence of aluminum (Al) and vana-
dium (V) in the Ti matrix influence the stability of crystal- [Link]. Uniaxial mechanical properties. Porous orthopedic
lographic phase presence at room temperature. Al is an α- metallic implants must possess an effective modulus com-
phase stabilizer in Ti, while V is a β-phase stabilizer [123]. parable to the host bone tissue to avoid premature aseptic
The β-phase is only present in pure Ti when heated to a implant loosening by stress shielding. Since porosity in metals
temperature above 880 ◦ C; upon cooling, the β-phase under- tends to compromise the structure’s mechanical properties, a
goes a diffusion-less solid-phase change to α-phase. Suppose fine balance is at play when considering that stiffness and
phase stabilizing constituents are present in the diffusion- strength decrease with increased porosity—establishing an
less transformation from β-phase to α-phase. In that case, inverse relationship. For this reason, most literature focuses
the resulting crystal structure may result in an interstitial on determining the ideal porosity for adequate, effective stiff-
atomic-induced strained configuration and thus result in an ness, mechanical yield, and ultimate strength [134, 135]. An
increase in hardness at room temperature compared to con- abundance of literature on porosity’s influence on mechanical
ventionally prepared samples [124]. Therefore, the increase properties is available, such as for commercially pure Ti or
in microhardness of LENSTM processed samples is directly Ti6Al4V. Additional studies focused on metals and alloys such

18
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Table 4. Microhardness values of various materials investigated by several studies.

Material Fabrication process Porosity Hardness References

LENS — 395 ± 30 [19]

Ta
EDM — 240–393 [81]

Space holder method — 258–263 [60]

CpTi
SPS — 163 [118]

SLM — 483 [119]

EBM — 410–442 [120]
EBM-High Energy — 364
Ti-6Al-4V [121]
EBM-Low energy — 372
10% 251
LENS [23]
20% 259

Ti-Mn alloys —
Ti5Mn — 372
SPS [118]
Ti2Mn — 245
Ti12Mn — 538

NH4 HCO3 spacer —

Ti-Nb-Zr alloys
2-step foaming process —
0% NH4 HCO3 5% 290
20% NH4 HCO3 36% 260
Ti20Nb15Zr
35% NH4 HCO3 48% 155
50% NH4 HCO3 63% 110
[128]
Ti 63% 254
Ti20Nb15Zr 50% NH4 HCO3 63% 110
Ti35Nb15Zr 63% 56

1473 290
Ti20Nb15Zr
1673 256

as Mg, NiTi, TiNbZr, Ti15Mo5Zr3Al, etc [51, 59, 66, 93, 650 MPa, i.e. for a stiffness closer to human bone Ti6Al4V
96, 128–132]. Thus, this section discusses various materials’ samples showed much higher compressive strengths [59,
uniaxial-mechanical properties, such as stiffness, compressive 93, 96, 129]. When considering the alloy Ti15Mo5Zr3Al,
strength, tensile strength, percent elongation, etc, to porosity. 25%–35% porosity displayed Young’s modulus in the 20–
Alternatively, the dependence of mechanical properties on the 10 MPa. It could also be observed from figure 11(a) that
fabrication processes is also discussed for some of the previ- Ti15Mo5Zr3Al alloy samples, which were HIP, showed con-
ously mentioned fabrication processes. siderably higher Young’s modulus compared to the solution
The graphs in figures 11(a) and (b) display the effect- treated and quenched samples (STQ) for the same porosity.
ive modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of por- This is because of the formation of α-Ti in the β-Ti matrix
ous materials, such as commercially pure Ti (CpTi), Ti6Al4V in HIP samples compared to the STQ samples. It was also
alloy, Ti15Mo5Zr3Al alloy, TiNbZr alloy, Magnesium, and reported that the solution-treated Ti15Mo5Zr3 Al has com-
NiTi alloy to porosity. As previously mentioned, an inverse parable strength to the HIP samples because of the introduc-
relationship is apparent with the increased porosity percent tion of oxygen impurities during STQ [131]. For another Ti
when measuring effective modulus. Additionally, the appro- alloy Ti20Nb15Zr, it was observed that Young’s modulus was
priate porosity for comparable effective stiffness to match the consistently low in the range of 11–2 GPa for porosities ran-
human cortical bone varies depending on the material. ging from 6%–62.5%, while at the same time, the compress-
Cortical bone exhibits density of, Young’s modulus, and ive yield strength remained high in the range of 1550 MPa for
compressive strength range of 1.8–2.1 g·cc−1 , 3–20 GPa, 6% and about 50 MPa for 62.5% porosity [128]. To obtain
and 130–180 MPa, respectively [118, 119]. Thus, for CpTi low modulus metallic implants, two methods could be com-
samples, the ideal porosity seems to be 30%–40%, where monly implemented: either to introduce porosity in the implant
the reported effective Young’s modulus and compressive structure or to introduce alloying elements such as Ta, Nb,
yield strength range between 10–20 GPa and 40–100 MPa, and Mo, which tend to produce Ti alloys of mostly β-phase
respectively [51]. In the case of porous Ti6Al4V samples, which tend to have low elastic modulus [128, 131]. While por-
porosity in the range of 20%–30% was found to show ous surfaces of implant materials tend to have improved adhe-
Young’s modulus in the range of 8–30 GPa, and compress- sion with the host tissue and thus greater fixation, adding the
ive yield strength in the range of 470 mechanical properties above-mentioned alloying elements has been shown to reduce
of porous titanium compacts prepared by powder sintering the elastic modulus of the alloy while maintaining desirable

19
 Table 5. Critical mechanical performance values for porous metallic biomaterials.

Compressive Compressive Torsional properties

Fabrication Young’s yield strength ultimate strength Flexural yield Modulus of Yield strength Maximum shear
Material process Porosity (%) modulus (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) strength (MPa) rigidity (GPa) (MPa) stress (MPa)

5 86.25 250
6 725
8 76.25 200
8.75 500
17.5 55
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014

CpTi Sintered [51] 20 43.5 160 340

28.75 35 100 235
32.5 28 60 125
33.75 17
34 75
35 40
50.75 2.92 163.02
EBM [120] 60.41 2.68 117
70.32 2.13 83.13
60.9 8.73 170 219
SLM-Low
68.6 7.72 129 163
Energy [121]
75.8 5.5 93 108

20
SLM-High 74.4 7.3 137 155
Energy [121] 80.6 5.36 92 106
62 3.75 52.5
63.5 1.9 36
66 1.15 22.5
Space Holder
71 0.6 14
Method [60]
72 0.5 16
75 0.26 7
TI6Al4V
75.5 0.25 6.5
0 11 332 455
3 105 1025
10 10 190 235
17 60 780
LENS [23] 19 47 760
20 5.7 185 233
23 16 620
25 14 580
29.5 9 470
47.6 33 110
SPS-Heat 54.4 22.5 85
Treated [58] 60.7 16 66
70 9 42.5
(Continued.)
Topical Review
 Table 5. (Continued.)

Compressive Compressive Torsional properties

Fabrication Young’s yield strength ultimate strength Flexural yield Modulus of Yield strength Maximum shear
Material process Porosity (%) modulus (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) strength (MPa) rigidity (GPa) (MPa) stress (MPa)
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014

8 18 1190
12 16 1050
18 12 845
Combustion
NiTi 22 8 580
Synthesis [77]
27.5 5 350
31 3 220
36 2 180
2.5 80 1300
Sintered and 10 60 750
Hot-Pressed 20 44 310
Ti15Mo5Zr3Al (HP) 25 22 180
[129–132] 33 10 70

21
2.5 79 1350
Sintered and
10 50 770
Quenched (STQ)
25 20 210
Two-step 6 10.8 1550
foaming powder 38 8.25 400
Ti-Nb-Zr
metallurgy 50 4.2 290
method [128] 62.5 2.5 50
0 68 ± 3.5
42 21 ± 0.3
Space holder 50 7.9 ± 0.7
Ti10Nb10Zr [133]
sintering method 59 5.6 ± 0.3
69 3.9 ± 0.3
74 1.6 ± 0.2
Space holder 0 43 100 80
method using 36 18 34 28
Magnesium
carbamide 44 6 25 21
particles [89] 55 4 15 14
Topical Review
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 11. Cumulative plots for (a) Young’s modulus to percent porosity for several metals and alloys, (b) compression strength to percent
porosity for several metals/alloys. Values attained and graphed from the following sources [51, 59, 66, 93, 96, 128–132].

strength properties; This might lead to preferred mechan- to a total strain of εt (2%, 4%, and 6%), and then the samples
ical performance and fatigue characteristics. Additional por- were unloaded at the same rate, and the residual strain ετ
ous metals with modulus and compressive strengths in the was recorded. Then the SME was activated by subjecting the
range of human cortical bone were found to be magnesium samples to thermal cycling, where the temperatures depend on
and NiTi alloy with magnesium of porosity ranging from the samples’ density, and then recording the permanent plastic
36% to 55%, showing stiffness in the range of 18–4 GPa and strain εp . The recovered strain is then calculated as the differ-
compressive strength in the range of 34–15 MPa and NiTi ence between the total applied strain and the remaining per-
alloy of porosity 8%–36% showing modulus ranging from manent plastic strain given by εm = (εt − εp ). The depend-
18–2 GPa and ultimate compressive strength ranging from ence of the recoverable strain on the porosity is shown in
1190–180 MPa [130, 132]. table 6, and it was observed that 100% of the strain recov-
NiTi alloy, a commonly known shape memory alloy, has ery happened for a 2% total strain across all designed poros-
several other mechanical advantages, such as recoverable ities. The percentage strain recovery decreased at higher total
strain and superelasticity. A recoverable deformation of 8% applied strain, but at least 70% of strain was recovered from
is possible with NiTi alloy, similar to that of natural bone, all samples. The reduction in the recoverable strain for more
which could recover about 2% of its deformation. This sim- porous samples was observed due to possible deformation loc-
ilarity of NiTi and bone properties allows for its biomechan- alization at the pore walls and necks, which could significantly
ical performance and, thus, better compatibility. To assess this increase the strain experienced in these areas compared to the
shape memory effect (SME) of the NiTi alloy, the samples of macroscopically applied strain. The strain recovery for these
different porosities were loaded at a strain rate of 0.002 s−1 up highly deformed regions reduces the overall recovered strain

22
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Table 6. Recovered strain for several porosities of NiTi alloy for fabricated Ti6Al4V samples of porosity 70.7% are heat treated
2%, 4%, and 6% applied strain. via water quenching and furnace cooling. It was reported
Recovered strain that the furnace-cooled samples (i.e. slowly cooled samples)
showed a typical lamellar microstructure of equilibrium α + β
2% applied 4% applied 6% applied
% Porosity strain strain strain
phases, whereas the rapidly quenched sample has the meta-
stable martensitic α′ phase. Heat treatment had an insignific-
10 96 96 90 ant effect on the modulus of elasticity, with quenched samples
13 100 90 — showing a higher modulus of elasticity than the furnace-cooled
20 100 92 83 samples, which indicates the presence of the lower modu-
25 100 89 78 lus β phase. Also, the yield and the ultimate compressive
28 — — 75
strength of the as-processed and the quenched samples are
29 95 86 —
similar and much higher than the furnace-cooled samples
indicating the martensitic phase present in the SLM fabricated
for more porous samples. The trend was 6% applied to strain a samples [96].
sample with 28% porosity showed a recovered strain of about
73% compared to a 90% recovered strain for samples with
12% porosity. Since bone shows approximately 2% recover- [Link]. Torsional and flexural properties. Compressive
able strain, NiTi alloy with porosity could be considered an strength and stiffness are considered to be the most important
ideal bone-replacement material [76, 77, 130, 136–140]. mechanical properties of load-bearing orthopedic implants,
Mechanical properties of porous metallic structures were most of the recent literature on porous metallic implant materi-
also observed to depend on their fabrication method. This cor- als is focused on characterizing these properties. However, the
relation between the mechanical properties and the fabrication mechanical and physiological relevance of porous material’s
method mainly arise from the microstructural or phase differ- behavior towards complex loading mechanisms lacks invest-
ences introduced into the structure due to various processing igation. Thus, this section summarizes the limited understand-
methodologies. This variation in mechanical properties was ing of the mechanical behavior of porous metallic structures
found to be more prominent in Ti alloys because of a large under flexural and torsional loading.
variation in the mechanical properties of α and β-phases of Ti. The flexural behavior of porous metallic implant mater-
The variations in the compressive strength and Young’s mod- ials is usually investigated via a 3-point or 4-point bend-
ulus of porous Ti6Al4V manufactured via Space holder sin- ing test using a universal testing machine where samples of
tering, SPS, EBM, selective laser sintering (SLS), and LENS standard dimensions are loaded. Correspondingly measured
methods have been summarized [59, 66, 93, 96, 101, 129]. strain is used to calculate the bending stiffness and strengths.
The effects of varying processing parameters on the mech- In figure 12, the flexural strengths of some of the porous
anical properties of the porous structure could be observed orthopedic implant materials such as CpTi, Ti15Mo5Zr3Al
from the properties of Ti6Al4V samples manufactured using (HIP and STQ), NiTi, and Mg for various porosities were
SLM both by high energy input (HEI) or low energy input summarized [51, 131, 132, 138]. It could be observed that
(LEI). It could be observed that for much lower porosities, in Ti15Mo5Zr3Al alloy, HIP, and STQ have higher flexural
the range of 20%–30% LENSTM processed Ti6Al4V samples strength properties than any other comparable material poros-
showed lower modulus similar to that of the human bone (i.e. ities. Also, CpTi, with porosity in the range of 10%–30%, has
10–20 GPa) as compared to most of the other processes, which high flexural strength in the range of 100–400 MPa, which
needed about 50%–80% porosities to attain similar modulus is considerably high compared to the flexural strength of the
values. Moreover, having lower porosities in LENS-processed human cortical bone [118]. Therefore, Ti or its alloys would
samples implied much higher compressive strengths than most be better for any implant site requiring flexural properties over
Ti6Al4V samples with a similar modulus of elasticity. The NiTi alloy or Mg.
most plausible reason for the higher ductility shown by the In order to thoroughly understand the mechanical behavior
LENS processed samples is that compared to most conven- of porous metallic implant structures under different modes
tional fabrication techniques, which incorporate solid-state of mechanical loading, it is crucial to consider the torsional
diffusional bonding, the laser power locally melts the metal behavior of these materials. However, very few studies have
particles and bonds them, thus eliminating the inherent brittle- investigated the mechanical behavior of orthopedic implant
ness. Another reason for low modulus at lower porosities and structures under torsional loading. Most of these studies were
higher compressive strengths could be attributed to the rapid focused on bulk orthopedic structures [141, 142]. One relev-
cooling rates prevalent in LENS, which ensure the presence ant study that has investigated the torsional behavior of por-
of high-temperature stable β-phase and finer α phase of Ti ous metal implants has considered volume porosity influence
in the microstructure. It could be observed that HEI samples on torsional deformation of AM processed Ti6Al4V samples
produced thinner struts and introduced non-designed porosity with 0%, 10%, and 20% porosity and testing them until fail-
and thus have higher porosity and lower mechanical properties ure or 40% drop in torque at the torsional speed of 45◦ ·min−1
compared to the LEI parameters in the case of SLM. [143]. Figure 13 shows comparative plots for the torsional
The effect of microstructural phases on the mechanical properties, such as modulus of rigidity, yield strength, and
properties of Ti alloys could be observed, where the SLM maximum shear strength.

23
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 12. Comparative plots for the bending strength of various materials to porosity values were attained and graphed from the following
sources [51, 131, 132, 138].

A 10% porosity in laser-processed Ti6Al4V resulted in a energy absorption capabilities, and compression/flexural/
43%, 48%, and 30% drop in torsional yield strength, maximum torsional fatigue, are considered prominent. Understanding the
shear stress, and shear strain, respectively. At 20% porosity, high strain rate behavior, fatigue, and dynamic mechanical
shear strain at maximum shear stress dropped 58%. Such res- characteristics of porous metals is crucial to design porous
ults show that shear band formation in dense samples requires metallic structures specific to the applications. In this section,
a higher shear strain. Comparing the yield strength of porous the high strain rate mechanical properties and the fatigue beha-
Ti alloy under compressive and torsional loading showed a sig- vior of various porous metals will be discussed in detail.
nificant drop during torsional loading. Under uniaxial com-
pressive loading, the porous Ti alloy samples densify due to
[Link]. High strain-rate compression properties. The
pore closure, and the stress increases rapidly. However, dens-
appeal of porous metallic structures in areas with high-velocity
ification does not occur during torsional loading, and all the
deformation or a high strain loading rate is mainly due to their
stress increases happen because of strain hardening. Because
wide plateau region in compressive stress–strain curves. Also,
of those differences, porous Ti6Al4V showed faster degrad-
porous materials’ energy absorption capability is greater than
ation under torsional loading than in compression. However,
bulk metals owing to the extensive plateau regime. Thus,
stain hardening in porous Ti6Al4V reflects ductile deforma-
there is an increasing necessity to understand and character-
tion due to strong bonding between the particles due to loc-
ize the strain-rate dependant mechanical properties of porous
alized melting and subsequent solidification than sintering
metals. However, most of the literature investigating por-
common in processing via powder metallurgical route [129].
ous metals’ mechanical properties is usually limited to the
Naturally, the inherent brittleness can be eliminated in laser-
quasi-static mechanical properties such as Young’s mod-
processed samples. Finally, it was observed that the porous
ulus, compressive/tensile yield or ultimate strengths, etc.
Ti6Al4V samples with 20% porosity showed similar rigidity
A limited investigation has been made to understand the
to the human cortical bone, and the yield strength and max-
deformation mechanisms, the effect of porosity on the high
imum shear stress for all porosities investigated showed higher
strain-rate mechanical properties, and the fracture behavior
strength and stress values than the human cortical bone. Thus,
of porous metals subjected to these loading conditions. The
a 20% porous Ti6Al4V sample would have ideal mechanical
mechanical testing and characterizing of materials subjec-
properties for an implant structure suited for a site with a com-
ted to high strain rates are complex. Most of the literature
plex loading pattern.
discussing the dynamic mechanical properties was directed
towards investigating the macroscopic dynamic behavior or
3.2.3. Dynamic mechanical properties. By reason of their the effect of microstructure on the dynamic material prop-
lightweight and mechanical properties, porous metallic struc- erties. Thus, this section will discuss the method for test-
tures are widely used in numerous critical applications such ing, the obtained mechanical properties, their dependence
as aerospace, automobiles, biomedical implants, etc. For most on the material’s porosity, and the fracture behavior of
of these applications, the dynamic behavior of these porous these porous metallic structures subjected to high strain-rate
materials, such as strain rate dependant mechanical strength, loading [144].

24
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 13. Quasi-static torsional (a) modulus of rigidity vs. porosity and (b) yield strength, and maximum shear stress to porosity plots for
porous Ti6Al4V alloy samples. Reprinted from [143], Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier.

In most investigations, the quasi-static and low strain-rate the transmitted bars remain elastic, but the specimen exper-
compression tests could be conducted in traditional universal iences plastic deformation. These reflected and transmitted
testing machines. However, the most preferred testing method pulse amplitudes of the corresponding elastic strains are recor-
for high strain-rate compression loading is the split Hopkinson ded using the strain gauges located on each of the incidents and
pressure bar (SHPB), where the material response to high the transmitted bars and could be used to derive the stress–
strain rates in the range of 102 –104 s−1 could be studied. In strain relation for the specimen, given by the following:
this testing method, a cylindrical specimen is to be sandwiched
between two long bars, the incident bar, and the transmitted . 2cb
engineering strain rate : es = − εR (t) ,
bar. A third bar, the striker, is used to strike the incident bar’s ls
free end, generating a compressive stress pulse that traverses ˆt
through the incident bar toward the transmitted bar. A schem- engineering strain : es = ės dt,
atic of the SHPB method is shown in figure 14(a) [145]. At 0
the interface of the specimen and the incident bar, a part of the Eb Ab
compressive stress pulse is reflected as a tensile stress pulse, engineering stress : ss (t) = εT (t) ,
As
and the remaining fraction is transmitted through the specimen √
to the transmitted bar as a compressive stress pulse. The mag- Eb
elastic wave speed : cb = .
nitude of these stress pulses is such that the incident and ρb
25
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 14. Split Hopkins pressure bar testing and results of dense and porous Ti6Al4V. (a) Schematic of the split Hopkinson pressure bar
for high strain rate compression testing. Comparison of true stress–strain plots for (b) 0% porosity and (c) 20% porosity Ti6Al4V LENS
samples tested at various strain rates of (d) 4 × 103 s−1 and (e) 8 × 103 s−1 tested samples of Ti6Al4V of varying porosity. SEM
micrographs of the fracture surface for the 20% porosity samples tested at a strain rate of 4 × 103 s−1 indicating (f) dimpled structures and
(g) shear bands. Reprinted from [145], Copyright (2012), with permission from Elsevier.

In the above equations, Young’s modulus and the density of The compressive stress–strain curves for most porous
the bars are indicated as Eb and ρb , the specimen length is given metallic structures depicted increased yield strength and
as ls , and the reflected and the transmitted strain amplitudes energy absorption capability for high strain-rate loading. Also,
measured by the strain gauges are εR and εT , respectively the stress–strain curves of most porous metals indicate three
[145, 146]. different regimes: linear elastic regime, an extended plateau

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

regime indicating nearly constant flow stress, and the final cases, microstructural features. In the case of porous metallic
densification regime where the collapsed cells are compacted structures, the pore shape and morphology of the pore distri-
and lead to a steep rise in the stress before failure. Moreover, bution act as the source for stress concentration points. Thus,
most of these investigations have observed that irrespective there is an apparent reduction in the fatigue strength of por-
of the porosity, the material’s yield strength and the extended ous metals compared to bulk materials. Moreover, it is cru-
plateau region tend to increase with the increase in strain rate cial to understand and characterize porous metallic structures’
[144, 145, 147, 148]. This could be observed for the LENS- fatigue properties to tailor their porosity and other features to
manufactured Ti6Al4V samples of varying porosities tested at obtain the desired fatigue strength [97, 149].
varying strain rates, as shown in figures 14(b) and (c). Also, In the case of conventional processing methods for por-
from figures 14(d) and (e), it could be observed that, as the ous metals, a considerable amount of literature is available,
porosity increases, the ductility tends to increase for the poros- in where, investigation into the fatigue properties of varying
ity increase in the range of 10%–20%, and the same decreases porous metals is reported. However, owing to the advantages
for the porosities in the range of 0%–10% [145]. The results of using AM-based technologies, particularly in orthopedic
of this investigation, in comparison to similar investigations applications, there is an immense drive toward understand-
on the high strain-rate properties of porous Ti6Al4V, seem to ing the fatigue behavior of porous metals manufactured using
be more or less in agreement with an additional indication of these technologies. In most of these studies, the effects of
the improved mechanical properties of LENS-prepared porous porosity, the process parameters, and the applied stress levels
Ti6Al4V. Some other investigations on porous aluminum and on fatigue properties have been investigated.
iron also suggest similar trends in mechanical properties with According to most literature, compression-compression
the strain rate [142, 144]. fatigue testing is conducted on cubic or cylindrical speci-
Additionally, the microstructural analysis of the fracture mens using universal testing machines by applying a sinus-
surface of porous samples subjected to high strain rates oidal compression loading with a frequency of about 15 Hz
revealed dimpled structures (figure 14(f)) along the fracture [97, 149, 150]. The test setup’s force applied to the samples is
surface, LENS-prepared Ti6Al4V displayed ductile deform- chosen so that the applied stress levels are between 0.2–0.8 σ y .
ation. Furthermore, SEM images of the polished fracture sur- In the case of the rotational-bending fatigue testing case, a dog-
face also indicated shear bands (figure 14(g)) indicative of loc- bone-shaped specimen of standard dimensions is subjected to
alized deformation followed by temperature rise and immedi- bending load and rotated at a speed corresponding to the 15 Hz
ate cooling. Thus, in porous metals subjected to high strain frequency. The rotation of the specimen tends to apply a cyc-
rates, the pores tend to act as the failure initiator at the same lic, fully reversed tension-compression stress state at any point
time as the failure inhibitor. This implies that the pores act as on the sample surface.
the nucleation site for forming the adiabatic shear band, lead- The S–N curves for the absolute and normalized stress
ing to failure. However, the role of pores as a failure inhibitor is values were reported in an investigation concerning the
vaguely understood and primarily attributed to the fabrication compression–compression fatigue behavior of porous CpTi
process of the porous metal [145]. with different porosities ranging from 65%–84% [149]. Also,
a power law curve was fitted for the normalized stress value
S–N curve. The absolute stress S–N curve revealed that the
[Link]. Fatigue properties. Porous metallic structures are fatigue behavior followed the order of the yield stress of por-
subjected to cycling loading conditions in most applications ous CpTi. The fatigue behavior observed from these tests
where porous metallic structures are used. Thereby, aside indicated the typical three-stage fatigue failure. Although most
from the static load-bearing capability of porous metals, it is combinations of porosity and applied stress level indicated
essential to characterize the cyclic fatigue characteristics. In these three stages of fatigue failure, their shape was not similar,
orthopedic implant structures, during their lifetime, they are and the transition points between stages were hard to detect.
mostly subjected to cyclic compression or cycling bending The implication of the normalized stress level S–N curve,
loading. Thus, most of the literature concerning the charac- where S–N curves for structures with different porosities were
terization of fatigue properties of porous metallic structures reported, that a fitted power law curve could give an empir-
for orthopedic implant applications is focused on understand- ical model for estimating S–N curves for porous structures
ing the compression-compression fatigue or rotational bend- built using SLM, which could be used as a basis for predicting
ing fatigue characteristics [97]. fatigue properties of porous structures when no experimental
Fatigue of bulk material is technically defined as the fail- S–N curve is available. However, investigations of some other
ure of a material or a structure subjected to a cyclic load lower porous structures indicated deviation from this model. For
than its ultimate or yield strength. Generally, there are three instance, a study investigating the fatigue properties of solid
significant steps in which fatigue failure occurs: crack initi- Ti6Al4V showed a much higher endurance limit (0.4 σ y ),
ation, crack propagation, and, finally, catastrophic failure. One and another study reported a slightly higher endurance limit
of the major contributing factors to fatigue failure is the pres- (0.15–0.2 σ y ) for porous coated Ti6Al4V compared to the pre-
ence of a stress concentration point or region which would act dicted normalized endurance limit of (0.12 σ y ). This deviation
as a crack initiation point. These stress concentration points from the normalized endurance limit for porous structures is
usually correspond to any flaws or defects that are prevalent because of either surface roughness-induced notch sensitivity,
on the surface or at the subsurface of the specimen or, in some intrinsic manufacturing limitations such as strut thickness, or

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

the residual thermal stresses induced during the manufacturing aerospace industry or the biomedical device industry; that
processes, such as SLM. being said, it is controlled and results in a dense, coherent pas-
In other investigations, the compression-compression and sivation layer that protects the bulk material from further side
rotational bending fatigue behavior of porous NiTi alloy fab- reactions when in use. If a passivation layer is non-existent,
ricated via LENS were studied. In one study, it was observed the material may still be susceptible to react with oxygen or
for 1%, 10%, and 20% porous NiTi alloy samples that these like constituents within the body, for example, in the biomed-
followed similar behavior as the metal foams, i.e. as the amp- ical device industry. For this reason, science has coupled elec-
litude of the cyclic stress applied increased, an increase in the troanalytical techniques, in vitro and tribological testing for
quantity of strain accumulated was observed and as the crit- an in-depth corrosion-based understanding of the material; to
ical stress amplitude was surpassed a sharp increase in strain accomplish such testing, most commonly, a corrosion cell is
accumulation was observed. In the other study, the rotational- modified by using simulated body fluid and implementation of
bending fatigue life of 0% and 10% porous NiTi alloy samples a tribological device.
was investigated, and it was observed that the 10% porous
sample showed about 54% reduction in fatigue stress [151].
As previously mentioned, β-Ti alloys have also been 3.3.1. Corrosion apparatus. A typical corrosion-cell setup
investigated for biomaterials in bone implant repair due to requires media (electrolyte), a working electrode (WE), a
their reduced Young’s modulus—which is better suited for counter electrode (CE), a potentiostat/galvanostat, and a refer-
hard tissue replacement [152]. Much research has addressed ence electrode (RE). The specimen acts as the WE for the elec-
the mismatch in modulus by tailoring and implementing troanalytical testing of metals, and platinum or stainless steel
a suitable geometry to lower the effective modulus of the is most commonly the CE material of choice. A typical setup
implanted material to that of the host hard tissue, figure 15. is displayed in figure 16(a), in which the loading arm [6] may
Energy absorption is a critical material property which is be added for additional in situ tribological testing. Two forms
affected drastically by the lattice structure; this material prop- of material electroanalytical testing exist, passive and active,
erty recieves significant scrutiny across many industries. In testing. The loading arm and the CE are omitted for passive
figure 15, three SLM-printed lattices’ energy absorption mech- testing, as no electrical driving force is applied. In active test-
anisms were investigated. A depth into such mechanisms, such ing, a potential is applied through the CE and WE. The applied
as their plasticity mechanism and local stress concentration, potential is measured to the RE. In active testing, all three elec-
was conducted for each lattice at differing strain levels. The trodes require submersion in the electrolyte; data logging for
investigation balanced the bending and buckling stress max- electroanalytical value reporting is done using a potentiate.
imizing energy absorption, displaying a low Young’s modulus
of ∼2.3 GPa and an ideal compressive strength of ∼58 MPa
[152]. The work by Liu et al was conducted using the β-type 3.3.2. Passive and active testing. Passive testing, inher-
Ti24Nb4Zr8Sn alloy; this alloy is desirable for its non-toxic ently, is an open circuit with no load and no power source
constituents, low Young’s modulus, and high strength [153]. submersed in the electrolyte or in line with the WE circuit.
The Ti24Nb4Zr8Sn alloy exhibited an increase in both elastic The testing is typically used to acquire the resting potential,
and plastic energy absorption. The plastic energy absorption equilibrium potential, free corrosion potential, or open circuit
directly resulted from dislocations and slip bands forming and potential (OCP)—all of which can be used synonymously—
moving within the structural struts. It was established that the of a material in an electrolyte of choice to a standard RE.
total energy absorbed could vary with the shape of the lat- The testing is under idle conditions, so characterizing reaction
tice structure. The geometrical differences in the strut matrix dynamics and kinetics is not within the scope of the test, but the
alter the stress distribution, local stress concentration, and dis- observable stability of passivation formation and its stability
location motion—which are the direct mechanism for energy at idle conditions is. The OCP is measured with the RE and is
absorption in lattice structures. Although β-Ti alloys are still the observable difference in potential between the RE and WE.
being researched, their poor fatigue resistance than Ti6Al4V The OCP measurement coupled with tribological testing gives
has yet to be resolved in most compositions. rise to the OCP curves displayed in figure 16(b). The sample
(WE) is submersed in the cell media and allowed to reach equi-
librium; once equilibrium is attained, tribological testing can
3.3. Electrochemical testing and properties
commence. The testing will run for a standardized amount of
Often novel literature reports a material under investigation time for all specimens, and then the loading arm is removed,
meeting or exceeding the requirements for matching modulus, and the worn surface is continually monitored by OCP acquis-
reducing stress shielding, reducing wear debris, and reducing ition. In this form of testing, a material’s electrochemical per-
released toxic ions. Even in vitro studies can result in favor- formance is monitored under mechanically idle conditions and
able results, such as antibacterial properties or improved cell mechanical loading and wear. A generally accepted shift in
attachment and proliferation. All great attributes for a mater- OCP from control to treated samples is ideal when positive.
ial to exhibit when considering biomedical implants, although A positive shift in OCP comes hand-in-hand with a decreased
none give us an insight into the corrosion behavior of the tendency for corrosion to occur. Afrouzian et al concluded that
material in vivo. Most commonly, corrosion in the form of silica introduction into Ti6Al4V allowed for a positive or noble
oxidation is favorable in materials that will see use in the shift in OCP under idle and tribological loading conditions

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 15. Plastic deformation behavior and energy absorption for porous β-type biomedical titanium. (a) Displays the compressive
stress–strain curves for the SLM-produced lattices, (b) displays the (b1 ) diagrammatic sketch of energy absorption for the three lattices,
specifically, (b2 ) the total energy absorption, (b3 ) the plastic energy absorption and (b4 ) the elastic energy absorption domain. (c) Displayed
are the stress–strain curves for cyclic loading of the three lattices at (c1 ) 1%–6%, (c2 ) 1%, and (c3 ) 2% strain level, as well as (c4 ) the FEM
results for the three lattices at 1% strain level. Reprinted from [152], Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier.

[154]. It was further shown that laser treatment of the depos- improved OCP performance. Avila et al concluded similar res-
itions allowed for the further reaction of silica with Ti and ults with silicon introduction into Ti6Al4V by acquiring con-
stabilization of refractory phases resulting in the material’s tact resistance (CR) values. In situ formed silicide presence

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 16. Schematic representation of (a) tribocorrosion-cell setup, displaying the data acquisition unit for open-circuit potential (OCP)
(potentiostat) and contact resistance (CR). Additionally, displayed are (1) PEEK sample holder rod, (2) counter electrode, (3) PEEK sample
holder cap, (4) conducting terminal end, (5) reference electrode, (6) media bath, (7) counter wear ball/pin, (8) electrolyte media, (9) media
bath seal, (10) the working electrode (analyte) with the ability to translate or rotate, (11) analyte holder, (12) stage and (13) loading arm.
Reprinted from [155], Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier. (b) Open-circuit potential curves under idle, tribological wear, and
once recovery (re-passivation) domain. Reproduced from [154], with permission from Springer Nature. (c) Contact resistance curves were
attained through the use of an in-line two-wire ohm meter, with the use of a conductive wear ball. Reprinted from [155], Copyright (2020),
with permission from Elsevier. (d) Potentiodynamic polarization curves in Ringer solution for CoCr produced via varying processing
temperatures. (e) Nyquist plots for CoCr produced via varying processing temperatures after 2 h immersion in Ringer solution. Reprinted
from [158], Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier.

on the worn surface accounted for increased CR values after the redox reaction to occur under somewhat undesirable or
the initial running-in wear regime associated with tribological steady-state terms. Most commonly in the body, the applied
testing [155]. Additionally, it was reported that the silicide- potential used in these active tests is not seen in physiolo-
based film reduced the worn volume loss—a decrease from gical conditions but is used and applied to accelerate the test-
1.61 × 10−9 –4.86 × 10−10 m3 . Passive testing not only allows ing. It is known that porous metals exhibit increased degrad-
for characterizing a material’s tendency to corrode but the test- ation in vitro and in vivo due to their increased surface area
ing can also be coupled with tribological testing to observe a exposed to a media allowing for increased surface reaction.
material’s performance in corrosive media under mechanical The material degradation occurs with cyclical surface passiv-
wear. On the other hand, active testing deviates from passive ation and passivation layer spallation or dissociation into the
testing as potential is applied. media; in this case, the media would typically be an electro-
Active testing is performed by application of a varying lyte. A porous structural lattice’s added porosity and com-
voltage; a voltage sweep from a negative potential to a pos- plex shape only increase the surface area/media exposure.
itive potential, straddling the breakdown potential, as seen Therefore, applying a constant potential and measuring the
in figure 16(d). The testing is known as potentiodynamic current density for a metal derivation of the corrosion rate
polarization and measures current through the WE and CE; may be determined—typically in units of millimeters per year
both corrosion potential (ECorr )—synonymous to breakdown (mmpy). Even porous metals can be categorized this way when
potential—and corrosion current (I Corr ) may be determined considering their degradation over time. A subsequent test-
from such testing. The determination of ECorr and I Corr is done ing method that should follow an active test, such as poten-
by Tafel extrapolation of the potentiodynamic curve when the tiodynamic polarization or current density determination, is
shift in anodic current to cathodic current occurs. Additionally, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results of
corrosion rates, passivation domain, and electrolyte break- such testing indicate the material’s intrinsic chemical behavior
down potential may be determined. Lutz et al determined that and, therefore, would not depend so much on the structure’s
heat treatment of CoCr along with nitrogen plasma immersion geometry.
and ion implantation results in an increased current require- EIS is a compelling testing technique that gives insight
ment and a noble shift, I Corr and ECorr , respectively, thus rep- into a material’s resistance to reaction at the interfacial sur-
resenting the increased electrochemical stability of CoCr after face of the material and electrolyte [156]. Testing is conducted
treatment. It is essential to realize that these active tests drive by applying an alternating current (AC) and measuring the

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

impedance when varying the frequency. Plots associated with elastic modulus of cancellous bone ranges from 1–15 GPa, but
this testing are known as Nyquist plots, as displayed in the cortical bone has a substantially higher elastic modulus,
figure 16(e). EIS results allow for the interpretation of the pas- ranging from 10 to 30 GPa [119, 169]. The elastic modulus of
sivation layer as a monolayer or bilayer as well as a constituent metal implants should be similar to the native bone to minim-
presence within the passivation layer. A higher impedance ize stress shielding. However, it is usually higher than bone;
value indicates the surface’s greater resistance to further for example, the elastic modulus of commercially pure CpTi
reaction [157]. J. Lutz discovered that with increased heat and Ti6Al4V is around 110 GPa, substantially higher than that
treatment temperatures, the corrosion resistance decreased for of cortical bone. As a result, implant design must reduce the
the CoCr alloy; this is seen as a reduction in impedance with elastic modulus to minimize stress shielding. Open-cell por-
the treated CoCr alloy displayed in figure 16(e). It goes to show ous metal implants via AM can meet such requirements of
that not just when the test suffices in electrochemical behavior low elastic modulus allowing new bone tissue ingrowth and
of a material. Additionally, most of the observed results from vascularization. However, there are still questions related to
such electroanalytical tests are intrinsic to a material, and sur- long-term implant stability since inert metal implants do not
face porosity will not change the values such as ECorr or imped- biodegrade or bioresorb over time; they remain as foreign bod-
ance but will so when normalized over the surface area such ies in the patient from a physiological point of view. This, fre-
as current density. Nevertheless, such testing allows for a ball- quently result in adverse reactions from the body toward the
park range of material development that will be adequate for inert metal, such as discomfort, microbial infection, inflamma-
in vivo use; to better tailor materials for in vivo use, biological tion, and extended systemic dysfunction from leaching, which
testing should never be substituted. hugely impacts the patient’s quality of life [170]. Implants
composed of non-biodegradable materials such as titanium
alloys and stainless steel can sometimes stop bones from grow-
4. Biological properties ing normally, necessitating subsequent surgery to encourage
further bone growth. As a result, developing porous biodegrad-
A commercial orthopedic implant must be biocompatible and able metals for an implant is desirable.
free of toxic compounds. Toxicity is related to the amount
of toxin that is present in a substance [159, 160]. Metal ion
toxicity comes from most heavy metals, which can pose a 4.2. Importance of porosity in implant applications
severe health hazard to organs and cells [161]. However, many Cortical and cancellous bones are porous, open-cell compos-
metal ions are also essential minerals to the human body, ite substances put down by osteoblast (OB) cells. The cortical
including barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and selen- bone is the hard outer shell having reduced porosity, and the
ium (Se). Excessive doses of these essential minerals, on the cancellous bone is a highly porous structure at the inner part
other hand, can be harmful [162]. Metal compounds also pose of the bone [171]. Cancellous bone porosity can vary between
a health risk since they are susceptible to chemical breakdown 30% and 95%, having pore sizes between 100 and 1000 µm
in physiological fluid, called hydrolysis. Such compounds may [171–173]. Since porous scaffolds can support tissue ingrowth
break down into hazardous chemicals or generate insoluble from the native bone as well as sustain the homeostatic tis-
residuals after a chemical reaction [163]. Excellent biocom- sue performance ultimately leading to the formation of a new
patibility with living cells or tissues needed for wound heal- bone microarchitecture whether woven bone or lamellar bone
ing, repair, and tissue integration results from the complex depending on the metallic implant’s characteristics and pore
interactions between a material surface and its biological host properties. Therefore, there has been a significant interest in
[164]. Any metallic, polymeric, or ceramic implant must show designing and manufacturing those structures in recent years,
excellent biocompatibility, allowing cells and tissues to func- figure 17(a) [174].
tion and serve as a template for osteogenesis and angiogen- Biomedical implants and devices with high degrees of
esis for bone repair, creation, remodeling, and healing porosity are of interest because of their excellent osseointeg-
[164–166]. ration abilities [175, 176]. An ideal porous implant should
have interconnected open-cell pores for neo-vasculature [177].
A minimum pore size of 100 µm is necessary for cells to
4.1. Biomechanical properties
migrate and be transported for osteogenesis [177]; ideally, a
Exceptional mechanical performance including fatigue and 200–350 µm diameter pore size is preferred [171]. Torres-
corrosion resistance make Ti and its alloys favorable to use Sanchez et al [178] investigated the biological properties of
in load-bearing applications [167]. High-strength implants porous Ti scaffolds with four distinct pore sizes: 45–106 µm,
help patients participate in physical activities while protect- 106–212 µm, 212–300 µm, and 312–300 µm. The Ti scaffolds
ing them from undesirable fractures [168]. Stress-shielding were tested in vitro with osteosarcoma-OBs and cultured for
can be avoided with implants having a suitable elastic modu- 12 d to assess cell adhesion and proliferation. It was reported
lus. Stress shielding occurs when the implant takes up physical that cell adhesion is enhanced by small pores, while large pores
stresses rather than the bone due to the mismatch between its aid cell multiplication. It has been reported that having a larger
elastic moduli and surrounding bone. Stress shielding causes pore size distribution with macro-pores (>50 µms) and micro-
bone shrinkage, implant loosening, and even failure. The pores (<20 µms) are better for scaffold design [89, 179, 180].

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 17. Importance of porosity in implant applications, (a) Schematic of in vivo osseointegration in porous metallic implants in stages of
(i) blood clot formation at the defect site, (ii) osteoclast and macrophage recruitment in the resorption stage, (iii) pore facilitated
neovasculature and osteoblastogenesis in the reversal phase, (iv) woven bone formation and (v) complete, mature bone ingrowth in pores for
long-term fixation [174]. John Wiley & Sons. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A published by Wiley
Periodicals, Inc. (b) Represents stacked images of the anatomical femoral head and a digital model of an additive-designed porous titanium
femoral bone showing the precision of AM techniques toward replacement of impaired bone; (c) Actual micro-CT based reconstructed
images of bone growth in porous titanium implants in rabbits after 4 and 12 weeks of femur condylar implantation. Reprinted from [190],
Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier.

While macro-porosity helps in cell-materials interaction and easily met with 3D Printing technology based on CAD.
osseointegration, micro-porosity helps with osteogenic protein The capacity to produce interconnected porous constructions
adsorption. with predictable and specified unit cells is the fundamental
For the past two decades, applications of 3D Printing advantage of AM technology over traditional approaches
have been widespread in the biomedical sector—from sur- [185–187]. Pore size, shape, and porosity are all predeter-
gical models to prosthetic design and fabrication. Polymer- mined, and pore morphology displays a systematic pattern
based 3D Printing approaches, such as fused deposition mod- rather than a random distribution [188, 189]. Influencing
eling, and stereolithography, are examples of techniques used cell behavior and impacting tissue regeneration in pores,
to build molds to cast predesigned 3D structures [179, 181, porosity parameters, and scaffold features are essential to
182]. Predesigned tailored prostheses based on patients’ ima- bone ingrowth [190]. Furthermore, because porosity affects
ging data are ideal for patient-matched devices [180, 183]. implants’ compressive strength and elastic modulus, their
An example of wrist and knee prostheses via 3D Printing mechanical properties can be tweaked to mimic natural bone
is given in figure 17(b), with reported favorable outcomes ones. Thus, by precisely managing implant porosity, stress-
[184]. Designing and manufacturing complex implant struc- shielding effects after implantation could be minimized or
tures used to be complicated; however, those can now be prevented [191].

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 18. Contribution of total porosity in metallic implants toward osseointegration, (a) live/dead analysis of MG63 osteoblast-like cells
on porous Ti6Al4V constructs with porosity <20% (3DLP), <50% (3DMP), and >70% (3DHP) showing highest live cell confluence
∼98% for 3DMP indicating volume fraction porosity plays an integral part in cellular viability and proliferation irrespective of pore size.
Reproduced from [197]. © IOP Publishing Ltd CC BY 3.0. (b) (left panel) Shows osseointegration in porous Ti scaffolds with 88% porosity
where the woven bone was not able to fully bridge the implant in the intramedullary in vivo model and focally developed at the periphery of
the implants. This is also called hypertrophic non-union as compared to the (right panel) implants with 68% porosity reporting a higher
amount of pore bridging of the woven bone with a fibrocartilage development at the periphery [198] John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2012
Orthopaedic Research Society; (c) 70% porous Ta (top) and 70% Ti (bottom) scaffolds showing a difference in bone marrow-derived
mesenchymal stem cell growth as a function of surface roughness of two metals as a comparison. Reprinted from [199], Copyright (2019),
with permission from Elsevier. (d) Further fluorochrome labeling of 88% porous Ti scaffolds showing the limited progression of pore
bridging even up to 12-weeks post-implantation [198]. John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2012 Orthopaedic Research Society.

4.3. Pore characteristics influencing bone ingrowth and 1200 µm pore diameters reported higher alkaline phos-
phatase and osteocalcin levels [93]. Calcium deposition was
4.3.1. Pore size. Pores can form because of inter-particle
also higher in the small pore size group, suggesting a more
bonding, resulting from incomplete melting of metal powders.
calcium-containing mineralized matrix and better osteogen-
Pores can also be pre-designed in CAD models [91]. The pores
esis. Pore diameters of 500, 700, and 1000 µm showed a sim-
addressed in this article are primarily pre-designed types. Such
ilar tendency, with the 500 µm group having the most potent
surface pores are critical for osteointegration and bone growth,
osteogenic activity [200]. Based on the initial findings, we
figure 18 [19, 192–194]. Determining what pore size and dis-
believe that a pore size of 300–600 µm is ideal. However,
tribution is best for bone ingrowth is crucial. Pore size is vital
merely assessing the extent of osseointegration or cell prolifer-
in implant-induced osteogenesis because it allows OBs and
ation is insufficient. Smaller pore sizes might hinder or block
mesenchymal cells to migrate and proliferate [195]. Nutrient
metabolite and oxygen diffusion into the center of the scaf-
supplementation and cell attachment to the scaffold should be
folds resulting in an interior necrotic environment and poor
possible with the optimum pore size [196].
implant stabilization. Pore size that is too big is linked to a
One hundred-micron pore size is the minimum requirement
low bone ingrowth ratio. As a result, if the same amount of
for an implant for preferable bone ingrowth in vivo [171]. As
bone is created, it is evident that scaffolds with a larger pore
a result, implants made using AM often have pore sizes above
size compared to small pores [201]. The ideal pore size for
100 µm. The effects of a series of porous scaffolds with pore
tissue integration is still an active research question.
diameters of 177 µm, 383 µm, and 653 µm on cell behavior
were investigated in one study [197]. With increasing pore
size, OB maturation was preferable over proliferation evident 4.3.2. Volume fraction porosity. Pore size, wall thickness,
from dominant osteocalcin and BMP-2 signatures compared and pore morphology influence porous material properties.
to alkaline phosphatase. In vitro studies comparing 640 µm Porous implants’ porosity with traditional procedures ranges

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Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 19. Influence of pore size on osseointegration of porous metal implants, (a), (b) porous Ta implants with 27% and 55% volume
fraction porosities were reported to exhibit better cell-material interactions and osteoblast growth/proliferation as well as early-stage
biological fixation via morphological assessment through SEM and live/dead confocal assay. Reprinted from [19], Copyright (2010), with
permission from Elsevier. (c) Porous Ta implants with overall 80% porosity shows prominent bone ingrowth and full defect bridging
12 weeks post implantation from histological analysis, and high strength interfacial bone-implant bonding from torsion tests on explanted
cadaver bone. Reprinted from [192], Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier. (d), (e) 70% porous titanium implants fabricated
using vacuum diffusion process with hybrid pore sizes shows from 4 and 12 weeks in vivo analysis, call differentiation is mainly dependent
on porosity and time of healing evident from solid titanium plate had higher differentiated cells than porous titanium while cell proliferation
and bone ingrowth is biased upon increasing pore size. Reprinted from [194], Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier.

from 30% to 60%. Bone ingrowth is believed to be aided by a template to process scaffolds with varying porosities (15%,
increased porosity. High implant porosity has been achieved 38%, and 70%) and shown that the 70% porosity structure
using traditional manufacturing techniques [202]. Increased was better at stimulating OB differentiation than the low-
porosity increases the implant’s surface area, allowing for porosity scaffolds [79]. Similar results with 49%–77% scaf-
more cell-materials interactions. A higher porosity suggests folds porosities showed better bone ingrowth and cell survival
a rougher surface, which is favorable for achieving a bet- [200, 204]. For scaffolds with porosities between 70% and
ter interface-locking effect in the early stages of implant- 90%, 80% porosity performed better than 75% in an in vivo
ation, figure 19 [42, 197–199]. On porous scaffolds, cells model during push-out tests and histological analyses [79].
attach better. Cells in porous scaffolds express more alkaline Interestingly, better alkaline phosphatase activity and osteo-
phosphatase than cells in non-porous scaffolds, showing that genic gene expression in scaffolds with a 73% or 81% porosity
osteogenic differentiation is affected by pore geometry [19]. showed that low porosity was favorable for OB differentiation
Human trabecular bone has a 70%–90% porosity, which may [79]. It is important to note that higher porosity decreases
be ideal for porous scaffolds. Increased porosity has been mechanical strength, and high-porosity scaffolds are unsuit-
shown to contribute to better bone ingrowth in scaffolds with able for any load-bearing applications except for coatings. The
less than 70% porosity [203]. 3D Printed porous Ta implants interconnectivity among the pores is essential for tissue integ-
having an average of 80% porosity showed good bone-implant ration, starting at the surface and going into the center. Closed
bonding [196]. In another study, trabecular bone was used as pores do not support osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Finally,

34
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 20. Influence of pore shape on overall cell-material interaction, (a) Osteoblast cultured in a dynamic system on SLM fabricated open
porous Ti scaffolds show cell migration as well as enhanced viability for pyramidal pore structure due to enhanced metabolic activity
through the open pores such as gas/metabolite exchange compared to cubic and diagonal pore structures which partially hinders the supply
of oxygen and nutrients. Reproduced with permission from [200]. (b) Computer design images of live/dead staining and SEM micrographs
in the x–y and z-plane of human periosteum derived cells (hPDC) on six porous Ti6Al4V scaffold designs cultured in osteogenic media
(OM) and growth media (GM) for 14 d. SEM images revealed pore occlusion differences between the different designs and culture media.
Green fluorescence indicates living cells. Reprinted from [208], Copyright (2012), with permission from Elsevier.

materials with narrow pore throats and a higher detour index initial biomechanics [204]. Cubic, pyramidal, and diagonal
show poor osseointegration at the same volume porosity [205]. pore morphologies were evaluated in another study toward
bone integration, findings suggest maximal cell viability and
integration for the pyramidal morphologies figure 20(a) [200].
4.3.3. Pore structure. The structure of pores is critical to 3D-printed femoral head similar implants with random pore
how cells adhere to the pore walls or struts for regular cellu- sizes and pore structures showed good cell survival, prolifer-
lar activities. To better understand the influence of pore struc- ation, and maturation figure 20(b) [208]. Such results high-
tures on cellular activities, the processing of tailored poros- light the unique behavior of irregular pores in local growth
ity structures is essential. Before the advent of 3D Printing factor syntheses, for example, bone morphogenetic protein-2
technologies, it was challenging to process controlled poros- and vascular endothelial growth factor, and promoting bone
ity scaffolds to study bone tissue ingrowth in porous scaffolds formation.
at the micro-scale. Today, typical micro characteristics and
pore structures can be obtained using 3D Printing. A CAD
4.4. Bone induction in a porous metal compound system
design can develop scaffold models with various pore config-
urations, and 3D porous scaffolds can be manufactured from Several approaches have been documented for manufactur-
those predesigned models. Honeycomb-like and cubic struc- ing porous metal structures for bone formation with the help
tures are two commonly used pore architectures. Honeycombs of cellular queues and polypeptides. Human bone marrow
are designed from a diamond lattice with each strut sur- stromal cells (hBMSCs) were the first set of cellular ther-
rounded by four tetrahedral struts [206, 207]. The honey- apies that were used for bone regeneration of allografts.
comb is fabricated by changing the scanning direction by 90◦ Comparison between porous Ta implants with hBMSCs with
[93]. Singular pore-structure is most commonly researched natural allografts and allografts supplemented with hBMSCs
in terms of bone ingrowth and not a lot of studies look at showed that porous Ta could enhance osteogenic differenti-
different pore morphologies. Biemond et al [204] showed ation with hBMSCs equivalent to that of allografts [209]. It
wave structure had a higher friction coefficient between wave has been shown that recombinant human bone morphogen-
and cubic morphologies. The high coefficient of friction aids etic protein (rhBMP) can speed up the healing process of the
initial interlocking, resulting in better bone formation and implanted region or decrease adverse interactions between the

35
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

Figure 21. Bone induction in porous Ti scaffold incorporated with simvastatin/poloxamer 407 thermosensitive hydrogel (a) towards
enhanced in vivo osseointegration evidenced from micro-CT images of rat tibial defect model. Reproduced from [214]. © IOP Publishing
Ltd All rights reserved. (b) The higher correlation between neovascularization. Reproduced from [212], with permission from Springer
Nature. and (c) new bone volume is observed as a function of simvastatin release (d), which in turn influences cellular viability (e); micro-CT
images of enhanced bone formation and porous ingrowth in RGD peptide-modified porous Ta implants at 16 weeks post-surgery in a
midshaft segmental defect in New Zealand Rabbits at the proper radius. Reproduced from [214]. © IOP Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved.

implant and the surrounding tissues. BMP-7-modified porous the thermo-chemotherapy approach can only influence bone
Ti aided in subchondral bone regeneration and the forma- tissue attachment on the implant surface while peptide coat-
tion of new osteochondral tissue and bone. Gelatin-covered ings prove more successful toward enhanced cell viability in
Ti6Al4V surfaces [210] where the polyamine layer inspired the interior core of the implants [213]. Simvastatin/poloxamer
by adhesive properties of mussels lead to successful attach- 407 thermosensitive hydrogel employed to develop a com-
ment of the gelatin layer. However, fibronectin recruitment pound system for AM porous Ti significantly increased vas-
due to the biocompatible coating showed insignificant dif- cularization was discovered in and around the porous Ti.
ferences in the biological response of the scaffolds [211]. The creation of new blood vessels and the volume of new
In vitro, the cyclo(-RGDfK-) peptide promoted OB adhe- bone have a strong relationship, figures 21(a), (c), (d), and
sion and proliferation with good biocompatibility. On the (e) [214]. A porous metal compound demonstrates a viable
other hand, in vivo, reports revealed that modified porous tan- way to improve bone ingrowth ability; multiple carriers loaded
talum stent could improve healing time in radial segmental with various bioactive elements can be simply applied to gen-
bone defects in rabbits and can be considered for repair- erate diverse biological effects. In vivo investigations, bone
ing big bone defects figure 21(b) [212]. Recently, these two and blood vessel growth may always be the most crucial
approaches have been brought together where results suggest, proof.

36
Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 (2023) 032014 Topical Review

5. Current challenges and future trends is nearly impossible and highly uneconomical to manufac-
ture porous metallic implants with designed porosity specific
The growing interest in the use of porous metals in ortho- to any patient or site of the application using conventional
pedic implants is indicated by the emergence of a vast num- manufacturing processes [79]. However, recent advances in
ber of scientific investigations studying the mechanical and AM technologies have provided several methods of fabric-
in vivo behavior of porous metallic structures depending on the ating metallic structures with designed porosity. Many com-
material properties, processing parameters, the morphology mercially available orthopedic implants are customized to the
and distribution of the porosity, etc in the past decade. Due to patient and designed and fabricated using AM equipment
their superior mechanical strength and resilience, metallic bio- such as EBM, LENS, etc. Also, AM technologies’ precision,
materials are preferred for load-bearing implant applications. resolution, and efficiency are expected to improve substan-
However, the main disadvantage of using metallic implants tially, thereby introducing several opportunities to advance
arise due to their higher stiffness when compared to bone. This orthopedic implant technology further [216]. Recent research
stiffness mismatch affects the strength of the host bone tis- results also show that topology optimization can be used
sue and thus causes aseptic loosening of the implant structure with metal AM to reduce stiffness without compromising the
and reduces the implant’s lifetime. Also, most biocompatible strength of porous metals [217, 218].
metals are by nature bioinert and do not bond with the host tis- Understanding the benefits of porosity in metallic implant
sue. Thus, it has been a common practice to use bone cement structures is crucial. It is commonly agreed that the next
or porous coatings over metal implants to aid in implant fix- advancement would be in engineering these pore character-
ation. However, bone cement is prone to brittle fracture, and istics to achieve desired implant properties. It is thus implied
the porous coatings tend to leach and corrode. Therefore, use that a fabrication process that could engineer the positioning,
of porous metallic structures as implant structures alleviates shape, size, interconnectivity, and distribution of pores is of
the issues of stress shielding by reducing the stiffness of the most importance. In recent years, much research in the use of
implant, and in the case of open pores, the tissue ingrowth into AM for fabricating porous metal implants has been undertaken
these pores ensures improved and more effective implant fix- owing to its capability to manufacture specifically designed or
ation. Despite these beneficial applications of porous metals functionally graded porosities. However, it is still unclear what
in orthopedic implants, choosing an appropriate manufactur- the optimum pore characteristics for an ideal porous metallic
ing method or processing parameters to get porous metals with implant are and how to engineer them using various fabric-
optimum pore morphology remains challenging [15]. ation processes. Thus, future advancements in porous metal-
Most of the investigations concerning porous metals as lic implants might be possible by conducting investigations to
implants are concerned with identifying an ideal fabrication obtain the optimum pore characteristics and processing para-
method or processing parameters to better match the implant’s meters. Knowingly, fast-paced progress in AM of metallic
stiffness with the surrounding bone and improve the fixation structures implies vast scope for possibly having more control
of the implant. Another aspect of actively researching por- over the design of porosity specific to an application.
ous metallic implants relates to the inherent challenges of por-
ous metals concerning a reduction in mechanical strength and
lesser fatigue properties. Moreover, investigators aim to com- Acknowledgments
prehend the different parameters of the fabrication of porous
metallic implants and their effects on these implants’ mechan- The research reported in this publication was supported by
ical and in vivo behavior. So far, it has been understood that the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and
designing and fabricating a porous implant structure is a mul- Skin Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under
tifactorial process that needs to take into consideration: the Award Number R01 AR067306-01 and R01 AR078241 (PI—
mechanical behavior of porous implant in comparison to the Bandyopadhyay). The content is solely the author’s respons-
bone under several loading conditions, the corrosion-related ibility and does not necessarily represent the official views of
issues, the ability for adherence with the bone tissue, pore the National Institutes of Health.
morphology and distribution which affects the fatigue strength
of the implant and in case of open-celled porosity the bone
ORCID iD
ingrowth [215].
Though much progress has been made in fabricating por- Amit Bandyopadhyay  [Link]
ous metallic structures with open or closed porosity using 5387
conventional or novel fabrication processes, several limit-
ations persist. Firstly, for most fabrication processes, it is
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